INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS

COAL INDUSTRY ADVISORY BOARD

The IEA is an autonomous body that implements an international

energy programme and co-ordinates wide-ranging energy cooperation among its 26 member countries. Its aims are to regulate
oil supplies, promote rational energy policies, provide market data,
aid policy integration and encourage energy efficiency measures.
The IEA supports the development of an extensive portfolio of
technologies and maintains active involvement in networks and
collaborative exercises promoting joint research, development and
demonstration programmes (RD&D).
The Working Party on Fossil Fuels (WPFF) provides advice to IEA on
fossil fuel technology-related policies, trends, projects and
programmes, on strategies which address priority environmental
protection and energy security interests, and carry out activities to
meet those needs through international co-operation and
collaboration facilitated by IEA.
The Coal Industry Advisory Board (CIAB) is a group of high-level
executives from coal-related industrial enterprises, established by the
International Energy Agency (IEA) in July 1979 to provide advice to
the IEA on a wide range of issues relating to coal. The CIAB currently
has 39 members from 16 countries accounting for about 75% of
world coal production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the International Energy Agency's Coal Industry Advisory Board in
collaboration with the IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels. It was published by the IEA Clean Coal Centre
who also provided valuable, editorial assistance. Within the IEA the project was managed by the
Energy Technology Division.

Roadmapping
Coals Future

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS
COAL INDUSTRY ADVISORY BOARD

Roadmapping
Coals Future

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

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75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an autonomous body which was established in November
1974 within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
to implement an international energy programme.
It carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among twenty-six* of the OECDs
thirty member countries. The basic aims of the IEA are:
to maintain and improve systems for coping with oil supply disruptions;
to promote rational energy policies in a global context through co-operative relations with nonmember countries, industry and international organisations;
to operate a permanent information system on the international oil market;
to improve the worlds energy supply and demand structure by developing alternative energy
sources and increasing the efficiency of energy use;
to assist in the integration of environmental and energy policies.
* IEA member countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United
Kingdom, the United States. The European Commission also takes part in the work of the IEA.

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Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into
force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) shall promote policies designed:

to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of
living in member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the
development of the world economy;
to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the
process of economic development; and
to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in
accordance with international obligations.

The original member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries
became members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April
1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973),
Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996),
Poland (22nd November 1996), the Republic of Korea (12th December 1996) and Slovakia (28th
September 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD
(Article 13 of the OECD Convention).
OECD/IEA, 2005
Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this publication should be made to:
Head of Publications Service, OECD/IEA
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or
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ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 3

INTRODUCTION
Worldwide, the use of coal as an energy source remains crucial to the economies of
many developed and developing countries. Particularly with the latter, as
industrialisation and urbanisation spread and national energy requirements soar, coal
looks set to retain its position as a secure, reliable source of energy, particularly for the
generation of electricity.
Coal-fired power generation accounts for 39% of the worlds total electricity production
and in some countries, such as the USA, Germany, Poland, Australia, South Africa,
China and India, it is very much higher due to its cost competitiveness. While use in
some European countries remains static or is in decline, significant increases in coalfired generation capacity are taking place in many of the developing nations, such as
China and India, where large capacity increases are planned to make use of abundant
coal reserves far more abundant than oil and gas reserves. Coal-fired power plants
have a long working life and, with the extensive investments being made in many parts
of the world, coal is likely to remain an important source of energy well into this
century. In many countries, policies to increase the diversity of energy supplies are
being promoted to improve security within truly competitive energy markets. In this
respect, coal has an important role to play providing coal users are able to respond
positively to the environmental challenges associated with the use of fossil fuels.
Climate change is an issue of global proportion. There is a body of evidence
and increasing acceptance that a number of greenhouse gases are responsible
for the global warming that leads to this change, the most significant contributor
being carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the burning of fossil fuels. The latter
provide a large proportion (around 80%) of the worlds energy needs and will
continue to do so for the foreseeable future (Figure1). To ensure that substantial
reductions in atmospheric CO2 emissions can be made during the present century
and beyond, widespread deployment of technological solutions will be required.
The International Energy Agency1 (IEA) is playing a major role in addressing
this subject. Recognising the potential of CO2 capture and storage technologies,
the IEAs Working Party on Fossil Fuels2 (WPFF) launched its strategy for Zero
Emissions Technologies (ZETs) in 2001. With this concept, almost all
conventional pollutants produced by the burning of fossil fuels will be eliminated
and used in by-products or, in the case of CO2, captured and stored in geological
formations, thus preventing its emission to atmosphere.

