TPG4175

Petrophysics
Resistivity
Laterolog tools
Induction tools
Micro-resistivity tools

Corrections

Well log measurements

Nuclear
(Natural) Gamma Ray
Natural Spectral Gamma
Bulk Density (and Pef)
Neutron Porosity
Induced Gamma Spectrometry

Resistivity
Induction
Laterolog
Micro(latero)log

Dielectric dispersion
Spontaneous Potential

Acoustic (=sonic)
Sampling and testing
Sidewall coring
Fluid pressure testing
Fluid sampling

Micro Imaging and dipmeter

Seismic
Miscellaneous
Caliper
Temperature

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Definition of formation resistivity

Formation Resistivity, R, is a
material property
It is usually referred to as Rt in
equations
All resistivity tools are calibrated
to read formation resistivity in
Ohm meters

If Rt = 10 ohm meters (ohm m)

then one cubic meter of this
formation will have a resistance of
10 ohms across opposite faces
3

Resistivity log for hydrocarbon identification

Formation resistivity (Rt) is a function of

porosity (), water salinity (Rw) and water saturation (Sw)

Quantitative Resistivity
=1, Sw=1:

<1, Sw=1:

<1, Sw<1:

= =

= = =

where a, m and n are experimental/empirical constants for a given formation

6

Archies equation

=

Rearranged:

where
a lithology coefficient
m cementation exponent
n saturation exponent a function of HC distribution
Rw resistivity of the formation water
Sw water saturation
formation porosity
Rt true formation resistivity = deep log reading

Measuring formation resistivity from a borehole

Drilling process complicates

measuring resistivity

Potentially deep invasion

Tools must see a huge volume

of formation

Measurements of Rt are upset

by:
Borehole
Invaded zone
Adjacent bed (Shoulder bed)

Rxo, Rmf, Sxo are invaded zone equivalents of Rt, Rw, Sw

Pore fluids in the formation (model)

Uninvaded (virgin) zone:
Sw (= Sw,irr)
Rt
Rw

Invaded (flushed) zone:

Sxo
Rxo
Rmf
9

Resistivity overview
Computing saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity
Measuring resistivity

The borehole environment

Electrode resistivity tools (eg. Short Normal and Laterologs)
Induction resistivity tools
Propagation resistivity tools
Micro-resistivity tools
Correcting resistivity for borehole, invasion and formation effects

10

Electrode resistivity tools - principle

=
4

= 4 =

11

Single electrode sitting in a borehole

12

Electrode resistivity tools Normal device

The Short Normal tool is an

early implementation of the
principle to measure Rt
A: current electrode
M: measure electrode

Short Normal = 16
Long Normal = 64
13

Electrode resistivity tools Shortcomings of

the normal device

Currents paths in a very

conductive borehole

Currents paths in front of a

thin resistive bed (Rt>>Rs)
14

Electrode resistivity tools Normal device

15

Electrode resistivity tools Lateral device

Lateral devices attempt to
improve on some of the
shortcomings of the
normal device but still
suffer from unwanted
effects

16

Electrode resistivity tools Focused devices

17

Resistivity model
dsf

18

Laterolog Tool Focusing

In the downhole situation if the formation
resistivity gets high, Short Normal
measurement currents will flow up the
borehole instead of into the formation and all
we will measure will be the mud in the
borehole.
In order to measure the resistivity of the
formation the measure current must be forced
to flow in the formation. This is known as
focusing.
The term Laterolog came about because the
current is forced to flow laterally away from
the tool.
19

Laterolog Deep (LLD) and Shallow (LSS)

Current flows out the central
electrode A0 and flows laterally away
from the tool into the formation
(measure current)
Currents from electrodes A1 (bucking
current) focus the measurement for
the laterolog shallow (LLS)
Currents from both A1 and A2
electrodes focus the measurement
for the laterolog deep (LLD)
This forces the LLD current deeper
into the formation compared to LLS,
so it is more likely to read the
uninvaded zone
20

Laterolog Deep (LLD) and Shallow (LSS)

Current flows out the central
electrode A0 and flows laterally away
from the tool into the formation
Currents from electrodes A1 focus
the measurement for the laterolog
shallow (LLS)
Currents from both A1 and A2
electrodes focus the measurement
for the laterolog deep (LLD)
This forces the LLD current deeper
into the formation compared to LLS,
so it is more likely to read the
uninvaded zone
21

