1.

PreRomanesquePeriod:

Historically PreRomanesque period is significant as the

predecessor of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Many
historians consider this period as early part of Romanesque
period. Characterised with religious fervor and an attempt to
revive the Latin letters, the politically turbulent pre
Romanesque period contained the germs of scholarship, art,
architecture,administrationandpoliticsinWesternEuropefor
thenext8001000years,dependingonthegeographicalregion.
OncetheGothrulerofRomeadaptedChristianity,manyother
tribes followed. The Franks, under Merovingian king ClovisI,
Christianised after 496AD were the first tribe to convert. With
military support, Christianity was spreading fast and trying to
maintainitspredominanceinWestEurope,finallysucceedingin
733ADwiththevictoryoftheChristianarmyovertheSpanish
Muslim army in the battle of Tours. Christian theology i.e.
religious philosophy and liturgy, i.e. Christian method of
worship were becoming standardised due to the efforts of
emperor Charlemagne. The Church architecture and liturgy of
thisperiodaretheembryonicstageofthosethatweseenow.
Churches were built solidly, for permanence and grandeur (as
much as the technology permitted at that time). The grander
thechurch,themoredevoutlyChristianthebuilders/sponsors
were thought to be. A great church was crucial for spreading
the religion to the illiterate and uncivilised populace, and to
theChristians,Christianityequalledcivilisation.Christianswere
leadintoaChristianwayoflivingbythefearofhellandthelure
of heaven after death. Thus a bigger and better church meant
thatitspatronswereensuringtheirafterlifeinheaven.
The feudal system that was established its roots in this period
was to remain the sociopolitical system of Europe up to the
industrialrevolution.
The kings used to spend a lot of time in warfare in different
parts of the continents, especially in the Crusades. It became
customary to leave a favourite priest in charge of running the
kingdom.Bynatureoftheirreligiousvows,thepriestscouldnot
have taken the throne for himself, whereas a nonreligious
person could usurp the throne during the long absence of the
king and that was risky for the king. The high level clergy was
the only educated class and were advisors to the kings. Thus,
churchandstatewerecloselyintertwined.
Intertribal marriages and intertribe battles were both equally
common. These two were the major influences in the cultural
exchangethatisclearlyandabundantlyevidentinarchitecture.
There was a widespread belief that the world will end in
1000AD. The fear of death made the church sculpture of this
periodfocusondeath,afterlifeandtheeffectofgoodorsinful
lifeonafterlife.

to the students in this chapter itself. Many of these

characteristics became prominent in later period architecture
only(markedinblue).
1.1.1.

Predominance of religious architecture and castle

architecture. Among those, many churches are still extant
though most castles fell in warfare and lack of
maintenance. There are also lesser number of and less
durabletownhouses,manorhousesetc.Onlychurchesare
discussed.
MonasticbuildingsAbbeyswerebuiltincountryside,self
sufficientsprawlingensembleofbuildings,focusingonthe
Churchandcloisterandoftenfortifiedasprotectionagainst
fiercetribalattacks.Thepatron,usuallyking,alsosupplied
land and labourers for construction and operation. (ref.
ideal abbeyplan foundinSt. Gallen churchlibrary).Inthe
Merovingian period, 200 Irish monasteries and 600 in
Merovingiankingdomflourished.BytheendofCarolingian
period, west Europe were dotted with thousands of
monasteriesofdifferentscaleandunderdifferentmonastic
orders.Theearliestandmostpopulatedorderwasthatof
St.Benedict.
Pilgrimage formed a major religious activity in Europe.
People took long and arduous journeys across Europe to
visitfamouspilgrimagedestinations.Designrequirementof
large pilgrimage churches proved the Romanesque
technology insufficient and showed a need for better
technology.Pilgrimagechurchesarethesecondamongthe
churchtypesappearinginthisperiod.(SeePPTfordetails)
Churches with royal patronage. Especially the coronation
churchesandburialchurchesofkingsweremoreimportant
thanothers.Amongthem,Charlemagnespalatinechapel
cumburial church at Acchen, consecrated in AD804 is
considered the forerunner of Romanesque architecture
andCarolingianroyalburialchurchSt.DenisenearParisis
consideredtheforerunneroftheGothicstylein1140s.
Hierarchy in the administration of churches was
developing. As a result, architecture of churches reflected
theirpositioninthehierarchyofChristianreligion.Thuswe
see parish churches, abbey churches, royal churches and
diocese level churches appear at the end of this period
onwards.
1.1.2.

Buildingdesign:

Mostdesignelementsappearhaphazardlyindifferent
churches but during Romanesque and Gothic period
these elements are present in a more organised
manner in most churches with variations in
combination:
1.1.2.1. Factors behind design : (see 2.2 : the factors
behindchurchdesignunderRomanesquearchitecture)

1.1. GeneralcharacteristicsofpreRomanesqueperiod
Architectural characteristics that were locally and haphazardly
borninthisperiodevolvedtobecomestandardcharacteristics
of later periods. Hence all these characteristics are introduced

Page1of13

Buildingtypes:


TheLatincrossplanwaspsychologicallysuitableforaplace
of veneration even in Neolithic period : An Irish passage
grave from BC3500, built by Neolithic people shows the
sameaxialapproachtoaplaceofvenerationandbranching
outoftheveneratedspaceintosideunits
1.1.2.2. Formandplanning:
Churches were built solidly, for permanence and
grandeur(asmuchasthetechnologypermittedatthat
time).
Classical proportions vanishing. Churches were
becoming taller...Germanisicm. Taller central aisle,
shortersideaisle(s).Transversesectionresemblesthat
ofRomantriumphalarch.
One longitudinal axis in church plan preferred over
centralplan.
Two axis (one major) in church plan i.e. Latin cross
plan. The major one perpendicular with the minor.
Two parallel AND minor axes are seen as well. Some
centralplansarealsoseenbutasliturgywasevolving
withtimenumberofcentralplanchurchwasreducing.
Articulationofinteriorspacesintoexteriorform
Transeptandcrossing
1.1.2.3. Designelementsstructural

Tall central aisle (height increasing to twice the width

ofcentralaisle)andflankingsideaisleshalftheheight
to keep the central aisle upright. Second line of side
aisles added for tallest churches. Aisles have dual
functionascirculationspace.
Stone buildings with thick walls with few windows.
Amongthosefewwindows,mostareattoppartofthe
church.Lackofconfidenceinstructureisseenbyfear
of opening up the walls with windows. Interior
receivedlittledaylight.Lotsofcandleswereinvolvedin
worshipandthusprovidedlightinsidethechurch.
Woodentrussroof.Pitchedroofovernaveandleanto
roofoversideaisles.