1
2

Further details on the IEAs activities can be obtained at www.iea.org

The IEAs WPFF can be contacted via its Chair: Barbara.McKee@hq.doe.gov

4 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

The IEA Coal Industry Advisory Board3 (CIAB) has prepared this brochure on
technology roadmapping to complement a series of earlier WPFF/IEA brochures4
that examine various aspects of its ZETs strategy. This brochure focuses on the
technology pathways leading to ZETs based on clean coal technologies (CCTs)
a significant, but feasible, leap forward that demands a co-ordinated response
by industry and governments.
World primary energy demand5
7,000
6,000
5,000

Mtoe

Figure 1

4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1970

1980

1990

2000

11%
coal
oil
gas
nuclear
hydro
other

23%

2%
7%

2010

2020

2030

11%
2%
5%

22%

25%

21%

35%

36%

2000

3
4

2030

The CIAB website (www.ciab.org.uk) contains useful publications on coal-related matters

All seven public information brochures are available to download from the publications section of
www.iea.org (click on Browse all IEA papers by year and subject, then select Clean Fossil Fuels
in the subject search and 2003 in the year search)
World Energy Outlook 2004, Paris: International Energy Agency, 2004

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 5

CHALLENGES AHEAD
Although coal remains hugely important for the economies of many countries, a major
challenge is to reduce its environmental impact. Effective methods already exist for
the control of some pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO2 and NOx)
and particulates, but, despite dramatic improvements made during the past decade,
there remains continued pressure to reduce emissions still further. In the future, there
will be growing pressure to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2).
There is much concern about the quantities of CO2 emitted from fossil fuel-burning
power plants for electricity production. Indeed, these are responsible for around onethird of total global emissions of CO2 and are candidates for the application of emerging
CO2 capture and storage techniques. Although, with a very few exceptions, such control
techniques have not yet been adopted, the technological solutions exist that could be
adapted and applied for reducing CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plant. One
significant challenge is large-scale application at an affordable cost. Identifying
appropriate power technologies and effective monitoring of the stored CO2 constitute
additional challenges. Moreover, a specific legal framework has to be created and market
rules established that would allow CO2 abatement costs to be recovered.
As electricity demand continues to rise, developing and developed countries alike can
be expected to continue using their abundant coal reserves; if action is not taken, CO2
levels will rise. The eventual goal must be to achieve the deployment of energy
technologies that produce little or no emissions. It is widely accepted that no single
technology will be capable of maintaining a secure, cost effective energy supply in
IEA countries, and providing a greater share of the worlds population with access to
modern energy services, while making a substantial reduction in GHG emissions.
The energy systems of tomorrow will rely on a mix of advanced, clean, efficient
technologies for energy supply and use. Energy efficiency demands further effort and
the use of renewable energy will grow substantially from its small base; but, to meet
the predicted increase in global energy demand, whilst reducing emissions, will also
require a concerted effort to limit CO2 emissions from fossil fuel use. Coal will continue
to play a major role in energy supply over the coming decades, with strong growth in
developing countries. In order to reduce its environmental impact, development and
application of Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs), designed to minimise the emissions
of various undesirable species from coal-fired power plants, should continue. Further
development of CCTs will lead to a number of technology options (so-called Zero or
Near-zero Emissions Technologies ZETs) that emit very low levels of all emissions.

6 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

RD&D PLANNING WITH TECHNOLOGY

ROADMAPS
The environmental challenges, coupled with concerns about the future security
of energy supplies, have stimulated renewed interest in development programmes
for CCTs. In major coal-producing and coal-using countries, efforts have been
made to consider how these CCTs can be used as bridging technologies, leading
to ZETs-based plants that produce virtually no undesirable emissions by 2020.
This brochure presents an overview of the technical assessment and planning
work that is being undertaken by key organisations in these countries, all of
whom have the common aim of seeing ZETs developed and deployed using
coal. The brochure draws heavily on a review6 of this work by the IEA Clean
Coal Centre7, often known as technology roadmapping.
As part of the process leading to the deployment of ZETs, many pathways are being
reviewed to identify the most appropriate technology strategies and the underpinning
research, development and demonstration (RD&D) needs. These forms of assessment
are commonly termed Clean Coal Technology Roadmaps and are intended to describe
the measures necessary to realise the different technologies, having regard to policy
aims and market needs. Recently, a number of such roadmaps have been prepared,
based on a variety of candidate technologies some based on progressive improvements
to conventional power generation systems, and others on more advanced concepts. An
example roadmap is outlined in the Annex to this brochure.

