Armour in Byzantium in the early years of the Varangian

Guard, with special reference to limb defenses

Peter Beatson - NVG Miklagard
1. Introduction
Just before the time of the beginning of the Varangian Guard [1]
there were several military manuals written in Byzantium [2].
Some of them list the pieces of armour worn by the different
classes of infantry and cavalry soldiers. From these sources [3] it is
clear that arm and leg armour was not worn by infantry soldiers at
all.
2. Descriptions in the military manuals
The hoplitai (heavy infantry) who formed the bulk of the foot soldiers were deployed en masse in pike blocks. Essentially
a mobile fortress for the offensive cavalry arm to sally from and retire to, they would engage in close combat only as a
last resort. Relying mainly on their large shields and a forest of points for protection, they wore a coat (kabadion) padded
with raw silk or cotton. In the first half of the 10th c. the sleeves of this coat extended to the wrist, providing some
protection for the lower arm. Later, the sleeves were shortened toward elbow length. In both cases the sleeves were slit and
buttoned so they could be folded back, presumably to prevent overheating on the march. They did not even have metal
helmets - only a thick felt cap (kamelaukion) worn under a turban (phakiolion). The infantry wore boots, which could be
supple and thigh-length, or thick (doubled) and knee-length, providing some leg protection.
The kaballarioi or ordinary cavalry wore helmets (kassidia) and a short klibanion (lamellar corslet) or lorikon (mail shirt),
legs were unprotected except again by boots, and speculatively by padded hose (toubia) [4]. Mounted archers also had
belted kabadia, padded coats with long and full skirts [5] screening their legs (and the flanks of their horse), probably as
they were not able to use their shield as cover from missiles while using the bow.
Around 950 a superheavy cavalry unit was formed - the klibanophori or kataphraktoi. Their entire body, and their horses as
well were armoured. Over their lamellar klibanion, which had elbow-length sleeves (manikia), they wore
an epilorikon,which was a padded surcoat. Their iron helmets (kassidas sideras) had doubled or tripled zabai (screens, of

mail?) covering the whole face except the eyes. Both lower arms and thighs were protected by thickly padded silk or cotton
guards, called manikelia [6] for the arms, and kremasmata for the legs, but reinforced by zabai, here possibly meaning
panels of mail [7] or strips/plates of leather or horn (or possibly metal). On the lower leg greaves (chalkotoubai) were worn
- their construction is not described and the term is a transference of an ancient one, originally referring to the solid bronze
ones worn by classical Greek hoplites.

3. Armour of the Emperors Varangians

The Varangians were an infantry unit, though of course an elite one. As they are not mentioned in the Byzantine manuals,
we can only guess that they were provided with somewhat better armour than the ordinary infantry. There is some later
evidence that they were a mounted infantry unit like English huscarls - that is, they rode to battle but fought on foot, as at
Dyrrhachion in 1081 [8]. This might allow them to have armour as heavy as the normal cavalryman - i.e. an iron helmet
and mail coat [9] or lamellar corslet. According to Anna Komnena [10], fatigue from their rapid advance and weight of
their armour contributed to their defeat by Robert Guiscards forces at Dyrrhachion.

4. Splinted armour and the Varangians

There are no archaeological remains of any arm and leg armours from Byzantium itself. Despite this, many popular works
present splinted limb armour as typically Byzantine, but in reality there is only a little evidence from art of the period to
suggest that splinted limb defenses could have been in use in the Balkans-Asia Minor region during the middle period of
the Empire (see below).
Given this lack of information, what then is behind the popular and ingrained depiction [11] of Varangian guardsmen
wearing splints on their arms and legs?
Several burials of fully equipped warriors have been excavated in Sweden, at Vendel and Valsgrde. One mound
(Valsgrde, grave 8) included splint-and-mail armour for one arm and both legs (see Catalogue, no. 2).
Authors and illustrators inspired by mentions of limb armour in the Byzantine military manuals (which, as we have already
seen, actually bear no relevance to infantry equipment) seem to have seized on this Scandinavian find to kit out their vision
of the Viking troops of the Empires best known battalion. Unfortunately the Valsgrde panoply dates to 635-650, long
before the Viking age, thus it can have no connection to the Varangian Guard.