1.1.2.4. Architecturalelements

Page2of13

Towerovercrossingand/westwork
Westwork and towers on westwork a characteristic
independent of Roman architecture and it originated
from Normandy (i.e. present day Northern France), a
place far away from Rome and that was fast
developingitsowncultureandarchitecture.
Portalswithrecesseddoorways
Extendedapsetoaccommodatealargerchoir.
Crypt or semiunderground chapel below chancel for
burial of the founders of the church or the rich and
noble
ColumnswithRomanCorinthiancapitalsandvariations
ofit.ManycolumnsweresalvagedfromRomansruins
andusedinnewstructures.With
Piers (late preRomanesque introduction) <enter
definitionofPier>pierswererequiredandintroduced
in buildings when lightweight wooden roof was
replaced by heavyweight masonry vault. Piers were
initiallyseenasthickeningofexternalwallsinformof
stripbuttressinga.k.a.pilasters.
Triforiumaninwardlyfacingopenwallpassage,often
arcaded, running above the nave arcade below
clerestorylevelinacathedral.thespacebetweenaisle
arcade and clerestory was left blank or only painted
with artwork. Where aisle was in two levels, i.e. a
galleryispresent,theblankspacewastakenupbythe
gallery that opened into the nave. From the late pre
Romanesque period onward, the blank part of the
facadewasarticulatedbyopeningsorblindarcade.
Buttresses(seePPT)
Useofarches(earlyRomanesqueonward):
TheRomansthoughttheGreekstobeasuperiorculturein
comparison to themselves. So a Roman who wanted to
show his intellectual superiority, incorporated Greek
elements, most commonly columns, in his home or
building. Similarly, in Medieval period, incorporating
Roman elements were prestigious for a building. Just as
arches were unavoidable for (a) structural reasons, the
same arches were used for (b) articulation of space and
(c) climatological reason and (d) decorative reason in
churches and other buildings. For places close to Rome,
thepresenceofarchesinbuildingscameearlierthanrest
of Europe and number of arches is also more. This trend
followedintoGothicperiodaswell.
Structuralarchesarefoundas
Arches in arcuated portals, arcades to articulate aisle
and nave, diaphragm arches to articulate nave and
crossing,crossingandsanctuary
Barrel or tunnel vaults often ribbed / reinforced with
transversearches
Groinvault
Rib vault (lateRomanesque period onwards
discussedunderGothicstyle)
Pointedarchesandtheirvariations(discussedlater)
Archesasarchitecturalelements

 Blind arcades aesthetic use in interior and exterior

wall. They also somewhat reinforced the continuous
walls.
Wallpassageswithwallatonesideandarcadeinthe
other side (common in Italy where, in addition to
beautification, it provides shading agains the bright
Mediterraneansun).
Corbelplatewithmotifsandarches.PreRomanesque
onwards.Nonarcuatedcorbelsplatesarealsofound.
1.1.2.5.

Art

Majorityoftheartwassponsoredbychurchorstateand
followedthereligiousguidelines.ThefamousPopeGregory
saidpaintingscandofortheilliteratewhatwritingdoesfor
people who read. Medieval painting and sculpture was
meanttoeducatepeople.BytheChristiandoctrinerealistic
artwasforbidden.Theposturesandfacialexpressionswere
shown to bless, judge or admonish the viewer. Most wall
paintingsandarchitecturalsculpturedepictedthevirtuesof
Christianity,thelessonsinsinfulandpiouslifeforcommon
people and story of Christ, the saints and New Testament.
The eyes were large because they reflected the soul. Last
judgment, last supper, birth of Christ, crucifixion of Christ
and saints were popular themes on prominent parts like
tympanum and portal jambs. Freestanding sculptures that
were popular in the Classical periods were no more in
fashion.
Medieval sculpture was always subordinate to structure
which is why their dimensions were restricted by the
dimensions of the architectural or structural members on
which they were carved. Sculptures were used to enhance
the architectural features all throughout the mediaeval
period. Faces and figures of humans, demons, animals,
mythical creatures from local culture, animals, geometrical
patterns especially pleters were used to enhance
architectural features such as cornices, friezes, brackets
andcorbelplates,horizontalandverticalanglerollsinthe
initial phases. In later periods columns, friezes, archivolts,
tympanum,jambswererichlycarvedwithreligiousthemes
and decorations. Stone inlay in geometric pattern was
found on plain surfaces and piers. Early sculptures were
crudely executed. The finesse increased with time. The
sculptures were made off site and fitted in buildings, often
sculpture or panel made for one building being used in
another.
Paintingswerefoundonblankwallsinsidethechurches.
Especially, Norman churches were richly painted on the
interior.Beforespaceswerebetterarticulatedwitharcades
and triforium, richincolour andsubjectwere usedto used
tofilltheblankspaceleftbetweenclerestoryandgalleryor
aisle.
Illuminated manuscripts painstakingly made over
centuries are valuable as artwork, scholarly work and
historicaldocument.Room(s)intheabbeywasdedicatedfor
manuscriptpreparationandmonkstoiledtomakeandcopy
thengospelsinanextremelylaboriousmanualprocess.

