SKELETAL ELEMENTS:

Dermal Skeleton
o Ostracoderms armored
fishes
o Tetrapods retain dermal
elements in skull, jaws,
and pectoral girdle
Endoskeleton
- Develops from
sclerotome (mesenchyme
in skeletogenous region.
o Visceral skeleton
assoc., w/ gills and
skeletal elements derived
from them (jaw
cartillages)
o Somatic skeleton
axial skeleton (vertebral
column ribs, sternum,
skull) and appendicular
skeleton
- Myotomes, divided by
myosepta, and divided
into epaxial and hypaxial
halves by horizontal
septum.
- Septum is divided into two
ventrolateral septa by the
coelom
- Sclerotomes of adjacent
segments is divided into
loose anterior half and
denser posterior half
- The Posterior halves
become anterior part of
vertebra and the Anterior
halves become the
posterior part of vertebra.
Agnathans:
- The vertebral elements or
ARCUALIA, are only the
basidorsals and
interdorsals.
Gnathosthomes
- Additional vertebral
elements, the

basiventrals and
interventras.
Mesenchyme from
sclerotomes accumulate and
form Perichordal
mesenchyme.
The notochord and sheat calcify
into centra
Basidorsal and Basiventral
(Posterior halves of
sclerotome) form the neural
and hemal arches
Interdorsal and Interventral
(Anterior halves of
sclerotome) gives rise to the
intercalary arch
Primitive vertebrae
composed of separate pieces
Primitive amniotes 2
pieces : pluerocentrum
(interdorsal arcualia) and
hypocentrum (basiventrals)
Pleurocentrum forms
the main mass of the
centrum.
Hypocentrum remains
as hemal arches
(chevron) contributes to
the atlas and axis.
Calcified notochord and
sheat + arcualia = centrum
and arches of vertebra.

Vertebral Column
-

Vertebrae - consist of a
centrum, 1 or 2 arches, and
various processes
Acelous - flat ended
(mammals)
Amphicelous concave on
both ends (most fishes,
salamanders, and caecillians)
Procelous concave and
convex (anurans, and reptiles)
Opisthocoelous convex and
concave (salamanders)
Heterocelous saddle-shaped
centrum at both ends (birds)

 Vertebral Processes
-

Projections from arches and

centr8a
- Give articulate w/ ribs and
serves as site of muscle
attatchement
Transverse processes most
common type of processes,
separate epaxial and hypaxial
muscle.
Diapophyses &
Parapophyses articulate w/
ribs.
Prezygapophyses (cranial) &
Postzygapophyses (caudal)
limit flexion and torsion of the
vertebral column.

Dorsal Region
-

Name given to the vertebrae

between cervical and sacral.
Crocodilians, lizards,
amphibians, mammals ribs
are confined to anterior region
o Thoracic: 12-15
vertebrae w/ ribs
o Lumbar: vertebrae w/out
ribs

Cervical region
Atlas provides cradle in skull;
hypocentrum & pleurocentrum
is odontoid process of axis.
Axis has two pleurocentra.

Sacral vertebrae
Short transverse processes that
brace pelvic girdle and
hindlimbs
Sacrum single bony complex
composed of fused sacral
vertebrae.

Caudal region
Primitive tetrapods: more
than 50 caudal vertebrae
Present-day tetrapods:
shorter caudal vertebrae with
cyclindrical centra.

PHYLOGENY OF
VERTEBRAL COLUMNS

Rachitomous vertebra
in crossopterygian
vertebrae w/c consist of
hypocentrum and 2
pleurocentrum.
Pleurocentra = increase
in size
Hypocentrum =
decrease in size
Agnathans
- Only skeletal elements
assoc., with notochord are
paired (lateral neural
cartilages)
Cartilaginous fishes
- Vertebrae includes neural
arches and dorsal intercalary
plates.
Teleost
- Regional differentiation:
trunk and caudal regions
- Well-ossified amphicelous
vertebrae
- Centra from perichordal
mesenchyme and sheat
elements
Chondrosteans (sturgeons &
paddlefish) & modern
lungfishes
- Incomplete centra
- non constricted notochord
- Basidorsal and basiventral
only
- Diplospondyly has two
centra and two sets of
arches / body
segment(sharks)
Amphibians
- Regional differentiation:
o Cervical 1 vertebra
o Trunk ribs
o Sacral 1 vertebra
o Caudal absent of
zygapophyses
- Basidorsal appear;
basiventral reduced

Centra is made of
perichordal mesenchyme
represented by hypocentrum
- Pleurocentrum form
Intervertebral disk
- Cranial joint w/ 1-2 occipital
condyles
- Urostyle fused post-sacral
vertebra
TETRAPODS
- Regional differentiation:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral, caudal
- Centrum, descendant of
pleurocentrum
- Vertebra compounded of
arches and perichordal
components
REPTILES
- Basidorsal, interdorsal,
basiventral
- Pluerocentrum is
phylogenetic ancestral
centrum
- Procelous centrum replaces
notochord
- Cervical: eight pieces
- -increased number of
cervical, increased flexibility
of head
- -craniovertebral joint: ball
and socket type of joint
- Single occipital condyle
- Atlas and axis is odontoid for
rotation
- Proatlas in crocodiles is
anterior to atlas
- Dorsals trunk
- Sacral two for support
- Cudal Chevron (hemal
arch), Autonomy
BIRDS
- All pairs of arcualia present
with supradorsals and
complete series of
hypocentra

Heterocelous centrum from

perichordal and arch
components
- Numerous cervical ( 25 in
swans)
- Single occipital condyle
- Thoracic tend to fuse
- Synsacrum: last thoracic,
lumbar, two sacral, some
caudal fused with pelvic
girdle
o Provides support for
bipedal locomotion
- Pygostle: last 4 or 5 caudal
that supports the tail
feathers
MAMMALS
- Basidorsal form neural arch
- Acelous centrum from
pleurocentrum
- Hypocentrum intervertebral
disk
- Craniovertebral joint: two
occipital condyle
- Cervical: seven
- Thoracic: twelve to fifteen
- Lumbar: vary
- Sacrum: 3 to 5
- Caudal: chevron bone
- Tail bone/ coccygeal last 3
to 5 caudal vertebrae

RIBS
- Amniotes: reduced or absent
except in thoracic and sacral
regions.
- Two kinds:
o Dorsal/intermascular
ribs and ventral,
pleural/subperitoneal
ribs
o Majority of vertebrates
are ventral tyoe
- May be long or short,
cartilaginous or bony

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Articulate medially w/
vertebrae and extend into
the body wal
Agnathans: no ribs
Sharks: dorsal
Teleost: ventral, some have
two pair of ribs
Tetrapods: bicipital ribs
Reptile: ribs are short in
neck and long in trunk
Turtles fused to carapace
Snakes long and curved
Crocodilians gastralia ( not
a rib)
-

Sternal rib: maybe ossified

(birds), or remain
cartilaginous (mammals);
articulate w/ sternum
Uncinate processes: provide
rib cage w/ additional
support (birds)

Thoracic ( 12 in human and

13 in cat); true rib, false rib,
floating rib

STERNUM
- An amniote structure
- For stronger and mobile
forelimb
- Function: protection,
strengthens body wall,
muscle attachment, rib
attachment
- Endochondral bone
- Arisen from the fusion of
anterior members of true
abdominal ribs
(parasternal)
o Amphibians no sternum in
early amphibian; only anurans
have
o Amniotes plate of cartilage
and replacement bone;
articulates w/ pectoral girdle w/
variable number of ribs.
o