5. Is there any evidence for the construction of

limb armour used in 10-11th c. Byzantium?
The manikelia of the kataphraktoi are described as being
made of coarse silk or cotton as thick as can be stitched
together [12]. Perhaps these [13] are the type of vambraces
worn by Goliath in a well-known 10th c. Armenian
carving(Fig. 1):
Figure 1 - Goliath, sculpted relief on exterior of the
Church of the Holy Cross, Aghtamar (Akdamar Adas)
in Lake Van, eastern Turkey. Armenian, 915-921.
(source: Wikimedia Commons).

Earlier manuals do mention different armour for arms and

legs, but provide no detail beyond a name and the materials
that could be used: for example in Leo VIs Taktika [14]
armguards (manikellia or cheiropsella) and
greaves(podopsella or chalkotouba) could be made of iron or
wood [15].
Returning to the question of possible use of splinted armour
in middle-era Byzantium: the neighbouring Khazar
khaganate was very advanced militarily, for example
supplementing mail or lamellar armour with large iron plates
as early as the 8-9th c. (see Catalogue, 4). It would not be
surprising if relations with Khazaria influenced development
of arms in either or both Byzantium [16] and Rus. Some
parts of splinted limb defenses dated to the 9-10th c. were
discovered in the Northern Caucasus near Pyatigorsk
(modern-day Russia: see Catalogue, 5).

A well-known depiction on a jug from

the Nagyszentmikls treasure [17] shows
a Khazarian-style mounted warrior with
splinted vambraces and greaves (Fig. 2):
Figure 2 - Mounted warrior, on Jug 2
from the Nagyszentmikls treasure
(Romania) in the Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna.
(source: Lsl and Rcz, p.54).

Enough detail is shown to speculate that

they are made of tapered strips fitted
together and edged with leather bindings,
resembling a pair of splinted greaves
excavated from a 5th c. BC Scythian [18]
tomb at Nymphaeum in the Crimea
(seeCatalogue, 1).
The illuminated Synopsis Historion of
Iohannes Skylitzes [19] has a depiction
of cavalryman with leg armour which has
been described as splints in one
publication [20], but with a clearer image
it is seen to actually be made of smaller
elements, like scales or lamellae (Fig.
3a).
A second rider in the same scene
confirms this (Fig. 3b):

Figure 3a - Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 195v. detail - Georgian

ruler George I retreating before the Byzantine army
commanded by Emperor Basil II, an event of 1021-22.

Figure 3b - Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 195v. detail - at the rear

of the pursuing forces, Basil II wears similar leg armour
to George I.

(source: Wikimedia Commons).

(source: Wikimedia Commons).

A series of luxury ivory ikons showing the Deesis (Christ enthroned with intercessors, here including rows of saints and
martyrs) was produced in Constantinople over the course of a century [21]. The Harbaville Triptych is the latest known
in the series (Fig. 4). The armoured military saints have petals at the top of their boots or leggings - realistic detail or
artistic flourish? Perhaps these are the tops of splinted greaves worn beneath the footwear...

Figure 4 - Military saints on the Harbaville Triptych: carved ivory ikon, Constantinople mid 11th c. Left, detail the two Saints Theodoros, teron and stratelates. Right, detail - Saints Georgios and Eustathios.
(source: Wikimedia Commons).

6. In conclusion - authentic limb armour for re-enactment combat

Only specialised troops wore limb defenses in this period. Apart from the klibanophorii already mentioned, Kolias [22]
gives an example of how transport ships were equipped for the invasion of Crete in 949 - although there was body and head
armour for up to 140 men per vessel, only 8 pairs of cheiropsella were included [23], plausibly just for the helmsmen and
fire-siphon operators. Unless recreating special units it seems limb protection (whether splint armour or otherwise) is not
appropriate for accurate representation of the typical Byzantine soldier [24].