LastJudgmenttheme,SaintTrophimeatArles,France1215thC

StPeter'schurch,Northampton,Saxoncapital

OrnamentallysculptedanglerollinNormanchurch,Britain

RelieffromFrance

Page3of13

1.1.2.6. Culturalinfluences
Visigothicinfluence
OriginatedinVisigothicSpain.SpreadinHolyRomanEmpirebyconnectionsofmarriage.
o Chequeredarches(originallyMuslimcharacter.SeenextensivelyingreatmosqueatCordoba.NeighbouringVisigothsadapted
thisstyle)
o Stonereliefshowinganimalandvegetation.Thesenonreligiousorpaganreliefswereusedwithreligiousconnotationwhen
usedinChurches
AngloSaxoninfluence
o MostlyfoundinBritainafterAngloSaxontribesfromSaxony(ofGermany)migrationtoBritain5thcentury
o Grotesque and abstract heads of animal, bird and human moulded on corbel plate, cornice and column capitals.
o Basreliefofanimals,birds,plantsinbandsonbuildingsurface.
Musliminfluenceinstructureanddecoration
o OriginatedinCaliphateofCordobaandPartsofItalythatwasunderMuslimoccupancy.Theelementsareasfollows
o Surfacedecorationandstonecladding,especiallygeometricpatterns.
o ChequeredarcheslaterpreRomanesqueperiod.
o InRomanesqueperiodandlater:Pointedarches
Byzantineinfluence
o Found mostly in Ottonian empire, by connectins of marriage. It was prestigious to
bringdaughtersoftheGreekByzantine(ByzantineswerebasicallyGreek,drivenoutof
Greece during attacks on Rome) Royal families into the Germanic royal families as
wives. With the daughter came a part of the culture : scholars, priests, artisans,
craftsmen.
o Domes (beyond the technical ability of nonByzantines of that period and for 400
yearsafterthat)
o Mosaics,frescos,icons.
1.1.2.7. Buildingsofsignificance:
o Germany,Aachen,PalatineChapel(completion800)
o Germany,Corvey,AbbeyChurch
o Germany,Hildesheim,St.Michael
o IdealAbbeyplanfoundinlibraryofMonasterySt.Gallen,Switzerland.

AnimalcolumnGermanRomanesque
Visigoth capital features acanthus
leaves at Mosque in Church of light,
Toledo,Spain,10C

Romanesque twisted columnsand

mosaicsatthecloisterinSanGiovanni
inLaterano,Rome
Mosque in Church of light, Toledo, Spain,
10C:Mudejararchitecture

Page4of13

Norman art, Britain, Bird beakheads

from Old Sarum cathedral and
SherborneCastle

1.2. ImportantmonarchiespreRomanesqueperiod
1.2.1. Merovingian period (approx 500 AD, modern day
France):
1.2.1.1. Architecturalsignificance:
Architectural remains are few and apparently insignificant
butthedevelopmentsstartinginthisperiodpavedtheway
forCarolingianrevivalandlater,RomanesqueandGothic.
Germanisicm : OncetheGermanictribes hadabsorbedthe
architectural traditions of the Romans (or rather what
remained of those traditions following the collapse of the
Western Roman Empire), they dramatically transformed
them withintricacyandverticality. ("Verticality" simply
meansthatastructureistallrelativetoitswidth.)Thesetwo
qualities in medieval architecture are often referred to
collectively asGermanicism. Germanisicm started occurring
in Merovingian period but was becoming evident in
Carolingianperiod.
1.2.1.2. PoliticalSignificance:
High. Franks were one of the Germanic tribes which were
active since 300BC and threatened the Western Roman
empire.Thesegmentedtribesanddukedomsunitedforthe
first time into somethingofakingdom underMerovingians
(literallymeaningSonsofMerovech)in500AD.a
TheFranksunitedandwasChristianisedunderClovisI(465
511). The Frankish state consolidated its hold over large
parts of Western Europe by the end of the eighth century,
developing into the Carolingian Empire under the
Carolingian family. This empire would gradually evolve into
the state of France and the Holy Roman Empire. The last
MerovingiankingwasdeposedbythethenPopeStephenII,
who confirmed and anointedPepin the Shortin 754,
beginning theCarolingianmonarchy in 754. This shows the
Pope had the power to decide the political fate of a
kingdom.
Thisperiodismarkedbythedeclineofclassicalknowledge
, continuation of Early Christian style with local influence.
Absorption of abstract and brilliantly ornamental style of
the barbarian tribes (seen as vine and animal motifs in
buildings). The art of these tribes was confined to small
andportableobjectsbecauseoftheirnomadicwayoflife.
Merovingian architecture, monumental sculpture, and
painting were dependent upon the legacy of the classical
andEarlyChristiantraditions.
1.2.1.3. Buildingtypes:
Unification of the Frankish kingdom underClovis I(465
511)andhissuccessors,correspondedwiththeneedforthe
buildingofchurches,andespeciallymonasterychurches,as
these were now the powerhouses of the Merovingian
church. Two hundred monasteries existed south of
theLoirewhenStColumbanus,anIrishmissionary,arrived
inEuropein585andonly100yearslaterbytheendofthe

7th century, over 400 flourished in the Merovingian

kingdom alone.The building plans often continued the
Romanbasilicatradition.
Required an architectural symbol of power, which was
Church. No other institutional had comparable central
authority or standardised administration like church.
Monastery churches came into being with the need to
spreadChristianityamongpeopleandtheneedofmonastic
life (seclusion, selfsupporting lifestyle, scholarship). From
beginningof6thcenturytoendof7thcentury,600churches
flourishedinMerovingiankingdomalone.
1.2.1.4. ArchitecturalCharacters:
The most original aspect of Gallic (now Southern France)
churcheswastheiruseofabelltower.Thelifeofmonksin
abbeys was becoming increasingly organised and a time
keepingdevice wasrequired toinevery churchto help the
monks adhere to their daily routine. Thus a bell tower
becamenecessaryineachabbeyandchurch.Constructions
of Merovingian date have been found in Auxerre, Jouarre,
Lyons, and Poitiers. The churches are simple stone
structures, resembling a fortress rather than a place of
worship. The objective was in protecting the church from
theattacksandevilfromoutside.
Art : Merovingian stone sculpture was characterized by a
simplification of antique forms, sometimes culminating in
rather crude graphic shorthand. Animal motifs, especially
birds and lambs disposed in rows or within geometric
patterns,weretirelesslyrepeatedonsarcophagi.Thehuman
figurebecameanabstractsign.Illuminationofmanuscripts
wasalmostentirelyrestrictedtotheelaborationofcolorful
initial letters based on animal forms, notably bird and fish
motifs.
Large stone buildings like monastery churches and palaces.
Fewremains.
Plan inspiration was Roman basilica i.e. rectangle with an
apse:functional,versatileandsimpletoadapt.Technology
Rectangularplans,stonebuildings,woodentrussroof.
1.2.2.