Dual Laterolog Tool (DLT) log example

22

Newer Array Laterolog tools

23

Array Laterolog (HRLA) radial response to invasion

Plot of 5 Array laterolog
resistivity curves (RLA5,
RLA4, RLA3, RLA2, RLA1)
showing different effects of
mud filtrate invasion. The 5
curves are all affected, but
have different sensitivites
to the invasion
(The plot is also showing
LLD and LLS curves from a
Dual Laterolog tool)
The 5 RLAn measurements
are combined to calculate
Rt, Rxo, di
24

Array laterolog computes invasion depth, Rxo and Rt

25

Multiple spacing array laterolog - summary

Formation
model for 1D
inversion

Formation
model for 2D
inversion

5 independent resistivity measurements

(RLA1,...RLA5)
Increased vertical resolution
Clearer indication of invasion
No Groningen effect, as no current is
returned to surface
Processing: 1D inversion assumes radial
resistivity variations and infinitely thick
beds to compute Rt, Rxo, di
Processing: Layer-definition followed by
2D inversion to yield Rt, Rxo, di. The
model allows for variations in hole size,
bed thickness and invasion
Enough information is acquired to invert
for Rt when both shoulder beds and
invasion is present
More accurate computation of Rt!
26

Log example: HRLA and DLL

Comparison between HighResolution Laterolog Array and
Dual Laterolog
HRLA shows improved vertical
resolution and no Groningen
effect
Remember: these logs display the
tool measured resistivities, NOT
actual formation Rt and Rxo! Rt is
computed after corrections for
borehole, invasion and shoulder
beds.

27

Laterolog Logging Quality Control - summary

The tools should not be used in fresh muds (Rmf>2.5)
Good centralization is required to minimize borehole influence on the
shallower laterolog measurements
The deep laterolog is only slightly affected by washed out holes
If invasion is deep, a good value of Rxo (eg. from a Micro-Spherically
Focused Log) is required to correct LLD for invasion influence to obtain an
accurate value of Rt. Array laterologs do not need Rxo to compute Rt as
they have enough shallow arrays to measure invasion
Good repeatability should always be seen
In permable zones with Rmf<Rw, should see Rxo<Rshallow<Rdeep
The amount of separation between deep and shallow curves depends on
depth of invasion, relative values of Rmf and Rw, and the filtrate and water
saturations
In impermable zones, all resistivity curves should overlay
28

Resistivity overview
Computing saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity
Measuring resistivity

The borehole environment

Electrode resistivity tools (eg. Short Normal, Laterologs)
Induction resistivity tools
Propagation resistivity tools
Micro-resistivity tools
Correcting resistivity for borehole, invasion and formation effects

29

Induction Measurement principle

IT Transmitter current signal, with
a known frequency (tool
frequency)
This current, IT, induces a
magnetic field, which in turn
induces a current IL in the
formation loop
The formation loop activated by
current IL induces a magnetic field,
which induces an electromagnetic
force, emf, at the receiver coil
The formation signal picked up at
the receiver coil is small and
needs to be separated from the
direct coupling from the
30
transmitter

Electromagnetic field around a transmitter

Introduce a receiver coil at
distance L from transmitter
Spacing L will determine the
volume of investigation
Formation current induces
voltage in receiver coil
V in the receiver coil is
proportional to formation
conductivity ()

31

Factors affecting the induction response

Skin effect

Mutual inductance

Direct coupling

The difference between the theoretical R-signal and the

actual is due to the skin effect, direct coupling, and
mutual inductance and is called the X-signal. Because
we know what the phase of the R-signal is we can
measure the phase and magnitude of the X-signal and
directly correct for skin effect, direct coupling, and
mutual inductance. These corrections are routinely
applied by tool software.
In addition we correct for the environmental effects of:
Borehole
Shoulder beds
Invasion
(see discussion further down)
32

Skin effect
As current frequency
increases, the current flow
moves towards the outer
circumference (or skin) of an
electrical conductor.
Skin effect lowers the
apparent conductivity
measurement. This means
the resistivity measured by
the tool is higher than the
actual resistivity. This effect
increases with formation
conductivity.
Measured conductivity
needs to be corrected for
skin effect to create a linear
response
33