Historic clothing by itself can have distinct protective value [25], but it is good to have extra armour of some kind for
safety in our reenactment foot combats [26]. In Miklagard NVG, the preference should be to have arm and leg protection
hidden underneath clothing. Thus we can look authentic, but suffer less bruises!
As there is no specific authentic source to follow for Varangian guardsman, the second-best option may be to look to
Byzantine military texts of the period and make the manikelia of composite construction they describe. The obvious
drawback is that there are no original examples to copy.
Splinted armour is probably the next best choice. We have both archaeological and iconographic evidence that it was used
by neighbouring cultures in the period, so it is reasonable to suppose that it transferred to Byzantium, although we have no
firm proof.
Finally, copy a bazuband, or other similar pre-modern protection as your inspiration - at least it will be a functional design
tested in battle, but make sure any materials, technology or artistic embellishments (such as an engraved pattern) that would
mark it as anachronistic are replaced by those from our culture and period. Keep it unobtrusive, and if asked, make sure you
point out to new members and public that it is a non-authentic piece of gear worn for safety reasons.

A catalogue of early medieval limb armours

and comparative material

1. Splinted greave from Nymphaeum (Crimean peninsula), Ukraine.

Date: 5th c. BC.
Find: Assigned to Tomb VI of an uncontrolled excavation of Scythian tumuli.

Figure 5 - Nymphaeum, splinted bronze greave. (source: Vickers, Pl. XVI-b).

Description: Only one of the pair excavated still survives. Total length 20.4 cm, the narrower end is shaped
(to fit over the foot?). It is made of thirteen tapered bronze splints joined to each other with bronze wire
staples through paired holes in a staggered arrangement, this also serves to hold them to a leather backing
(sheep/goatskin). The splints look like they overlap and their exposed edges appear to be turned under
slightly. All edges were bound with a strip of calfskin, for which closely spaced holes were punched
through the metal, though the leather is well preserved whatever lacing was used appears to have perished.
In use the greave probably was slipped inside a boot or legging. According to Vickers description, there are
no traces of straps for attaching it to the leg, but he does not account for large holes at each corner at the
narrow end which clearly show in the photograph - see Fig. 5.
Held: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK.
References: Vickers, p.45.

2. Splinted limb armour from Valsgrde, Uppland, Sweden.

Date: 635-650AD.
Find: Grave 8 - richly furnished boat grave of a Migration Age Germanic warrior including a helmet, and
mail and splint armour (Fig. 6), and including equestrian equipment.

Figure 6 - Reconstruction of Valsgrde 8

Figure 7 - Valsgrde 8, splints of Group 1
panoply. (source: Engstrm, fig. 6).
armguard. (drawing: PB, after Arwidsson 1954 pl. 7).
Description: The armour had been folded up and stored together in a wooden casket in the burial. A total of
21 iron splints and fragments of leather straps which originally connected them were found. The splints
could be sorted into three groups of seven each, based on length and number of straps. Group 1 (Fig.
7)were the shortest (23.5 to 27.4 cm), and were riveted by 1 or 2 domed bronze nails to two thin straps (1.5
cm wide). Five splints were broad and tapered while the other two were narrow and more or less even
width. Each was bent upward at the wide end while their narrow end is formed into a dragon-head with
features outlined in slight relief, a small iron ring is inserted through each nostril. The wider splints are
otherwise unembellished while the narrow ones are covered in cross-wise grooves.

Figure 8 - Valsgrde 8, splints of Group 2 left

leg. (drawing: PB, after Arwidsson 1954 pl. 8).

Figure 9 - Valsgrde 8, splints of Group 3 right

leg. (drawing: PB, after Arwidsson 1954 pl. 9).

Group 2 (Fig. 8) were 33-34 cm long, all more-or-less rectangular with a slight taper, though one has one
scalloped and one straight edge. Both ends are slightly bent outward. There are four broad splints which
have a pair of lines cut parallel to the edges, alternating with three narrower ones which are again marked
with (diagonal) hatching. At the narrower end are from 2 to 4 holes for rings linking them to a mail
garment. Though they all have five matching rows of 2, 3 or 4 bronze rivets, only the top, middle and
bottom rows were functional, attaching them to three leather staps (1.2 to 1.6 cm width).
Group 3 (Fig. 9) is pretty much a mirror-image of
Group 2, though slightly longer (35.5 to 36.7 cm) and
the system for attaching them to mail differs - the end
of each splint is bent over and has notches filed into it,
wherein the rings are fitted and held in place with a
piece of wire (Fig. 10):
Figure 10 - Valsgrde 8, attachment of mail to
splints (left) Groups 1 & 2;(right) Group 3 (source:
Arwidsson 1954, fig. 19).