Rulers of this period were also Frankish tribes and devout

Christians.
This is the period when liturgy (i.e. process and rituals of
Christianworshipping)wasstandardised,themonks,priests,
abbots,novicesweresystematicallyeducated.
Architectural significance : high. Carolingian architecture is
practically synonymous with preRomanesque architecture.
Geographic spread : broad, including modern day France,
Germany, Switzerland and Britain. Influences of Roman
semicircular arch appear. Carolingian style is the fore
runnerofRomanesquestyle.
1.2.2.1. CarolingianArchitecture:

Page5of13

Carolingianperiod:

 Medieval architecture truly emerged under theCarolingian

Empire(ca.
750900),
which
produced
manybasilicachurches andLatin crosschurches. Once
again, however, few works survive, and these have often
beensubjecttomajorrestorationormodification.
Carolingian period standardised liturgy i.e. the method of
Christian worship and hence the architecture of churches
werealsostandardised.Theelementsofchurcharchitecture
that are seen in the greatest churches of history and In a
somewhat unsystematic manner, all elements of church
designdevelopedinthusperiodindifferentlocations.
UndertheCarolingians,churcharchitecturereceiveditsfirst
major injection ofGermanicism, in the form of
boostedverticality. The Carolingians broke with classical
proportions, (as seen in the original Roman basilica they
evolved from) increasing theheightof their churches
relative to their horizontal dimensions, and
establishingtowersasastandardelementofchurchdesign.
PleasenotethatmanytalltowersseentodayonCarolingian
periodchurchesmayhavebeenaddedlater,eveninaslate
as19thcentury.
A monumental church facade is known as awestwork.
(Traditionally, churches were built with the entrance
facingwest; hence the name "westwork". Details are given
later) By introducing towersto church design, the
CarolingianspioneeredthestandardfacadeoftheWestern
cathedral.
Thetypicalwestworkmayberoughlygeneralizedaccording
to a threebythree grid. The bottom level comprises
themain entrance(aligned with the nave), flanked by two
subentrances(aligned with the aisles); theaislesare one
levelhigh,whilethenaveistwolevelshigh.Thisdifferential
ismaskedbythetowers,however,whichriseupabovethe
aisles to the third level of the grid. The entrance to the
church is called a portal and it is meant to transport the
believertothedomeofgod.Thewesternportalsusedtobe
more and more adorned in Romanesque period. By Gothic
period, the portals, west, south or north depending on the
church,wereusedasamajorplaceforputtingupreligiously
significantstonereliefs.UptoCarolingianperiod,portalwas
found on the west faade and it was unadorned or little
adornedwithsculptures.
Shift from centralized plan to axial plan (see PPT for the
suitabilityofaxialplan.Romanbasilicaplaneasilyidentified
inlaterchurches.Introductionoftranseptmadethebasilica
plan appear like a Latin cross in plan. Nave faade was
composedofarcadeofsemicirculararches,gallery,triforium
andcelerstory.
Bigger buildings, symmetrical. Transverse section came
closetoequilateraltriangle.Thesectionwasremiscientof
aRomantriumphalarch,withahighcentralarchandtwo
symmetricalflankingshorterarches.
Roman ruins supplied many building materials and building
elements,especiallymonolithiccolumns.
Churches, though bigger, still appeared like castles with
solid, rectangular massing. There were very few windows.

Mostwindowswereatclerestorylevelandveryfewbelow.
Walls were thick, reinforced with pilasters or strip
buttresses.
Unadorned facades with blind arches and symmetrical
towers.Withtheexceptionoftheportals,restofthefaade
inwestworkwascomparativelyunadorned.
IntroductionofextendedapseinthelatepreRomanesque
period.Theextendedapsenowaccommodatednotonlythe
alterbutachoirofabbots/monksbehindthealter.Further
extensionofapsebehindthemainaltera.k.a.highalterled
tothecreationofaretrochoir.Retrochoirswerecommonin
English Gothic churches. Retrochoirs was almost as long as
thenave.
Westwork : Introduction of westwork with window of
appearance. Westwork later became more elaborate with
additionofrecessedandsculpturedportalsusuallythreein
number.
Westwork : The Carolingian architecture, inspired by the
formsofantiquity,abandonedthesmallboxlikeshapesofthe
Merovingianperiodandusedinsteadspaciousbasilicasoften
intersected by vast transepts. In some churches, such as
Fulda and Cologne, the central nave ended in semicircular
apses. An innovation of Carolingian builders, which was to
beofincalculableimportanceforthelaterMiddleAges,was
theemphasisgiventothewesternextremityofthechurch.
The western facade was present on one end of the
longitudinal axis, directly opposite the alter, the most
important part of the church. It had an elevation of several
stories,thelowestacentralvaultedvestibule(aderivativeof
the narthex) to the church proper, and above, a room
reached by spiral staircases, which may have served as a
chapelreservedforhighdignitaries.
It was a period when church and monarchy was closely
related.Themonarchnotonlyfundedchurches,heevenput
hisfavouritesinhighpositionsinchurchesandabbeys,even
though they were not ordained (i.e. officially authorized to
perform religious duties). The king often acted as priest.
Priests often performed imperial duties under the kings
instructionandauthority.Thevisitofkingtothechurchwas
frequent and important. He made appearances to the
populace from the churchs west faade through the
window of appearances. All these combined, the west
faade became quite important. The faade, flanked
symmetricallybytowers, orsimplytheexterior ofamassive
complex(westwork),becamethefocalpointofthestructure.
Interior:
o Clear articulation of space started but did not mature.
With arches, colonnades,cornicesand friezes, roof levels
the different parts of the church was easily identifiable.
However, the interior and exterior surface was smooth
andbaydivisionwasumprominent.
o Use of columns and other building salvaged elements
fromRomanruins.