Mutual inductance
The magnetic fields
created by the individual
ground loops interact with
each other, changing the
magnitude and phase of
the received signal

34

Total induction signal is the sum of individual

ground loops

Signal coming from a single

ground loop is a function of the
geometry of the coil position,
and the conductivity of that
particular ground loop

Total signal at receiver is the

sum of all the individual ground
loops
35

Source of the Geometrical Factor

With all the ground loops in place, we can see the contribution of each ground
loop in the received signal. This is called the Geometrical Factor, or Response
Function, and each contribution is a function of the position of the ground
loop, and the conductivity of the medium.
36

Born response function of a two coil array

Total signal can be
represented
mathmatically by the
geometrical factor (as
defined by Max Born). It
represents the relative
contribution of each point
(, z) to the total signal.
Ideally want to focus
response to the
uninvaded formation
away from the borehole.

37

Born response of a 3 coil array

38

Dual Induction measurement focused by

hardware only
A combination of differently
spaced coils is used to focus
the induction response to a
deep depth of investigation
(ILD) and a medium depth of
investigation (ILM)
The tool was used to give
inputs to software focusing
(Phasor Induction), to
remove some sensitivity to
shoulder beds, and improve
vertical resolution
50% of reading comes from within the
defined Depth of Investigation (DOI)
For ILD it is about 60/ for ILM it is about 30

39

Dual Induction log example

Dual Induction logs routinely deliver a
Deep and a Medium Induction reading
Note that a Spherically Focused Log
(SFL) is also delivered with Dual
Induction logs to investigate the shallow
resistivity zone
However the SFL uses a laterolog
(resistivity) principle, and does not
always give a reliable invasion profile
when compared to induction logs
(different principles of measurement)
SFL is no longer provided with newer
induction logs (Array Induction) as the
shallow information now comes from
short spacing induction arrays
40

Dual Induction Summary

The Dual Induction is most effective when used in holes
drilled with moderately conductive mud (Rm>0.1) and where
Rmf/Rw>2.5. Borehole corrections become important if hole
becomes large and/or salty.
Vertical resolution of ILD is not particularly good ( 7 ft),
(ILM: 5 ft), reliable values of Rt may be obtained where bed
thickness is >4 meters. Better resolution is available with the
software Phasor processing. (Charts exist to correct for
shoulder beds where needed).
As this tool measures formation conductivity and converts the
values to resistivity, results are most accurate in zones of low
resistivity where the formation signal is large:
Resistivity = 1 m Conductivity = 1000 mS
Resistivity = 50 m Conductivity = 20 mS
41

Dual Induction Summary

The recording of three curves which investigate different
amounts of formation volume enable us to study invasion
profiles, and where invasion is deep, to make a correction to
obtain Rt. This correction is not automatic, it needs to be
made using charts (discussed later).
The newer generation of Induction Tools (Array Induction
Tools) allows for automated borehole, invasion and shoulder
bed corrections. The Array Induction is now the standard
induction tool run in most wells.

42

Array Induction Tools

Modern Induction tools have large
receiver arrays
8 arrays separated by increasing
distances (f.ex 6 to 6)
Depths of investigation range from
borehole to deep in the formation
Resistivity logs formed as weighted
superposition of raw array
measurements, to focus the response
in the desired location (depth into
formation)
43

AIT concept

44

Array Induction output curves

Different sets of weights are computed depending in the required Depth of
Investigation (DOI) and Vertical Resolution
For the Array Induction, these sets of weights deliver resistivity curves at 5
depths of investigation (90, 60, 30, 20, 10)
Each of these 5 curves is available at a vertical resolution of 1, 2 and 4

45

Array Induction Log examples

This log shows the Array

Induction as compared
with the most advanced
Dual Induction tool (w/
Phasor software
enhancement)

46

Vertical Resolution Thin Bed detection

47

Borehole correction
Circular hole assumed
Array Induction can solve for 2 of
3 parameters (min. 1 parameter to
be input by engineer):
Rm
Hole size
Standoff

These corrections are done at the

time the log is acquired, and are
routinely applied. Check log for
parameter settings!
48