COMMON MESSAGES FROM THE

TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS
All technology roadmapping exercises begin by examining what needs to be done
what are the external drivers and do these result in clear technology performance targets.
Next, the current situation or the starting point must be understood since this may
impose constraints on the final step which is the definition of technology pathways.
Using this final step, a programme of RD&D work can be initiated to achieve the
technology performance targets.

6
7

Henderson, C., Clean Coal Technologies Roadmaps, report no. CCC/75, London: IEA Clean
Coal Centre, October 2003
Further details on the IEA Clean Coal Centre can be obtained at www.iea-coal.org.uk

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 7

What needs to be done?

Within the power generation sector, natural gas remains coals main competitor in
regions where gas is available and natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants offer
certain environmental benefits, notably half the CO2 emissions at the point of use;
although supply chain emissions, particularly where liquefied natural gas (LNG) is
used, complicates this simplistic comparison. Yet, bringing more distant reserves of
gas to market is proving expensive. So, despite its environmental challenges, coal
often has a substantial cost advantage which translates into lower power prices and
hence a higher standard of living and social development in many coal-using countries.
Nevertheless, if coal-fired systems are to be improved, then NGCC performance will
remain one of a number of benchmarks for comparison.
Table 1

Emissions and possible targets for selected coal-fired power generation

technologies
Technology

SO2 emissions
(% removal)

NOx emissions
Particulates
(as NO2, mg/m3) (mg/m3)

Pulverised Coal Combustion

(PCC) with Flue Gas
Desulphurisation (FGD)

9098

100200 (SCR)

1050

Circulating Fluidised Bed

Combustion (CFBC)

9098

<200400

<50

Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC)

9899

<125

<1

PCC target for ZETs

9598

<125

<10

IGCC target for ZETs

99

<25

<1

Natural Gas Combined Cycle

(NGCC)

n/a

<30 (SCR)-300

In the case of SO2, emissions from gas-fired systems are generally negligible, therefore
levels produced from coal-fired equivalents will need to be reduced effectively to zero.
Already, both PCC (pulverised coal combustion) and IGCC (integrated gasification
combined cycle) plants can be configured for very low emissions of SO2 (see Table 1).
For NOx emissions, again, coal will need to reduce levels to be comparable with NGCC.
At present, the application of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to coal-fired plant
can produce NOx levels similar to those from gas-fired plant, and coal-fired systems
based on IGCC technology promise even better performance. NGCC systems produce
only very fine, aerosol particulates with no dust; it will be important for pollution
control technologies to follow the downward trend achieved at coal-fired plant in recent
years.

8 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

Of increasing importance will be the control and minimisation of CO2 from all sources,
including coal which accounted for 38% of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion
in 2002. Indications are that removal rates of 8090% should be feasible from new
coal-fired plants and these are regarded as target levels for near-zero emissions plant
based on both PCC and IGCC technologies. It will be important to achieve these goals,
and to tackle CO2 emissions from both oil and gas use as well, if atmospheric CO2
concentrations are to be stabilised. In this respect, technologies to capture and store
CO2 are as applicable to future gas-fired plants as they are to coal-fired plants. Achieving
lower emissions will add to the cost of energy supply. How this cost is recovered remains
uncertain, but ultimately consumers should expect to pay more for their energy needs.

The starting point

The starting point for ZETs technologies is current state-of-the-art clean coal
technologies8. There are many to choose from, some based on combustion and others
on gasification of coal. The most relevant in meeting short- to medium-term needs
are:

supercritical pulverised coal combustion (PCC);

circulating fluidised bed combustion (CFBC); and,
integrated gasification combined cycles (IGCC).

At present, the candidates most likely to provide the basis for ZETs technologies are
supercritical PCC and IGCC. With the latter, there may be opportunities for combining
the technology with fuel cells. In Japan, the EAGLE integrated gasification combined
cycle fuel cell (IGFC) project is testing this concept. An 8 MWe pilot plant is now in
operation at Wakamatsu, based around an oxygen-blown, two-stage, entrained-flow
gasifier. The goal of this long-term, development project is to generate electricity in
a solid oxide fuel cell fed with hydrogen from the coal gasifier.