Page6of13

woodentrussbecausethetechnologyandconfidenceto
build barrel vaulted and groin vaulted roof was not yet
revived.Churchesweretakingupthebasilicaformmore
frequently. With addition of transept it was taking the
Latin cross plan shape. The doublesapsed church plan
was popular and common. Entrance could be from side
and / or western apse. this design continued in the
German homeland well into the end of Romanesque
periodeventhoughchurchplanandtechnologychanged
withtimeandneedinotherregions.

o Arches and tunnel vaults were rare. In later building,

wheretheyarefound,voussoiresweremadeofblocksof
stones in two different colours, used alternately. These
chequeredarcheswereinseeninSpainandBurgandy,i.e.
regionswhereMusliminfluencewasstrong.
o The interior had suitable places to accommodate
numerousrelicsbroughtfromRome.Theserelicsrequired
more than one alter or a separate chamber inside the
church. It was common to find more than one alter in
largechurches.
1.2.2.2. Examples
The outstanding structure of the Carolingian period still
inexistenceisCharlemagnespalatinechapelatAachen,
dedicatedbyPopeLeoIIIintheyear805.Itiscentralised
in plan and surmounted by an octagonal dome. The
designofthepalatinechapelappearstohavebeenbased
in part on the 6thcentury Church of San Vitale in
Ravenna.Eventhoughithasa16sidedpolygonalplan,it
has an emphatic longitudinal axis (San Vitale has no
pronounced longitudinal axis). Its interior is horizontally
and vertically clearly demarcated using piers, friezes,
cornices and arcades. With the semicircular arches and
cleararticulationofspaces,thischurchisafamousfore
runner of Romanesque style. The ceiling mosaics are
from12thC.
1.2.3. Ottonianperiod:
This period is often referred to as early Romanesque
period. Ottonian churches exemplify German
Romanesque.
The easternpart of theformer Carolingianempire(now
central Germany) was consolidated in the middle of the
tenth century under the rule of the Ottonians and a
period of cultural renewal ensued, though with less
fervor because an able ruler like Charlemagne did not
appearinthisperiod.Carolingianempireboundary,part
of which known as the Holy Roman Empire, shrunk
duringOttonianperiod.
The first outstanding examples of German painting and
sculpture were created (c.960c.1060) during the
Ottonian dynasty. Splendid manuscripts, enriched by
illuminations remarkable for their force of linear
expression,issuedfromtheschoolofReichenau.
Architecturally it was a continuation and further
development of Carolingian period styles. The buildings
increased in size, they became higher, building masses
becomemorecomplex,elaboratewithadditionofoneor
more transepts, towers and westwork was present and
ore elaborate. A highly rational system was devised of
dividing the church into a series of separate units and
subunits, a method that was to be of consequence in
Romanesque design. The roofs were still made of

1.3. RegionalPreRomanesque
France : Northern France and west of Rhine river in
Germany are the homeland of preRomanesque
Romanesque architecture. The characters of these
architecturalstylesareapplicabletothisregionwithsome
particularities of both these regions. After the demise of
the Carolingian Empire, France split into a number of
feuding provinces, so that lacking any organized Imperial
patronage, French art of the 10th and 11th centuries
becamelocalisedaroundthelargemonasteries,andlacked
thesophisticationofacourtdirectedstyle.
Germany Northern France and west of Rhine river in
Germany are the homeland of preRomanesque
Romanesque architecture. The characters of these
architecturalstylesareapplicabletothisregionwithsome
particularities of both these regions. Evolution of
Romanesque was most continuous and dynamic in
Rhineland. It is home to many new developments. For
example,WestworkstartedinGermany.Thedoubleapsed
churchplanandchurchwithdoubletransept,woodenroof
were popular in Germany for a longer period, being
present in later Romanesque churches as well. Ottonian
churches are typical examples of German Romanesque
churches.
Spain & Portugal The first form of PreRomanesque in
Spain and Portugal was the Visigothic art. After the Arab
invasion, PreRomanesque art was first reduced to the
Kingdom of Asturias, the only Christian realm on the
country at the time which reached high levels of artistic
depuration. Arab influence in architecture is evident in
theuseofhorseshoearches,stoneinlaysandgeometric
patterns and chequered arches scattered in Europe. The
Christians who lived in Moorish territory, the Mozarabs,
created their own architectural and illumination style,
Mozarabic art. TheVisigothic influenceis seen in columns
and animal and plant patterns. Santa Maria del Naranco
(see PPT) of mid 9th century has barrel vault roof
reinforced with with transverse arches even though the
apselesschurchplanisnothinglikeabasilicanorlatincross
churchplan.Brickstructuresmorecommonthanstone.

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Examples: St.Michaels churchatMariaLaach, St

Michael'schurchatHildesheim.

 Italy Southern Italy benefited from the presence and

cross fertilization of the Byzantines, the Arabs, and the
Normans, while the north was mostly controlled first by
the Carolingians. The Normans in Sicily chose to
commission Byzantine workshops to decorate their
churches such as Monreale and Cefal Cathedrals where
full iconographic programmes of mosaics have survived.
Important frescos and illuminated manuscripts were
produced. Roman influence, soil, knowhow of brick
manufacturing, climate ruled the style in Italy. For details
checkPPTANDCLASSLECTURE.

churchesappearinEnglandlongbeforetheyappearfreely
inrestofWestEurope.
After Romans, the Celts adopted Christianity in early fifth
century. Early Celtic Christianity was based mainly around
monks. These monks were not used to the idea of
collectiveworshipbutinitiallyadoptedthepaganideaofa
singleroomed small building whose inner space was holy
and entered only by the monk or priest. Simultaneously,
the others natives of the island from AngloSaxon tribes
were building pagan worship places which were small
closed places but without any other typical design or
permanent material. AngloSaxon secular buildings in
Britain were generally simple, constructed mainly using
timberwiththatchforroofing,singleroomedorconsisting
only nave and chancel but without aisle or transept. No
universally accepted example survives above ground.
Christianity, although not dead, was in retreat. All
together, Romans, Celts and AngloSaxons ruled England
anditschurcharchitectureuntil772AD.

