Chapter 2: Water in soil

(a) Pressure head and

flow in one dimension

(b) Darcys law, flow of water

through a porous medium

porosity

Example:

Example:

k = 2.3 x 10-7 cm/sec

(c) Permeability measurement:

laboratory and site

(Given: k =

k 2.3

al
h
log 0
A(t2 t1 )
h1

Field Permeability Test

Offer the advantage of testing undisturbed soil

in the natural location with respect to the
ground surface, water table, and other factors
that could influence the rate of flow
Field permeability test involves obtaining a
record of time that it takes for a volume of
water to flow out of, or into the boring casing
Simple field permeability tests are considered
appropriate for evaluating granular and silt soils
Low coefficient of permeability associated with
clays and silt-clay mixtures would involve a long
time period for the field test

Field permeability test (continued.)

Field
Permeability test
(Continued)

In short

(d) Capillarity

Capillarity

Groundwater table (or phreatic surface) the level which

underground water will rise in an observation well, pit or

other open excavation in the earth
Soil beneath groundwater table filled with water
Soil moisture any water in soil located above the water
table
Capillary rise phenomenon which water rises above the
groundwater table against the pull of gravity but is in
contact with the water table as its source
Capillary moisture the water associated with capillary rise
Vadose zone the soil region directly above the water
table and wetted by capillary moisture

Water in Capillary Tubes

Basic principles of capillary rise in soils related to the

rise of water in glass capillary tubes

The rise attraction

between the water and
the glass and to a
surface tension, which
develops at the air-water
interface at the top of
the water column in the
capillary tube

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Value of Ts for water varies according to

temperature
As temperature increases, the value of Ts
decreases, indicating a lessening height of capillary
rise under warm conditions
At room temperature, Ts for water = 0.064 N/m
At freezing, Ts for water = 0.067 N/m
In applying the development of capillary rise in
tubes to capillary rise in soils:
hc 31/d mm (McCarthy, D. F., 2002)
(*provided that d is in millimetres)

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Question:
Compute the height of capillary rise for water in a tube
having a diameter of 0.05 mm (in SI units)

Solution:

4Ts
(4)(0.064 N / m)
hc

0.52m
5
3
d w (5x10 m)(9.81kN / m )

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

The height of capillary rise is not affected by a slope or

inclination in the direction of the capillary tube, or by
variations in the shape and size of the tube at level below
the meniscus

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Capillary rise is not limited to tube, or enclosed, shapes. If

two vertical glass plates are placed so that they touch along
one end and, form a V, a wedge of water will rise up in the
V because of the capillary phenomenon

Capillary rise in soil

Shapes of void spaces between solid particles are

unlike those in capillary tubes
Voids are of irregular and varying shape and size,
and interconnect in all directions, not only the
vertical
The features of capillary rise in tubes are
applicable to soils insofar as they facilitate an
understanding of factors affecting capillarity, and
help to establish an order of magnitude for
capillary rise in the different types of soils

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Question:
Limited laboratory studies indicate that for a certain silt soil, the
effective pore size for height of capillary rise is 1/5 of D10,
where D10 is the 10 percent particle size from the grain-size
distribution curve. If the D10 size for such a soil is 0.02mm,
estimate the height of capillary rise.

Solution:
d = effective capillary diameter = 1/5D10 = 1/5 (0.02 mm)
= 0.004 mm
hc 31/d 31/0.004 mm 7750 mm 7.75m

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Capillary
fringe

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Table : Representative heights of capillary rise:
water in soil

Soil Type

Meter (m)

Small gravel
Coarse sand
Fine sand

0.02-0.1
0.15
0.3 to 1

Silt
Clay

1 to 10
10 to 30

Glossary

One- dimensional flow the velocity at all

points has the same direction and (for an
incompressible fluid) the same magnitude
Two-dimensional flow all streamlines in
the flow are plane curves and are identical
in a series of parallel planes

(e) Flow nets and seepage

3.56 x 10-4

No of equipotential
drops at point a

Elevation loss

hpw

hpw

hpw

Uplift forces

Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, & Piping

Static liquefaction the state which the effective stress becomes

zero, the soil loses its strength and behaves like a viscous fluid
Boiling, quicksand, piping and heaving are used to describe
specific events connected to the static liquefaction state
Boiling the upward seepage force exceeds the download force
of the soil
Piping the subsurface pipe-shaped erosion that initiates near
the toe of dams and similar structures. High localized hydraulic
gradient statically liquefies the soil, which progresses to the
water surface in the form of a pipe, and water then rushes
beneath the structure through the pipe, leading to instability and
failure
Quicksand existence of a mass of sand in a state of static
liquefaction
Liquefaction can be produced by dynamic events such as
earthquakes

Example:-

(f) In Situ stresses

Stresses in Saturated Soil Without Seepage

The total stress at the

elevation of point A, , can be
obtained from the saturated
unit weight of the soil and the
unit weight of water above it
= Hw + (HA H) sat

Stresses in Saturated Soil

With Seepage

If water is seeping, the effective stress at

any point in a soil mass will be different
from the static case
It will increase or decrease, depending on
the direction of seepage

Upward
seepage

Downward
seepage

Effective stress in partially saturated soil

Water in the void spaces is not continuous, and it is a three-phase

system
Thus, effective stress, = - ua + (ua uw)

* represents the fraction of a unit cross-sectional area of the soil

occupied by water. For dry soil = 0, and for saturated soil = 1

Effective stress in partially saturated soil (Continued)

Bishop intermediate values of depend primarily on the

degree of saturation, S
These values are also influenced by factors such as soil
structure

(g) Others phenomenon: Quick

sand, Frost heave in soils

Quicksand

Dreaded quicksand condition occurs where a

sand or cohesionless silt deposit is subjected to
the seepage force caused by upward flow of
groundwater
The upward gradient of the water is sufficient to
hold the soil particles in suspension, in effect
creating a material with the properties of a
heavy liquid
Elimination of seepage pressure will return the
soil to a normal condition capable of providing
support

Frost heave in soils

When freezing temperatures develop in a soil mass, most of the

pore water in the soil is also subject to freezing. As water
cystallizes, its volume expands approximately 9 percent
In considering void ratios and the degree of saturation for soils,
expansion of a soil material as a result of freezing might be
expected to be on the order of 3 or 4 percent of the original volume

Frost heave in soils (continued)

In the normal frost heave occurrence, the source of water is the

groundwater table
Upward movement from a water table to the freezing zone relates
to a potential for migration (capillary rise)
Height of capillary rise is quite limited in clean, coarse-grained soil

End of Chapter 2