For an in-depth review of CCTs, see: Henderson, C.; Clean Coal Technologies, report no.
CCC/74, London: IEA Clean Coal Centre, October 2003

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 9

Figure 2

View of the Japanese EAGLE pilot plant

GASIFIER
AIR
SEPARATION
UNIT
SULPHUR
RECOVERY

GAS
CLEAN-UP

These state-of-the-art technologies can be adapted to enable the capture of CO2 and
so prevent its release to atmosphere. In some instances, well-developed processes can
be used; in other cases, further development is needed before CO2 capture could be
incorporated into new power plant projects. Once captured, the CO2 must be transported
and stored. A growing number of reference projects in the oil and gas industry suggest
that these are already becoming accepted practices.

Technology pathways
Having established that ZETs may have an important role in the coming years, what
will be the best route forward in achieving their successful deployment? In practice,
no single system will be capable of meeting all future requirements, hence a portfolio
of technologies will be necessary. By not concentrating on a single candidate technology,
the associated technological risks can be minimised, and of equal importance, possible
routes forward can be tailored to meet the different situations prevailing in different
parts of the world; the structure of electricity generation sectors and future national
power demands are likely to vary significantly between countries and regions. So, there
are likely to be several possible routes forward towards the adoption of ZETs, with
some variants being more applicable to the industrialised nations and others focused
more on developing countries.
With the clear need for more than one candidate ZET, there is a corresponding number
of possible routes forward, some based on PCC and others on IGCC. In both cases, there
are likely to be some distinct steps in taking forward todays coal-based systems to
achieve zero emissions. For systems based on PCC, the pathways shown in Figure 3
can be envisaged.

10 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

PCC-based ZETs pathway

now

2005 -10

2010 -15

2015 on

increasing efficiency, lower emissions, lower costs

Advanced Ultra
Supercritical PCC
demo
non-CO2 capture

Advanced Ultra
Supercritical PCC
commercial
non-CO2 capture

Advanced
PCC-based ZETs
first commercial
retrofits and new plants

Advanced
PCC-based ZETs

Mercury activities:
characterisation
monitoring
removal methods
SO2 activities:
deeper removal
new systems
Supercritical PCC
~45% efficiency (LHV)

Figure 3

NOx activities:
deeper removal
without SCR

Particulates removal:
move to <10mg/m3

CO2 capture activities:

chemical scrubbing demo

CO2 capture activities:

pressure swing adsorption
membranes
oxy-coal demo

Ion Transfer Membrane

Oxygen Plants
commercial

CO2 capture from plant flue gases may be based on one of the technologies under
development or currently in use within industry. Inevitably, CO2 capture imposes
additional costs and an energy penalty on the plant, so the most likely candidates for
future use will be those whose impact on plant economics and efficiency has been
minimised. In the shorter term, the most promising capture technology may be based
on systems that scrub CO2 from plant flue gases using amine solutions. Such systems
are already used within some industrial sectors, although they were not developed
specifically for treating the mix of gases that characterise the exhaust or flue gas from
coal-fired power plants. However, the potential to retrofit such systems to the large
number of existing coal-fired units justifies the significant development effort needed
before this can be viewed as a viable option. Commercial developments, currently taking
place, are aimed at increasing PCC plant efficiency above current, state-of-the-art levels,
hence the impact of fitting a CO2 capture system to new plant would be less than
retrofits to existing units. In the medium term, alternative systems, such as those using
membranes to separate CO2 from flue gas, could be developed and deployed. The
outcome of RD&D programmes over the next few years will determine which options
can be developed and refined to be most economic.
The other main possibility for ZETs-based PCC is where coal combustion takes place
in an atmosphere comprising recycled flue gas mixed with oxygen (oxy-coal combustion).
With conventional, PCC-based systems, the flue gas contains only a relatively low
concentration of CO2; however, with oxy-coal, a more concentrated stream of CO2 is