CroatiaCroatianPreRomanesqueartandarchitectureor
OldCroatianArtisPreRomanesqueartandarchitectureof
CroatsfromtheirarrivalatBalkanstilltheendofthe11th
centurywhenbeginsthedominanceofRomanesquestyle
inart;thatwasthetimeofCroatianrulers(Croatiandukes
and Croatian Kingdom). Stone buildings with surface
decoration on stone, especially alter rails and windows.
The Croatian interlace or Croatian wattle, known as the
pleter or troplet in Croatian, is a type of interlace, most
characteristic for its threeribbon pattern. It is found on
and within churches as well as monasteries built in early
medieval Kingdom of Croatia between the 9th and
beginning of the 12th century. The ornamental strings
weresometimesgroupedtogetherwithanimalandherbal
figures.
Britain & Ireland Architecture of Britain & Ireland in
medieval period is a little different from that of the
continents i.e. mainland Europe. Ireland, home to the
Celtic tribes, became civilised much before the England.
Christianity flourished in Ireland before it was well
establishedinthecontinentandinBritain.By5thcentury
abbyes were established like fortresses of Christianity in
Ireland. Celts later populated Britain as well. Britain has
seenculturalinfusionsby1stcenturyRomans,4thcentury
Christian Roman emperor, AngloSaxon tribes from North
Germany in 5th century, Normans in 11th century. In the
period between invasions, the invading cultures and the
local tribes i.e. Celts, AngloSaxons influenced each other
toproducecertainarchitecturalstylesthatshowedstrong
tribal influence like wattle and daub houses, single room
churches, thatched roofing etc.. After Norman invasion,
architectural style in Britain started to show continuous
influence of the continental style interjected with some
Britishmodifications.
Julias Caeser conquered Britain in 1st century BC. Off and
on, it was under Roman Rule. The earliest evidence of
Christianityin RomanBritain isthe siteof a basilican plan
church in Silchester, Hampshire dated to about AD200,
whileChristianswerestillbeingpersecutedbyRomansfor
their religious belief. The first Christian Roman emperor
ConstantinewasrulingBritain(orBrittany)inthe330sand
he was liberal as far as religion was concerned. So,

The Anglo Saxon churches were built by purifying the

existing pagan places and using the same structure. The
tribal symbols, reliefs were left unmodified in church
faade, door jambs, cornice and interior and were given
Christian religious significance. The monasteries were of
Benedictineorder.
ThemajorinfusionofChristianitycametoEnglandin1066
when William the Conqueror from Normandy conquered
and started to spread Christianity in Britain with great
effort.Hestartedbuildinghugechurchesandcathedralsin
Englandtoimpressthelocalsandestablishthesuperiority
of Christians over pagan religious. Cathedrals were being
builtingrandscale,somebecomingaslongasthelargest
Romanesque church (ClunyIII) of that period. New 5th
century monks from the continental orders like Cluniac,
Cistercian and Augustines came to England to join the
alredy existing Benedictine order. The church sculptures
weremadeinamixtureoflocalandChristianstyle.They
were used to ward off evil, to educate people about sin
and good work, about Christianity and about the afterlife
with which Christian life was preoccupied the most. The
scultprurs depicting daily life also has some moral lesson
attachedtoit.
1.4. TransitionfromCarolingiantoRomanesque:
Among the numerous buildings in different regions that show
some signs of the coming Romanesque period, Charlemagnes
palace chapel (800AD) at Aachen is an accepted forerunner of
Romanesquestyleforthepresenceofthesecharacteristics:
1. the building was made of masonry though conventional
building material of the period was wood, even for palaces.

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The masonry was clad in stone, many brought from Roman

ruins.
2. Groinvaultedandbarrelvaultedceilings
3. Westwork
4. Emphasisonwallsandflatpiersinsteadofroundcolumns.
5. SeparationorArticulationofspaces
6. Twostaircasetowersflankingtheentrancethatlaterdevelop
inGermanRomanesquecharacteristics.

completed in 1180. Tall octagonal crossing tower built in

Romanesque and Gothic period rest on squinches. This
church is evidence of ambition regarding scale of churches.
Thehavehadtobesupportedbytwosideaisles
ThirdabbeychurchatCluney,:LongestRomanesquechurch.
Longaxiswas190m.Wasdestroyedin19thcentury.
St.Etienne(English:St.Stephen)atCaen,France:Firstangle
roll. Commonly a.k.a. angle shaft (circular shafts on arris to
protecttheedgesofpiersandedgebetweenwallandsoffit).

7. Axiality (though longitudinal axis is an older architectural

feature seen in earlier churches, it is seen here for the first
time in this period, in combination with a centralized plan,
just like Hagia Sophia. Romanesque churches are all
characterizedbystronglongitudinalaxis.Isfact,Romanesque
churchesallfollowbasilicanplan.
1.5. SomepreRomanesqueandRomanesquechurchesthat
werearchitecturallyaheadoftheirtime:
St.Riquier,nowdestroyed:firstfullydevelopedwestwork.
Abbey church at Corvey (873885) : window of appearances
on the westwork for the monarch or emperor to appear in.
Imperialassociation.Upperpartofthiswestworkwasadded
later.
Ideal Monastery Plan found in the library of St. Gall,
Switzerland c820 : Ideal monastery plan self sufficient.
Madeinmodules.Dominantbuildingintermsoflocationand
size is the church. The church has multiple entries,
approachingfromdifferentpartsoftheabbey.Ithasdouble
endedchurch(averypopularplantypeinGermany).Planis
centeredoncloister.Planismadesuchthattheabbeycould
befortifiedifneedofsecuritywasfelt.
Speyer Cathedral, Germany (10271060) : First groin vaulted
ceiling.
St.Sernin(10601120):Largestextant(afterCluny`schurch
IIIwasdestroyed)RomanesqueChurchinEuropewithalmost
60m long nave and 100m length from vestibule to east
chapel., A pilgrimage church consecrated in 1090 and

2.

Durham Cathedral, England, (Norman, (10931133) all the

essentialelementsofthecomingGothicstyle,i.e.thepointed
arch, the flying buttress (in the form of quadrant arch
separatingtimberroofedgallery),andthelevelribvault.
Lorche Gateway, France (late 8th century) combined the
northern and classical traditions. Corinthian engaged
columns. Coloured marble inlays (reminiscent of barbarian
metalwork).ThemassingisreminiscentofaRomantriumphal
arch.
Charlemagnespalacechapel(Aachen,presentdayGermany)
seewriteupabove.
St. Cyriakus at Gernrode, Germany, built in 969/960965
(Ottonian Church) : Triforium gallery was first used in
Western Europe in this church. Gallery or tribunes in
churches opened both inward and outward. In this church,
thesemiblindarcadesingalleriesonthenaveareseenasa
predecessor of true triforium. Triforium developed in a
different fashion in Gothic period By closing all the external
openings and by reducing the depth of the gallery. To be
discussedlater.