Group 1 is currently interpreted as a forearm guard with attached mail hand protection, and Groups 2 & 3 as
shin guards with attached mail foot protection. Also found were two small bronze buckles and six small iron
buckles, which fastened the straps of the arm and leg armour respectively.
Held: Gustavianum, Uppsala University Sweden.
References: Arwidsson (1939 & 1954); Engstrm.

3. Armoured gauntlet(s) from Langobardic cemetary at Castel Trosino, central Italy.

Date: 7th c. AD.
Find: Grave 119 - tomb of a fully equipped warrior, including Avar or Byzantine lamellar corselet and
helmet.
Description: A small rectangular patch of mail that apparently covered the back of the hand. Whatever it
was attached to (leather glove?) has disappeared. Size about 11 by 8 cm, made of several rows of round
section mail. Two similar are displayed seperately in the museum, but it is not clear if both originated in
grave 119.
Held: Museo nazionale dell Alto Medioevo, Rome (pers. obs. 1994).

4. Plate greave(s) from Kuban or Khazar cemetary at Borisov, Russia.

Date: 8-9th c. AD.
Find: Burial near Gelendzhik, in Krasnodar krai on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea (modern-day
Russia). A helmet; mail armour; greave(s); two arm/shoulder guards; and weapons were placed together in
a large pot.

Figure 11 - Borisov, greave: (left) front

plate; (right) rear plate. (drawing:
PB);(below) reconstruction as tubular
greave.(source: Gorelik, pl. XI-5).

Description: Iron armour for lower leg, made of

anatomically-formed solid plates. Fragment 1 (Fig. 11,
left) protected the shin - a narrow but solid strip with
pronounced V section; the top end expands slightly to a
T-shape and the lower end curves outward near the
ankle; along the sides six pairs of lugs to which (a)
poorly-preserved thinner plate(s) is/are attached with
prominent rivets. Fragment 2 (Fig. 11, right) from the
rear, a single thin plate, anatomically moulded as the calf
muscle. In its current state it would reach only part way
around to the back of the leg - possibly an accident of
preservation (or was it designed to protect only the
exposed outer side of the calf?); some holes, which may
be attachment points (or just corrosion) - according to
Gorelik the front and back parts were joined by loops on
the outer side of the leg and straps on the inside
(reconstruction - Fig. 11, below).
Held: Not known, possibly Moscow Historical Museum.
References: Exhibition - Horse and Rider at Muse
Guimet (Muse nationale des arts Asiatiques, Paris),
2003, documented with photographs on the Tozhe Gorod
website ; Gorelik, p.135, plate IX-5 ; Nicolle & McBride
[27], p.11, 45.
Comment: Similar greaves are seen in Chinese paintings
of the period, possibly their ultimate source [27]. Viewed
in this context a slightly earlier painting of an armoured
equestrian figure from the Central Asian kingdom of
Sogdia (Fig. 12) might conceivably show solid
armguards of semicylindrical plates, an early ancestor of
the bazuband:

Figure 12 - Part of wooden shield covered with painted parchment, width 61 cm [27]. Qalai Mugh
(120km east of Samarkhand, modern-day Tajikistan), Sogdian, 7-8th c.

5. Parts of Khazarian splint armour from Koz'i Skaly, Russia.

Date: 9-10th c. AD?
Find: Various pieces of Khazarian armour plus weapons found on Koz'i Skaly, a peak of Mount Beshtau in
Stavropolsky krai, near Pyatigorsk (in modern-day Russia).

Figure 13 - Koz'i Skaly: (above) splint from vambrace; (below) splint from greaves.
(source: Kuznetsov & Rudnicki).

Description: Only one large splint from a greave and one smaller from a vambrace are shown (Fig. 13).
Both appear to have been riveted to pairs of leather straps (a similar construction to Catalogue, 2). The

greave splint is reflexively curved which could conceivably fit a rider in bent-legged position but seems
impractical for standing - possibly this is post-depositional damage. The vambrace broadens at both ends
and is bent out, presumably to accomodate the joints.
Held: not known.
References: Kuznetsov & Rudnicki; Gorelik, p.140, plate IX-5. Acknowledgements to Tozhe Forum
internet forum.

Got some other examples? Please let me know!