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 11

produced, easing its capture. Although the overall thermal efficiency could be higher
than that of more conventional plants with CO2 scrubbed from the flue gas, there would
still be an efficiency penalty as production of the necessary oxygen consumes a
considerable amount of energy. Further development of the technique is required and
efforts are under way, notably in Canada, Australia and Europe again demonstrating
the need for early RD&D to provide economic options for the future.
With regard to other emissions from PCC-based plant, equipment is available to
routinely achieve low levels of particulates and SO2, and low levels of NOx are achievable
via several routes. In recent years, concern over mercury emissions has increased to the
extent that there is a move in the USA to reduce emissions by 70% before 2018. The
impact of this challenge on coal-fired generation is uncertain, but removal technologies
are being developed and, in any event, mercury emissions fall substantially with the
application of conventional pollution control techniques such as flue gas desulphurisation
(FGD).
Moving on to examine ZETs systems based on IGCC technology, Figure 4 illustrates
some key steps.
GCC-based ZETs pathway
now

2005 -10

2010 -15

2015 on

increasing efficiency, lower emissions, lower costs

IGCC Power Plants

commercial
non-CO2 capture

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

commercial-scale demonstrations

Figure 4

Hot gas clean-up activities:

particulates
sulphur
mercury
NOx activities:
reduce emissions

IGCC-based ZETs
early, full-scale
power plants

Advanced
IGCC-based ZETs
commercial plants
various technologies
multi-products

CO2 capture activities:

chemical scrubbing demo

CO2 capture activities:

pressure swing adsorption
membranes

Ion Transfer Membrane

Oxygen Plants
commercial

As with PCC systems, there are a number of different variants of the technology, some
based on a dry coal feed and others on a wet feed of coal-water slurry. There are three
generic types of gasifier that could be applied (entrained flow, moving bed and fixed
bed) all of which have different operating characteristics. Such IGCC systems are

12 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

acknowledged widely as having a lower environmental impact than combustion-based

electricity generation technologies and this will influence future strategies formulated
to ensure that coal-fired plant remains environmentally acceptable and commercially
viable in the coming years. Nevertheless, there are far fewer IGCC plants operating
today than PCC units, as the technology is perceived to be expensive, complex and
relatively unproven. By their very nature, some first-generation IGCC demonstration
plants were costly and complex, although the next generation should see significant
improvements in this respect. In fact, a number of IGCC plants are now operating with
a high degree of reliability and experience gained with these will help to provide a
firm foundation for IGCC-based ZETs which offer a number of potential advantages:

CO2 capture imposes a lower energy penalty than for capture from PCC plant,
since the CO2 content of the pre-combustion, syngas stream is greater and hence
more easily captured than from a flue gas.
The CO2 can be captured at a pressure suitable for pipeline transport, hence
reducing CO2 compression costs.
A sequestration ready IGCC plant can be constructed today and CO2 capture
added at a later date, thus offering a valuable option to developers and investors
faced with uncertain CO2 emission costs.
Straightforward, chemical processing of the syngas, coupled with CO2 capture,
yields hydrogen suitable for combustion in gas turbines, direct conversion to
electricity in fuel cells or other uses, such as transport.
Developments in gas turbine technology will boost efficiency levels and fuel cells
offer the prospect of even higher efficiencies.
Very low levels of SO2 emissions can already be achieved and NOx levels are
comparable to those of natural gas fired combined cycles.
Solid wastes produced are usually in a vitrified, inert form, thus easing their
disposal.

There are a number of developments that have the potential to increase the efficiency
and attractiveness of IGCC providing they are supported under RD&D programmes.
These include the successful application of systems to remove particulates and other
species from the syngas whilst still hot, and the deployment of a new, advanced method
for generating oxygen (ion transport membrane technology ITM). The latter has the
potential to generate oxygen more cheaply than current processes, hence it could find
application in a number of power generation cycles.
In a further development of IGCC systems, there may be the possibility of the
simultaneous removal of CO2 with the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) present in syngas.
These gases could then be co-disposed of in a single step. This technique is presently
being carried out commercially in North America where so-called acid gas injection
is being employed as an aid to recovering oil from mature fields. Such co-disposal offers
the potential of lowering the costs of CO2 capture.