Romanesque

Romanesque,awordnotcoineduntilthe18thcentury,wasfirstusedtodescribethearchitectureofWesternEuropefromabout
the 9th to 12th century. It means like Roman. In reality, Romanesque architecture takes only the circular arch, barrel / tunnel
vaultsandbasilicanchurchplanfromRomanArchitecture,theremainsofwhichwerenowabundantinthenowdecayingwestern
RomanEmpireinEurope.Theprofileofthetriumphalarchwasseeninthetransversesectionofchurches.Howeverobviousitmay

Page9of13

appear, it was not replicated to copy the profile but it happened due to the structural requirement : aisles butteressed the nave
double the height if the aisles. Other characteristics of Roman Civilisation and architecture (like academics, administration &
bureaucracy,cityandtownplanning,concrete,roadconstruction,publiclife)werenotrevived.Infact,thereisastrongandevident
influence of Local tribal arts and Muslim architecture on Romanesque and later period (even Italian Renaissance) art and
architecture.However,itwasalwaysprestigioustolinkacivilizationtothatoftheRomansandhencethenomenclaturewasdonein
18thcentury.
2.1. LifeandtimeduringRomanesqueperiod:
ChurchandStatewereintertwinedasfarasauthoritywas
concerned.Theywerefrequentlyfeudingoverpoliticaland
religiousauthority.
Boundaries or nation, kingdom or empire changed
frequently and central political authority was lacking.
WesternEuropewasacollectiondukedomsandcitystates
who were in frequently alternating states of conflict and
peace. Warfare between tribes was frequent and defense
was the primary concern for architecture. Abode of king
wasnottheopenlydesignpalacebutthefortifiedcastles.
The Crusades had started. Many a time the king left with
familyfortheCrusadesforyearstogether,sometimenever
comingback.
Inabsenceofastable,knowledgeableandcentralpolitical
authority, in absence of social and administrative
institutions, the religious institution was the only stable,
central, standardised and knowledgeable institution found
inthisperiod.Thechurchesreceivedfinancesfromnotonly
the kings and nobility but from believers (more on
pilgrimage economy in later sections) and they invested
their income to increase it manifold. Thus churches were
selfsufficient in all senses. Hence church building was
abundant and remain as the only major architectural
evidence of this period. There are few castles but their
numberissmallincomparison.
Religious architecture was a domain of research in
construction technology, art, manuscript writing and
scholarship and the legacy was carried forward in Gothic
period.
2.2. Factors deciding architectural characters
continuationofpreRomanesquetrends):

Godattheendoftheaxis.Thisplanwasalsoinsyncwith
the Roman house plan placing the congregation and alter
facetoface.ThesebeliefsleadtothefinalisationtheLatin
crossplanofChristianchurchesthatwestillseetoday.
Standardised church administration and hierarchy : As a
resultbishopricsandcathedralsappear.
Pilgrimage (continued from preRomanesue period) see
PPT
Monasticlife(continuedfrompreRomanesueperiod)see
PPT
Competitionbetweenchurchesforpatronageandpilgrims
andbigbusinessoffakerelics.
Royalpatronageandfavouritism.
IslamicinfluencefromSpainandSouthernItaly.
End of this period cult of the virgin appear. Most
medievalchurcheshencefortharededicatedtotheVirgin.
AmalgamationoftribalandChristianartanddevelopment
ofarchitecturalsculpture.
Building technology wooden truss roof replaced round
arch, tunnel vault (ribbed or plain), piers and buttresses,
masonsandartisansguild
MaterialsavailabilityoffreestoneinFranceandGermany,
BrickandmarbleinItaly.
Geologybuildingscaleandsize
Climatesizeofopeningsandcolour
Localculturedecorationandelements.
2.3. Architecturalcharacters
2.3.1. Buildingtypes(seePPT):

(mostly

Roman arch and structures (triumphal arch elevation is

seeninthetransversesectionofchurches)
Standardised liturgy : The central high space was
symbolisedasaship(thetermnave,derivedfromtheLatin
word navis, was coined in 17th century) carrying the
congregation towards lord. The axial planning of neolithic
Europeanpassagegraveswerepsychologicallyappropriate
forthisconceptofwalkingupalongstraightpathtomeet

Churches and selfsufficient monasteries in abundance,

usuallyoutsidelocalityandbywater
Monasteries are self sufficient, like a small town. Patron
kingornobleusedtomakegiftsoflandandlabour
Churches designed to cater not only for sacrament but to
accommodate a continuous flow of pilgrims through the
daywhoattendedmassesandvisitedtherelics.
2.3.2. Buildingdesign:

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 Noparticulardesigntemplateorstandardthatcorresponds
toRomanesquestyle.Somecharacteristicsaretypicalof
Romanesquestylewithgreatregionalvariation.
Great amount of regional variation with respect to
material,surfacetreatment,roofing,sculptureandbuilding
scale.
Largerbuildings,baptisteryandbelltowerbecomingmore
prominent, often separate building. In Italy they were
almostinvariablyseparatefromthechurchbuilding.
Replacement of wooden roof truss with less fireprone,
strongerandheaviermasonryvarrelvaultwithorwithout
transversearch.
Thickwalls,completelyloadbearing.
Aisles added as structural support of nave as well as for
accomodationg and directing growing number of pilgrim
traffic.Largepilgrimagechurcheshavetwosideaisles.The
centralaislethetallest,itsheight1.5to2timesthespan.
Sideaisleshalfthespanandhalftheheightofcentralaisle
andusuallysurmountedbyagalleryortribune.Secondside
aisle where present was same or lesser height than the
firstsideaisleandwasnotsurmountedbyagallery.
In early periods, a gallery without external window was
presentabovethesideaisle.Itsroofingevolvedfromlevel
woodtoleantoroof,interceptedbyquadrantarchesatthe
joiningofbays.
Small windows. Few windows at level. Lighting coming
mainly from clerestory level (absent in pilgrimage
churches). Dim interior. Extensive use of candles and
bejeweleddecorationsontheinterior.
Introduction of triforium gallery. (first seen at St. Cyriakus
at Gernrode, Germany, built in 969/960965, Ottonian
Church)
Interiorofchurchesdesignedkeepinginmindtheorderof
Christianity. Some are heavily decorated and bejeweled
(Benedictine)andsomeplaininterior(Cistercians).
Articulationofspaceininteriorandexterior:Monotonous
and continuous interior and exterior tend to become
boring, disorienting, intimidating and confusing. As
buildingsgrewlarger,dividingtheminrhythmicpartswasa
design necessity. With the use of ribs and the resultant
piers,structurallyarhythmicdivisionandsubdivisionasper
hierarchy was unavoidable. These two combined, the first
interiorarticulationappearedincleardemarcationofbays
with the used of strip buttressing on piers (the space for
sanctuary and congregation was articulated from the very
beginning of church design). Bay division became clearer