Invasion interpretation
The 5 resistivity curves (AIT)
are used as input to an
invasion model
Any of these models can be
used with AIT logs to deliver
Rt (as well as Rxo and
invasion profile)
We normally use the slope
(or ramp) profile, which
defines an inner and outer
invasion diameter (r1 & r2)
49

Obtaining Rt and Rxo from Array Induction Tool

(AIT)
Set of AIT logs run in OBM
Rt and Rxo are derived from
the 5 resistivity curves using
an inversion
The model selected to
deliver Rt and Rxo used the
four-parameter model
(solving for Rt, Rxo, r1, r2)

50

Using r1 and r2 to profile invasion

Sometimes the r1 and r2 can
provide useful information on
invasion. The invaded volumes
computed here show an
increase with depth
This shows partial fluid gravity
segregation (heavier fluid
moves down in the formation)
The results could be used to
plan sampling points using a
formation tester

51

Automated delivery of borehole corrected Rt

from Array Induction Tool
A Borehole correction done,
imposing knowledge of at least
1 of 3 unknowns: caliper,
standoff, Rm
B Software focusing of raw
coil data delivers resistivities at
5 different DOI, and 3 different
vertical resolutions

52

53

Array Induction Tool Applications and

Limitations
APPLICATION

Good vertical resolution (down to 12) with minimal shoulder bed effect
Large depth of investigation (90/228cm), well beyond the invaded zone
Borehole effects well corrected, except in large holes with salty muds
Robust estimation of Rt, correcting for invasion effects
Ideal measurement in low resistivity formations and when Rxo > Rt

LIMITATIONS

Poor accuracy in high resistivity formations (>500 ohm m)

Reduced accuracy when Rxo << Rt
Cannot easily resolve Rt in thin beds (bed thickness < 12)
Influenced by highly dipping beds

Note: the last two points are now resolved with a tri-axial coil induction tool
that measures horizontal and vertical resistivity, and formation dip

54

Rt Scanner Triaxial Induction/Dipmeter tool

Products:
AIT-style logs
Rvertical, Rhorizontal
Structural dip

55

Resistivity tool types - summary

Two main types of resistivity tools:
Laterolog tools:
Normally used in conductive boreholes incl. saline to salt saturated mud
systems
Cannot work in non-conductive muds (eg. OBM)

Induction tools:
Often used in non-conductive boreholes: fresh mud systems, OBM, airfilled holes
Can work in all mud types, but less reliable in very conductive muds

56

Laterolog and Induction

57

Laterolog or Induction which one to use?

58

Array Induction and Laterolog range of

application

59

Resistivity overview
Computing saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity
Measuring resistivity

The borehole environment

Electrode resistivity tools (eg. Short Normal, Laterologs)
Induction resistivity tools
Propagation resistivity tools
Micro-resistivity tools
Correcting resistivity for borehole, invasion and formation effects

60

Invaded zone resistivity measurement

61

Why measure parameters in the invaded

zone?
(1) We need Rxo to correct the invasion effects on deep
resistivity reading tools to obtain Rt
(2) Indications of fluid displacements and the diameter of
invasion (di) are good signs that the formation is permeable.
In some cases comparison of deep and shallow resistivity can
indicate the presence of hydrocarbon
(3) An Rxo measurement is another metod of finding Rw when a
wet zone is available (example shown below)

62

Dual Laterolog + Micro-resistivity

Several generations of micro-resistivity tools exist:

Microlog identify permeable zones
Microlaterolog early Rxo measurement
Micro-spherically Focused Log (MSFL) measures Rxo
Micro-cylindrically Focused Log (MCFL) measures Rxo, Hmc, Rmc

Limitations:
Will not work in OBM
Easily affected by washouts

63

Mudcake detection using the Microlog

Micro Inverse (MI) reads mainly in
the low resistivity mudcake
Micro Normal (MN) reads in the
mudcake plus higher resistivity
invaded zone
In permeable zones we will see
separations (red shading)
In non-permeable zones (eg.
shales) we will not have any
separations curves overlay
The absolute values of MI and MN
are not important
Similar measurements are
incorporated in the newer MCFL
tool
64

Micro Inverse (MI) and Micro Normal (MN)

MI/MN profiles
The Microlog separation is
used to indicate mudcake
build-up and potential
permeability
In shales, siltstone, salt,
anhydrite, tight porosity etc.
There will be no separation
(impermeable zones)
There will be separations
between MI and MN even
when the permeability is as
low as 1mD
65

Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL)

The measure current flows
mainly in the invaded zone,
typically to a depth of 5-10
cm
Measures Rxo

66

Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL) corrections

Most measurements require corrections since the measurements are

affected by the environment
For MSFL, the effects of mudcake properties are the main corrections
needed
hmc from caliper readings
Rmc from mud measurement

67

Micro Cylindrically Focused Log (MCFL)

MCFL principle

Similar principle to that of the

MSFL but different focusing
geometry
The main difference is that a
semi-cylidrical volume is
measured in the invaded zone
The design and new technology
improved the vertical resolution
and reduced the borehole effects
Tool can be modelled and
digitally simulated

68

MCFL summary
The main objectives of the latest Microresistivity device is to
provide:

High resolution Rxo

Rxo insensitive to thin mudcake
Rxo corrected for thick mudcake
Microlog-style curves for mudcake (and permeability!) detection
Estimation of hmc (also called resistivity stand-off)

In order to achieve:
Invasion correction for Deep resistivity reading
Detection of permeable zones
Calculation of residual hydrocarbon saturation (1-Sxo)
69

Micro-resistivity identifies permeable zones

70

Archies equation in the flushed zone, Sxo

where
a lithology coefficient
m cementation exponent
n saturation exponent
Rw formation water resistivity
Sw water saturation
formation porosity
Rt true formation resistivity

where
a lithology coefficient
m cementation exponent
n saturation exponent
Rmf mud filtrate resistivity
Sxo water saturation, invaded zone
formation porosity
Rxo formation resistivity, invaded zone
71

Resistivity model

72

In a water zone Sw=1

73

Resistivity overview
Computing saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity
Measuring resistivity

The borehole environment

Electrode resistivity tools (eg. Short Normal, Laterologs)
Induction resistivity tools
Propagation resistivity tools
Micro-resistivity tools
Correcting resistivity for borehole, invasion and formation effects

74

Log outputs from common tools

Laterolog tools
Dual Laterolog (DLL)
LLD Laterolog Deep
LLS Laterolog Shallow

High Resolution Laterolog

Array (HRLA)
RLA1, RLA2, RLA3, RLA4, RLA5

Induction tools
Dual Induction Log (DIL)
ILD Induction Log Deep
ILS Induction Log Shallow
SFL Spherically Focused Log
(physically part of the Dual Induction
tool, but really a resistivity type tool)

Array Induction
1ft: AO10, AO20, AO30, AO60, AO90
2ft: AT10, AT20, AT30, AT60, AT90
4ft: AF10, AF20, AF30, AF60, AF90
75

Resistivity corrections
All raw resistivity
measurements will be
affected by:
Borehole
Adjacent beds
Invaded zone
Correction charts exist for
each of these measurements
for:
Dual Laterolog
Dual Induction
6 charts in total
76

Chart 1: Laterolog deep borehole correction

Rcor-2b

77

Chart 2: Laterolog deep shoulder bed

correction

Rcor-10

78

Chart 3: Dual Laterolog invasion correction

Rint-9b

79

Induction borehole corrections

The measurement has to be corrected for borehole effects
For previous generation tools the procedure is:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Compute borehole geometrical factor

Find additional signal due to the borehole
Convert log resistivity to conductivity
Remove borehole signal from the total signal
Convert results back to resistivity

This can be done in the field using either software or charts.

If using software make sure all your correction parameters
are set correctly!
80

Chart 4: Dual Induction borehole correction

Enter chart with borehole
size, and hit the
appropriate standoff on
the tool (recorded in log
heading) to read of the yaxis.

This gives the borehole

geometrical factor.
Pivot at the Rm value to
read off the hole signal.
Now remove this
conductivity from the log
ILD (or ILM) conductivity
reading.

Rcor-4a

81

Chart 5: Dual Induction shoulder bed

correction (shown for ILD)

Rcor-5

82

Chart 6: Dual Induction invasion correction

Enter with RSFL/RILD and RILM/RILD
ratio and derive Rt/RILD ratio
along with diameter if invasion
(di) and Rxo/Rt ratio. The chart
assumes thick beds (16 ft), a step
invasion profile and by the
inputs, a fresh mud system.
Each combination of
measurements will have their
own Tornado chart so it is
necessary to know the Rxo device
input to the chart and the
induction tool type. Borehole
correction and shoulder bed
correction should be applied to
the measurements prior to
entering the chart for invasion
correction.