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 13

Worldwide, as efforts gather pace to reduce emissions of CO2 and other species
from coal-fired plant, there is increasing interest in the use of hydrogen as an
energy carrier. IGCC has the potential for co-producing electricity with other
products such as hydrogen, chemicals and liquid fuels. For example, in the USA,
the FutureGen project is a major $1billion, 10-year, US Department of Energy
initiative that aims to demonstrate a near-zero emissions 275 MWe coal-fuelled
IGCC that incorporates hydrogen production and CO2 separation followed by
geological sequestration. This prototype plant will serve as an engineering
laboratory for the development of clean power, carbon capture, and coal-tohydrogen technologies. Operations are expected to commence in 2011 with
the plant producing one million tonnes of CO2 each year. It will be required
to achieve a level of at least 90% CO2 abatement, with the potential for levels
approaching 100%.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Moving from existing technologies to ZETs equivalents that incorporate a CO2 capture
stage, will clearly have major cost implications for systems developed from either
PCC or IGCC. It has been estimated that for the former, plant capital costs would be
5682% greater than current systems, and for the latter, some 2750% higher9. A
large proportion of the increased capital costs are associated with the capture of CO2.
Future technological advances will play an important role in the economics of a particular
system, and there remains potential for considerable cost reductions to be made for
more advanced forms of PCC- and IGCC-based technologies coupled with a range of
candidate capture technologies. At present, comparisons of the efficiency penalty
associated with the different ZETs systems suggests that IGCC is ahead, although the
economics of future (ultra supercritical) PCC cycles with CO2 capture are not yet
clear.

Henderson, C. and Topper, J. M., Clean coal technologies and the path to zero emissions, 7th
International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 5-9 September 2004,
Vancouver, BC, Canada; University of Regina, Natural Resources Canada, IEA Greenhouse Gas
R&D Programme, 2004

14 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

In the USA, where considerable progress is being made on the development of ZETs,
ambitious cost targets have been set for power systems with CO2 capture and storage:

CO2 abatement cost <$10/tCO2 (compared to current estimates of over

$30/tCO2)10.
<10% increase in cost of electricity for >90% removal of CO2 by 202011.
Carbon-free hydrogen production from coal at a cost of $35/106Btu
($2.844.74/GJ or $0.410.68/kg) after 201512.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Fossil fuels will remain the main pillar of the worlds energy supply for decades to
come. Over this same period, CO2 constraints are likely to become an ever greater
feature of energy policies. ZETs are the only option available today that have the
potential to respond to these imperatives in a material way. The roadmapping process,
outlined in this brochure, shows how these technologies might be introduced.
In regions with the most stringent environmental controls, where fuel costs are expected
to be high, and with competitive electricity markets, IGCC appears to be an attractive
proposition. However, zero-emissions plant based on PCC technology will be of greater
importance in retrofit situations, where existing plants could be upgraded simultaneously
with the installation of a CO2 capture system, as well as in the economies of major
developing nations, where electricity demand is expected to continue growing at a
significant rate.
Hydrogen is considered to have the potential to provide clean energy at the point of
use, although there are many technical and economic challenges to be overcome before
it becomes a practical link in the energy supply chain. Fossil fuels, notably coal and
natural gas, coupled with CO2 capture and storage, could provide the transitional
pathway to the longer-term objective of a hydrogen economy based on renewable energy.
In the drive towards the development and deployment of coal-fired plants that emit
virtually no unwanted emissions (using Zero or Near-zero Emissions Technologies
ZETs), it is clear that several strategies must be pursued:

Coal-fired systems based on both pulverised coal combustion (PCC) and integrated
gasification combined cycles (IGCC) will need to be included in a comprehensive
ZETs response to reducing CO2 emissions.

10

National Energy Technology Laboratory, Carbon Sequestration Technology Roadmap and

Program Plan, Office of Fossil Energy, US Department of Energy, March 12, 2003
DOE-CURC-EPRI Clean Coal Technology Roadmap, US Department of Energy, Coal Utilization
Research Council and Electric Power Research Institute, January 2003
ibid. and Hydrogen Co-ordination Group, Hydrogen Program Plan hydrogen from natural gas
and coal: the road to a sustainable energy future, Office of Fossil Energy, US Department of
Energy, June 2003

11
12

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 15

ZETs based on PCC may be of particular importance in countries such as China

and India, that have large and growing fleets of PCC-based power generation
plant.
ZETs systems based on IGCC technology have the advantage of capturing CO2
before combustion takes place, resulting in a smaller efficiency penalty and the
potential to supply large volumes of hydrogen. Efficiency improvements, through
improved gas turbine designs and the use of fuel cells, can be expected in the
future.
Potentially, PCC-based ZETs could close the gap with IGCC-based systems if the
advanced steam conditions, currently under development, were employed.

Only with effective RD&D programmes, over the next few years, will it be possible
for these strategic options to be developed and refined to the point where they can be
adopted commercially as part of the solution to global warming and climate change.