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NOTES
[1] The year of the formal inauguration of the Imperial Varangians guard unit is debatable, the mainstream position is 988 (eg. Franklin & Cutler)
but anyway it is likely to be within a couple of decades either side of 1000. PB (back)
[2] I acknowledge of course that the label Byzantine Empire is a neologism, and its inhabitants justifiably called themselvesRhomaioi, Romans,
not Byzantines. With due respect to modern scholars who prefer to use more accurate terms like Rhomania, or the continuing Eastern Roman
Empire, I have used the more generally familiar Byzantium, which thanks to their efforts is now largely devoid of the negative associations it
used to conjure. PB. (back)

[3] Most relevant information comes from two manuals:

1. Nikephoros II Phokas (Emperor), c.965: Stratigiki Ekthesis kai Syntaxis Nikephorou Despotou (Presentation and Composition on Warfare of the
Emperor Nikephoros); commonly referred to as Praecepta Militaria; for Greek text and English translation see McGeer, p.12-59.
2. Anonymus, c.950: Sylloge Taktikon (Compendium of Tactics); Greek text - Dain; no full translation in English is available (J. Haldon, in
prep.?); some extracts discussed in McGeer. (back)
[4] Dawson, p.83. Although padded toubia (probably those called kamptotoubia: Gk. kampos = country or rustic) are not specified in the military
texts, they are described in a Byzantine dream interpretation book, the Oneirokritikon of Achmet, c.10th c., 242: From the Persians, concerning
shoes, toubia, and trousers - ... if the toubia and their padding were made of wool, <the dreamer> will effortlessly get proportionate wealth from
an official; if of cotton, he will aquire wealth from a gracious homeowner; if of raw silk, the wealth will be less but more splendid. Oberhelman,
p.216-7. See also footnote 25. (back)
[5] Dawson, p.87. (back)
[6] Alternatively called cheiropsella in Nikephoros Ouranos Taktikon of c.1000 (60), which here mostly follows the earlierPraecepta (see note
3 above) in its descriptions. McGeer, p.114-15. (back)
[7] For an instructive, though early example of this type of zaba, see Catalogue, 3 - but note that at the time when this item was
deposited, zaba designated an entire coat of mail: Haldon, p.24. (back)
[8] Anna Komnene (princess) c.1150, Alexiad, Book IV-vi. Sewter, p.146. (back)
[9] By 1066 the Norwegian king Harald hardrada owned an unusually long and strong coat of mail dubbed Emma, reaching below the knee (King
Haralds Saga, ch.91: Magnusson and Plsson, p.151). No source, however, states that he obtained it during his Byzantine service (c.1035-44), and
there is no compelling reason to suspect so - it must after all be the royal perogative to have the finest equipment in any case! PB. (back)
[10] Alexiad, Book IV-vi. Sewter, p.147. (back)
[11] Heath, p.38, Plate F. (back)
[12] Praecepta Militaria ,4: McGeer, p.34-5. (back)
[13] Alternatively they could be constructed of laminated metal plates with leather edge bindings, like a partial 3rd c. limb defence (James, cat. no.
446) from Dura Europos, Syria - this is a late witness to the strong tradition of laminated armour use in late Hellenistic and imperial Roman armies
(James, p.126-28), but it seems there was no continuity into our period. It is generally believed that laminated construction was reintroduced into
Europe by the 13th c. Mongol incursions - for this, and for evidence of laminated armour in pre-Mongol Rus, see Kirpitchnikov, p.15-18;
Medvedev, p.175-182. (back)
[14] c.900. Commonly referred to as the Tactica of Leo the Wise, Emperor Leo VI wrote Ton en Polemois Taktikon Syntomos Paradosis (Short
Instruction of the Tactics of War), intending it to be a practical manual. Although he sought the advice of his generals, he mostly rehashes
Maurikos Strategikon (early 7th c.) and Classical military manuals, so it may not reflect the then current practise of warfare. For Greek text and
English translation, see Dennis. (back)
[15] When describing the skoutatos heavy infantry equipment (Constitution VI, 21: Dennis, p.92-3) Leo gives these two names for armguards,
which are generically called cheiromanika, to be made of iron or wood. It is not clear whether these are actually two different types of armguard,
and if so that the distinction was due to the materials they were made of - though, if the given order of names matches that of the materials, it
contradicts the definition provided at Const. VI,3 where he indicates that cavalrymanscheiropsella are cheiromanika sidera, iron armguards
(Dennis, p.84-85). Likewise the two names for greaves (generically calledperiknemidas). Given the natural properties of wood, splints are probably
the most practical construction in this material. PB. (back)
[16] The two armies may anyway have not been much different - the Roman system of antiquity had already been completely transformed by
adoption of steppe tactics and equipment from the Huns, then the Avars (Luttwak, p.56-9). One possible example of transfer of Khazar military
innovation is shield fences around encampments (noted by Abu Said Gardizi, an 11th c. Persian historian drawing on 9th c. sources: Gorelik,
p.140), also used by the Byzantines from the 10th c. (the skoutaroma: McGeer, p.350). PB. (back)