Rint-2b

83

Dual Induction example of shoulder bed effects

DIT log response:
In resistive beds the logs
separate and read too low

Looks like an invasion

profile even when no
invasion exists

84

Array Induction example of shoulder bed effects

Array induction logs are able to
automatically correct for shoulder
beds, assuming dip is low and
fairly constant
No significant invasion profile
seen, (as should be expected as
there is no invasion..)

85

Laterolog shoulder bed effects

86

Dual Laterolog shoulder bed example

The black resistivity curve,
Rt, shows a value of 4 ohmm indicating a hydrocarbon
zone
This is the invasion
corrected resistivity
assuming RLLD=2, RLLS=1,
Rxo=1

However shoulder bed

corrections should have
been done first!
87

Laterolog deep shoulder bed correction

88

Dual Laterolog shoulder bed example

With RLLD = 1.2
( overlapping RLLS and Rxo)
there is now little invasion
correction
Now the computed Rt
curve (black) will read the
same as RLLD, about 1.2
ohm-m instead of 4 ohm-m

All traces of oil would now

be removed, preventing
unnecessary further tests
which would only have
shown water..!

89

Resistivity corrections - summary

All raw resistivity measurements
will be affected by:
Borehole
Adjacent beds
Invaded zone
Correction charts exist for each of
these measurements for:
Dual Laterolog
Dual Induction
Modern Array induction and
Laterolog tools are able to deliver
wellsite logs with borehole,
shoulder bed and invasion effects
corrected for no charts
needed...., but the process still
needs to be well understood to
ensure corrections are properly
applied.
90

Resistivity Logs why are they important?

Petrophysics/Formation
evaluation:
Identification of pay zones
Hydrocarbon saturation
(Permeability)

91

Reservoir properties and Resistivity logs

Hydrocarbon thickness
Area
Porosity
Saturation
Hydrocarbon type
Permeability
Pressure
Lithology
Depth, pressure, temperature

Primary applications for the

Resistivity logs are fluid
saturations and hydrocarbon
thickness (net pay)

OIP = Oil In Place

= effective porosity
Sw = water saturation
h = productive
thinkness (net pay)
A = drainage area
92

...some extra slides

93

Electrode resistivity tools Short Normal

B is a source of constant
current, delivered to
downhole electrode A
The voltage measured at
nearby electrode M will
relate to the formation
resistance between A and M

94

Electrode resistivity tools Short Normal

The distance between the A
and M electrodes determines
the depth of investigation and
hence the resistivity being
read. Usually the distance
between A and M is 16 (short
normal, SN) compared to 64
(long normal, LN)
In reality, these Short Normal
measurements are not
focused into the formation,
and can be severely affected by
the borehole and invading
fluids
95

Groningen effect physics

This is caused by the voltage
reference on the cable
becoming non-zero
This happens when highly
resistive beds overlying the
formation force the LLD
current to converge back to
the mud column rather than
returning to surface over a
much wider area these
converging currents upset
the voltage reference
This always causes the LLD
curve to read higher than the
true value.
96

Groningen Effect

The high and increasing LLD reading,

associated with a flat LLS, can be
caused by the presence of deeply
invaded hydrocarbon in the formation
or by the infamous Groningen effect
The LLG curve is identical to the LLD
curve, except it has a deeper position
for the voltage reference. Any
separation of LLD from LLG indicates
Groningen effects are present in the
data at depth of separation, and
above
Groningen effects cannot be
corrected, only recognized

97

Partial solution for Dual Laterolog tools ...

The Groningen effect can be identified on Dual Laterolog tools
There is a measurement by the laterolog called LLG which
gives and indication of the Groningen effect
LLG is:
a deep laterolog measurement using a reference electrode closer to
the tool than LLD
this acts as an indicator of the presence of Groningen effect because:
LLG equals LLD when there is no effect
LLG is affected at a different depth than LLD

LLG is not an LLD corrected for Groningen, it is just a warning

that Groningen effects are present

98

Groningen effect log example

99

Groningen effect log comparison

100

End

101