16 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

ANNEX EXAMPLES OF CLEAN COAL

TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS
Many countries that host coal-related industries mining, power generation, steel
production recognise that coal has a major role to play in their future and are planning
accordingly. Programmes have been formulated to provide a framework for future
developments, especially in the case of coal-fired power generation, with detailed
technology roadmaps appearing in Australia, Canada, the European Union, Germany,
Japan, the UK and the USA, as listed below. By way of example, a description of a
RD&D roadmapping exercise in Australia follows.
Table 2

Organisations around the world engaged in technology roadmapping

Australia

Australian Coal Association

COAL21
Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas CO2CRC
Technologies

Canada

Canadian Clean Power Coalition

Natural Resources Canada CANMET Energy
Technology Centre

CCPC
CO2TRM

European Union

European Commission Sixth Framework

Programme

PowerClean

Germany

Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour

COORETEC

Center for Coal Utilization

New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO) / Electric
Power Development Co Ltd (EPDC)

CCT strategy

Japan

United Kingdom

Department of Trade and Industry

Advanced Power Generation Technology Forum

CAT strategy
APGTF vision

USA

Office of Fossil Energy, Department of Energy

FutureGen
(DOE)
Federal Energy Technology Center, National
Vision21
Energy Technology Laboratory
Coal Utilization Research Council / Electric Power CCT roadmap
Research Institute / DOE

International

Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum

IEA Clean Coal Centre

EAGLE

CSLF
topical reports

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 17

Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Research,

Development and Demonstration in Australia
a technology roadmap13
Background
As part of the growing effort to control global CO2 emissions, Australia is committed
to limiting CO2 emissions to 108% of 1990 levels by 2008-12. However, the countrys
economic prosperity relies heavily on the continued use of its abundant reserves of fossil
fuels. Encouragingly, half of Australias CO2 emissions come from stationary sources,
and so have the potential to be captured and stored. Amongst the sources considered
sequesterable, power stations are the most significant, with smaller contributions
from the petroleum industry, oil refineries, the steel industry, non-ferrous metal refining,
and other industrial processes. Of the CO2 produced by power stations, the vast majority
emanates from brown and black coal-fired plants.
Figure 5

Sources of CO2 from power stations in Australia

oil
1.4%

brown coal
32.0%

gas
6.1%

black coal
60.5%

Australias future energy needs suggest that emissions of CO2 from stationary sources
will rise significantly during the next twenty years and beyond. The greater use of fossil
fuels, particularly coal and natural gas, is inevitable. Whilst renewable energy
technologies will meet part of the increased demand, fossil fuels will remain essential
if demand is to be met in full. In view of this, a range of measures will be needed to
enable Australia to attain its emission targets: increased energy efficiency, decreased
carbon intensity, and development and application of CO2 sequestration techniques.
Of the latter, CO2 capture followed by geological storage is considered to be a promising
and materially significant option.

13

Carbon Dioxide Capture & Storage: research development and demonstration in Australia a
technology roadmap, September 2004 update, publication no. 2004/008, Canberra:
Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, September 2004
(www.co2crc.com.au)

18 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

The adoption of such measures opens up the possibility of integrating capture and
storage systems with advanced energy systems such as IGCC and oxyfuel-based power
generation, alongside syngas and hydrogen production. In fact, advanced fossil fuelbased energy systems, coupled with CO2 capture and storage, could provide a pathway
to the hydrogen economy and, based on current estimates, this appears to be the most
cost-effective way forward. With this in mind, the Cooperative Research Centre for
Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) has addressed the role of CO2 capture and
storage technologies via a multi-level roadmapping process that leads from the acceptance
and application of the technologies for low emission electricity generation from fossil
fuels to the wide-scale production of hydrogen initially from fossil fuels with CO2
capture and storage, but ultimately from renewable sources.

CO2CRC roadmapping exercise

The process was taken forward through the formulation and definition of a technology
roadmap, specific to Australia. This is structured on the following basis:
Level 0

Develop Skills and Knowledge an assessment of preliminary activities

over the previous five years that had contributed to the development
of technical capability and knowledge. This provided the foundation
for Level 1.

Level 1

R&D a detailed roadmap aimed at defining R&D and technology

directions for the next 510 years. It required detailed technology
assessments and gap analysis for R&D related to CO2 capture, storage
and utilisation.