[17] A disputed set of gold tableware discovered in modern-day Romania, and displaying features of Sassanian Persian, Byzantine and Central
Asian art - different authorities have assigned it to the Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars or Hungarians, with dates ranging from the 6th to the end of the
10th century. Held - Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria). (back)
[18] The Scythians probably invented splint armour, which is well-attested both in art of the period and in the archaeological record. PB. (back)
[19] Currently scholarly consensus holds that the ms. was produced in southern Italy (Palermo?), and should be dated 1150-75 (Anderson,
1997). Held - Biblioteca Nacionale, Madrid (Vitr. 26-2). (back)
[20] Heath, p.11. (back)
[21] The Harbaville triptych is held in the Louvre, Paris (inv. no. OA 3247: Kalavrezou 1997, cat. no. 80). The series prototype is held in the
Palazzo Venezia (Venice), dated c.950. A third triptych of intermediate date is kept at the Vatican (Museo Sancta della Biblioteca Apostolia: inv.
no. 2441: Kalavrezou 1997, cat. no. 79). (back)
[22] Kolias, p.65-9. (back)
[23] The expedition which took place against the island of Crete and the arming of both the ships and the cavalry under Constantine and Romanos,
the Emperors born in the purple, faithful in Christ, in indiction seven, recorded by Constantine VIIPorphyrogennitos c.949, incorporated in de
Cerimoniis. Note that in this troop transport role, the dromons crew plus passengers totalled 300. Pryor & Jeffreys, [b].II 1-22 (p.556-7). (back)
[24] The very untypical (and legendary) Byzantine hero Digenis Akritis disdained to don armour, whether fighting men (even whole armies!), beasts
or monsters - so it is interesting that he wears his manikin (bracers) when fencing with a most dangerous band of outlaws (Digenis, Grottaferrata
version Book 6: Jeffreys, p.161). Although the setting of Digenis is the Arab-Byzantine frontier of the 9-10th c. our earliest known version was
written c.1300, and it incorporates some later material (Jeffreys, p.xli). (back)
[25] For example, the experience of a Kurdish huntsman, witnessed and related by ibn-Munqidh (Syrian, c.12th): The lion came towards Zahr-alDawlah while he lay prostrate on the ground. He lifted his leg high and the lion bit at it. We rushed at the lion, killed it and pulled the man out safe
and sound. Then we said to him, O Zahr-al-Dawlah, why didst thou lift thy leg to the mouth of the lion? He replied: My body, as you see it, is
thin and lean; and I have on me only a garment and a tunic. There is nothing in me better clothed than my foot, with its stockings, boots and
leggings. I therefore thought that I would keep the lion busy with it rather than my ribs, hand or head until such time as Allah (exalted is he!) should
provide relief. (from Hitti, p.116).
A silk-covered kaftan excavated from 8-9th c. Alanic graves at Moschevaya Balka (northwestern Caucasus) had two interlayers in the sleeves = silk
outer / raw linen / leather / linen lining (Hermitage, St. Petersburg: inv. no. Kz 6733: Ierusalimskaja & Borkopp, cat. no. 3, p.22-23). (back)
[26] There is no mention of soldiers wearing gloves in any source either, but it would be extremely unwise for us to go without these!
Possibly manikelia incorporated protection for the hands as well as lower arms? PB. (back)
[27] In this reference the location is called Gendjik or Tuapse, and the reconstruction is different, but it is almost certainly the Borisov find. (back)
[28] Source: Fine Art Images (back)
Armour in Byzantium in the early years of the Varangian Guard, with special reference to limb defenses, written and webbed by Peter Beatson.
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