with use of transverse arch, compound piers with a basic

rectangularsectionandgroinvault.Eachpartofbuildingis
clearly articulated in the plan, elevation, internal and
external massing. An increase in number of apses and the
morecomplicatedandinnovativepiersusedtothisend.
Elementsusedinarticulation:
o Vaultingandcorrespondingpierssimpletocomplex
:
CorrespondingPiersection
Roofing
(1) wooden roof (pre Rectangularsection.
Romanesque)
(2) barrel vault (few pre Rectangular
section.
Romanesque and early Alternationofsupporthad
Romanesque)
(3) transversearch
Tsection
(4) transverse arch of Cruciformsection
both nave and side
aisle,
(5) quadripartiteribvault Half column on rectangular
(6) sexpartite and higher Compound
or
clustered
ribbedvault
columnsection
o

Seriesofalternatingcolumnandpierinnaveelevation.
Piers always denoted the junction of bays. As load of
wallandroofgrew,numberofcolumnsbetweenpiers
reducedfromtwotonone.

Groinvault:inearlyperiodsonlyinaislesandlaterin
have. To construct level groin vaults, groin vaulted
aisles were of 1x1 and accompanying barrel vaulted
naves in 1x2 dimensions. Groinvaulted naveswerein
2x2dimension.

Latin cross plan achieved by addition of transept to

basilicanplan.
Ambulatoryandcommonoccurrenceoftwosideaisles
Subdividing space : Multiple alters. Main alter in chancel
andotheronesintranseptandchapels.
Subdividingspace:Multiplechapels
Common occurrence of two side aisles double storeyed
aislesforcirculationandstructuralstability
Toweroncrossing
Apse further extended to accommodate larger choir. In
BritainledtointroductionofretrochoirinGothicperiod.

Recessedportal,heavilysculptured.
2.4. RomanesqueRevival(19thCentury)
Following the early nineteenth century Greek and Gothic
Revival movements in American architecture(and also in
Europe), a number of American architects started a

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Romanesque Revival trend. The earliest of these was James

Renwick(181895),whosedesignfortheSmithsonianInstitute
("the castle") in Washington DC (184755) made it the first
American public building in that style. Another architect
influenced by the Romanesque was Richard Upjohn (180278).

Thegreatestexponent,however,of19thcenturyRomanesque
revivalist architecture wasHenry Hobson Richardson(183886)
who was responsible for masterpieces like Trinity Church,
Boston(187277)andMarshallFieldWholesaleStore(188587)
Chicago.

Page12of13

Questions:
1. What are the major time periods in Medieval periods?
What are the most common architectural character /
buildingtypefoundinalltheseperiods?Why?

16. Write about evolutions of roofing and corresponding

supportsfrompreRomanesquetoRomanesqueperiod.
Accompanywithsketches.

2. What ispreRomanesque architecture?Whyisit called

so?

17. What are the design factors of Romanesque

architecture? How were they met by Romanesque
buildings?(10+10)

3. WhatisRomanesquearchitecture?Whyisitcalledso?
4. How is preRomanesque architecture differentiated
fromRomanesquearchitecture?
5. Why is it difficult to assign and time period,
geographical location or characteristics to pre
Romanesquearchitecture?
6. What are the predominant buildings types in Pre
Romanesqueperiod?Whyaresuchbuildingssogreatin
number?(1015)
7. Drawtheplanandsectionofatypicalmedievalchurch,
labeleachpartandexplainitsfunction.
8. What are the major characteristics of PreRomanesque
structures?(1020)
9. What buildings features appear in preRomanesque
periodbutbecomeprominentcharactersoflaterperiod
buildings?
10. What are the reasons behind the prevalence of
cruciform church planovercentralisedplan? When did
thisoccur?
11. What us articulation of space? How is articulation of
space achieved in (a) Palatine chapel, Aachen, (b) St.
Michaels at Hildesheim, (c) Westwork of Abbey church
atCorvey(d)churchexteriorinpreRomanesquechurch
and
12. What is the role of pilgrimage in forming medieval
architecture? What were the design requirements of a
pilgrimage church? How were those requirements met
by architecture? Explain the functions of a pilgrimage
churchwithhelpofatypicalpilgrimagechurchplan.
13. Why are Romanesque churches planned with square
modules?
14. Whatarchitecturalfeaturesofabbeyswereassimilated
inmedievaluniversityplans?Why?

18. What is articulation of space? Why was it required in

architecture? How was it achieved? Explain each
solutionwithaccompanyingsketches.
19. Write notes, explaining the origin, function, structure
with accompanying sketches : cruciform plan, aisle,
apse, transept, crossing, westwork, pier, nave, portal,
articulationofinteriorspaceinexteriorform.
20. Write about use of arches in preRomanesque and
Romanesquebuildings.Accompanywithsketches.(20)
21. WhatarefailuresofRomanesquearchitecture?(10)
22. What was the role of sculpture in Romanesque
architecture?
23. What is a portal? What are its religious significances?
Whatareitsdifferentparts?Howaresculpturesrelated
toportals?
24. What features of a church were enhanced to
accommodate (a) more visitors/pilgrims, (b) more
alters,(c)moreclergy?
25. Write about building materials and technology of pre
Romanesque and Romanesque churches? Explain with
labeledsketches.
26. WhatarethelocalvariationsofpreRomanesqueperiod
architectureseeninEurope?
27. Write about the different (a) cultural and (b)
climatological influences seen in Romanesque
architecture.
28. WhatarethearchitecturalfeaturesofPlazaofMiracles
in Pisa? How did the soil condition of Italy affect
regional characters of Italy and architecture of Piazza
del Miracoli? Write some of the significant features of
Pisa duomo ? How do the buildings respond to local
climate?

15. Explain the evolving construction technology with

typical church sections of preRomanesque and
Romanesqueperiod

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