Level 2

Demonstration/Application incorporates broad assessments of

potential demonstration and application opportunities through pilotscale RD&D projects, medium-scale demonstration projects, and largescale commercial projects offering R&D opportunities over the next
1020 years.

Level 3

Advanced Systems development of a 20- to 30-year roadmap towards

the hydrogen economy, stressing, in particular, the key role of CO2
capture and storage. It assumes that such an economy would initially
be fossil fuel based, but with the longer-term objective of moving to
renewable energy.

ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE - 19

Figure 6

An emission-free vision for the future

A focal point for CO2 capture and storage RD&D

in Australia
The technology roadmapping exercise proved to be a valuable exercise for Australian
research organisations, industry and government alike. It proved useful in identifying
technology gaps and priorities, identifying expertise, strengthening national research,
development and demonstration (RD&D) collaboration, enhancing opportunities for
international R&D co-operation, and defining an Australian strategy for carbon
sequestration technologies.
In the lead-up to the hydrogen economy, the country possesses significant natural
advantages in terms of abundant fossil fuel reserves and a massive CO2 storage capacity.
However, much of the technological development and most of the market-pull will
come from the larger OECD countries, in particular, the USA. Therefore, Australia
needs to position itself to work closely with other countries in the development of
zero emissions technologies.
Indeed, the findings of the exercise suggest strongly that it will only be through intense
co-operative action at the national and international level that progress will be made
towards undertaking essential R&D, developing new technological options, and
implementing new carbon sequestration technologies on the enormous scale required
to have a significant impact on the levels of CO2 being emitted to the atmosphere.
The CO2CRC technology roadmap has been instrumental in identifying and
highlighting present and future challenges alongside the opportunities and possible

20 - ROADMAPPING COALS FUTURE

routes forward. It helped provide the Australian Government with enough clarity and
confidence to launch a A$1.5billion programme in 2004 that will stimulate the drive
towards a cleaner future based on a variety of viable, large-scale technologies.
Figure 7

Commercial and research projects leading towards the hydrogen

economy (Level 3 technology roadmap)

In Salah (Algeria), Snohvit (Norway) and Gorgon (Australia) are commercial, natural gas
exploitation projects where the in-situ gas contains high concentrations of CO2. For environmental
reasons, re-injection of this CO2 underground is seen as a pre-requisite for all these projects.
The experience gained with CO2 storage through these projects will be very beneficial to future
gas-to-liquid (GTL) projects that exploit remote gas reserves and also to subsequent coalbased power generation projects with CO2 capture as proposed, for example, by the US
Department of Energy in the case of its FutureGen project. Together, these commercial projects
offer a pathway towards the hydrogen economy where large supplies of hydrogen come, firstly,
from fossil fuel sources and, ultimately, from renewable energy sources. A variety of underpinning
research projects will be required to ensure commercial projects benefit, both technically and
economically, from emerging technologies and refinements to existing technologies. For example,
further work is needed to understand the CO2 storage potential of enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) and, in the case of enhance coalbed methane (CBM) gas production, considerable
uncertainties remain to be resolved.

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS
COAL INDUSTRY ADVISORY BOARD

The IEA is an autonomous body that implements an international

energy programme and co-ordinates wide-ranging energy cooperation among its 26 member countries. Its aims are to regulate
oil supplies, promote rational energy policies, provide market data,
aid policy integration and encourage energy efficiency measures.
The IEA supports the development of an extensive portfolio of
technologies and maintains active involvement in networks and
collaborative exercises promoting joint research, development and
demonstration programmes (RD&D).
The Working Party on Fossil Fuels (WPFF) provides advice to IEA on
fossil fuel technology-related policies, trends, projects and
programmes, on strategies which address priority environmental
protection and energy security interests, and carry out activities to
meet those needs through international co-operation and
collaboration facilitated by IEA.
The Coal Industry Advisory Board (CIAB) is a group of high-level
executives from coal-related industrial enterprises, established by the
International Energy Agency (IEA) in July 1979 to provide advice to
the IEA on a wide range of issues relating to coal. The CIAB currently
has 39 members from 16 countries accounting for about 75% of
world coal production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the International Energy Agency's Coal Industry Advisory Board in
collaboration with the IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels. It was published by the IEA Clean Coal Centre
who also provided valuable, editorial assistance. Within the IEA the project was managed by the
Energy Technology Division.

Roadmapping
Coals Future

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS