Fundamentals of Power System Protection - 2012

Fundamental Principles of
Power System Protection
Course Synopsis
Slide 1
Fundamental Principles
of
Barrie Moor
bmoor@powersystemprotection.com.au
www.powersystemprotection.com.au
bmoor9@yahoo.com.au
Slide 2
Disclaimer
z
z
Barrie Moor
The material presented in this module is for Educational

purposes only.
This module contains a summary of information for the
protection of various types of electrical equipment. Neither the
author, nor anyone acting on his behalf, makes any warranty or
representation, express or implied, as to the accuracy or
completeness of the information contained herein, nor assumes
any responsibility or liability for the use or consequences of the
use of any of this information.
The practical application of any of the material contained herein
must be in accordance with legislative requirements and must
give due regard to the individual circumstances.
May 2012
Page 1
Course Synopsis
Slide 3
Course Synopsis
z
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z
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Barrie Moor
Fundamental Concepts of Protection Design

Fault Calculations
Over Current & Earth Fault Protection
VTs & CTs
Fundamentals of Distance Protection
Fundamentals of Protection Signalling
Fundamentals of High Impedance Differential Protection
Fundamentals of Transformer Biased Differential Protection
Fundamentals of Busbar Biased Differential Protection
Fundamentals of Feeder Differential Protection
Auto Reclosing
Capacitor Bank Protection
May 2012
Page 2
Seminar costs will vary depending on attendee

numbers and your individual circumstances.
However, by organising your own in-house
seminar:
You can expect savings of between 40%

and 65%.
Plus you eliminate travel and
accommodation expenses for all of your
attendees.
We provide:
2 or 3 day seminar presentation

All seminar handout material, notes, folders,
CDs, etc
Laptop Computer and Data Projector
Note that we guarantee that all seminars will be presented personally by
our principal engineer and seminar author, Barrie Moor
Each attendee receives:
Two or three day seminar presentation

Hard copy manual with all presentations, plus supporting technical
papers
CD with all printed material, plus considerable extra material and tools,
including:
pdf of seminar colour slides 2 per page
additional technical papers
tools for sequence component analysis of single, double and three
phase faults
tools for grading of IDMT overcurrent relays
tools for distance relay calculations, apparent impedance calculations,
fault resistance, mho and offset mho characteristic load limits
Certificate of attendance
You provide:
Seminar conference room (preferably on-site, within your own facilities)

Whiteboard
Any catering for lunch and tea breaks
To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

please contact us at:
enquiries@powersystemprotection.com.au
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 1
of
Slide 2
Basic Calculations : 3 Phase Fault
ZS
ZL
VS
VR
IF
FAULT CALCULATIONS
An Introduction
IF =
VS LN
VRL N = I F Z L
ZS + ZL
Slide 3
Basic Calculations : Ph - Ph Fault
Slide 4
Basic Calculations : Earth Fault
IF
IF
VS
ZS
VS
ZL
ZS
ZL
Multiple return
paths
IF =
VS LL
= I3PH * 3 / 2
IF =
2 (Z S + Z L )
VS L N
Z S + Z L + ZG
Slide 5
System Impedances
and Fault Calculations
Slide 6
Per Unit Values

z
z
z
z
Transformers
Voltages reflected via turns ratio
Currents reflected inversely to turns ratio
Impedances reflected via (turns ratio)2
Barrie Moor
For those who think this is hard you always

operate in a per unit system !!
= 1.6 x 10-19 Joules / Electron
1 Volt
1 Ampere = 6.25 x 1018 Electrons / Second
A current of 1 Ampere flowing through a resistance
of 1 Ohm produces a voltage drop of 1 Volt and an
energy dissipation of
Joules
Joules
1.6 10 19 Electron
6.25 10 18 Electrons
Second = 1 Second
= 1 Watt
May 2012
Page 1
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 7
Per Unit Values

z
Slide 8
Per Unit Values and Transformers
But I manufacture 100MVA 132/66kV Transformers, so these

figures of 1 Volt and 1 Ampere dont reflect how I work
100 MVA
132kV
12
100 MVA = 1 pu
On the 132kV side 1 pu voltage = 132 kV
On the 132kV side 1 pu current = 437.4 A
On the 132kV side 1 pu impedance = 174.24
66kV
2
Transfer impedances to the HV side (via (turns))2

132kV
) = 20
12 + 2 (132
66
66kV
20
On the 66kV side 1 pu voltage = 66 kV

On the 66kV side 1 pu current = 874.8 A
On the 66kV side 1 pu impedance = 43.56
Convert impedances to per unit on 100 MVA base

132kV
66kV
20
= 0.1148 pu
174.24
0.1148 pu
Slide 9
Slide 10
NB !!
Per Unit Values and Transformers
Per Unit Values

z
100 MVA
132kV
66kV
12
z
z
NB !!
So, with the same base MVA

And base voltage equal to system voltage
Per Unit impedances remain the same across the transformer
Transfer impedances to the LV side (via (turns))2

132kV
66
) =5
2 + 12 (132
66kV
11kV
132kV
66kV
5
Convert impedances to per unit on 100 MVA base
132kV
66kV
5
= 0.1148 pu
43.56
0.1148 pu
Slide 11
NB !!
Per Unit Values
z
z
z
NB !!
Per Unit Quantities : Change of Base

z
So, with the same base MVA

And base voltage equal to system voltage
Per Unit impedances remain the same across the transformer
10pu@11kV
10pu@11kV==52500A
52500A
11kV
10pu@132kV
10pu@132kV==4374A
4374A
132kV
Slide 12
10pu@66kV
10pu@66kV==8748A
8748A
z
z
66kV
VV ==1.0
1.0pu
pu
Barrie Moor
ZZTOT ==0.1
0.1pu
pu
TOT
Manufacturer base quantities most likely will not match the

base values we wish to use.
We must use a constant MVA base across the entire model.
Base voltages must match system voltages.
For example : Consider a generator step up transformer, with
the manufacturer nominal values
75 MVA
11/145 kV
12.5% impedance on rating
But for fault study simulations, we have chosen
100MVA base
132kV system nominal voltage
IIFAULT ==10.0
10.0pu
pu
FAULT
May 2012
Page 2
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 13

z
z
z
z
z
z
Slide 14
Transformer
75MVA, 145kV, 12.5% impedance
Calculate base impedance
1452 / 75 = 280.33
Convert transformer pu impedance to ohms
280.33 * 12.5% = 35.04
Z NEW
System fault study

100MVA, 132kV
Calculate base impedance
1322 / 100 = 174.24
Hence, for our fault study simulation
35.04 / 174.24 = 20.1%
MVANEW
= Z OLD
MVAOLD
Z NEW
kV
OLD
kVNEW
100 145
= 12.5
75 132
Z NEW = 20.1%
z
z
z
Slide 16
of
Classical Fault Study

z
Pre-fault voltages set to 1/0

Pre-fault load currents ignored
Transformers on system voltage tap
(eg. 132/66kV to match system voltages,
even if transformer nominal tap is say 132/69kV)
Shunt impedances ignored (Shunt capacitors, etc)
Zero ohms fault resistance
Generator Sub-transient reactance
Assumes generator contribution to the fault remains at its
maximum
SEQUENCE
COMPONENTS
An Introduction
This is adequate for setting of protection relays

Relay setting calculations will all be on the basis of the same fault
level data, and hence coordination is achieved
C factor of 1.1 usually applied in determining equipment ratings
Slide 17
Sequence Components
z
Positive Sequence
ABC
Equal in magnitude
120 degrees apart
Negative Sequence
AC B
Equal in magnitude
120 degrees apart
Zero Sequence
ABC
Equal in magnitude
In phase
Barrie Moor
Slide 15
Slide 19
Sequence Components
I1
V1
I1
I2
I0
IA
V2
I2
I phase
IB
V0
I0
IC
May 2012
Page 3
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 21
Slide 20
Sequence Components
Sequence Components
IA = IA 0 + IA 1 + IA 2
IA 1 1
IB = 1 a 2

IC 1 a
a = 1120 0
IA 1 1
IB = 1 a 2

IC 1 a
IB = IB 0 + IB1 + IB 2
= IA 0 + a 2 IA 1 + a IA 2
1 IA0
a IA1
a 2 IA2
1 IA 0
a IA 1
a 2 IA 2
1 1
IA 0
IA = 1 1 a
1 3
1 a 2
IA 2
IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC 2
= IA 0 + a IA 1 + a 2 IA 2
IA 0
IA
IB = [A ] IA
1

IA 2
IC
1 IA
a 2 IB
a IC
IA 0
IA
IA = 1 IB
1 [A ]
IA 2
IC
Slide 22
Slide 23
Sequence Components
Three phase conditions
Sequence Networks
V1 = 1 / 0
V2 = 0
V0 = 0
z
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
Z2s
Relay
Location
Source
Zero Sequence Network
Z1s
Source
Negative Sequence Network
Positive Sequence Network
Source
Z0s
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Positive sequence only
Three phase load

Three phase fault
No neutral (earth fault) current
Z0f
I0
Fault
Location
Slide 24
Slide 25
Sequence Networks
3 Phase Fault
3 Phase Balanced Current
I 3 _ Phase _ Fault = I1 =
Balanced currents sum to zero

Positive sequence currents
Negative sequence currents
But zero sequence will sum to 3.Io
Barrie Moor
Source
V
Z POS
Z1s
Z POS = Z1s + Z1 f
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
In =In3.Io
=0
May 2012
Page 4
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 26
Sequence Components
Phase Phase fault
z
Slide 27
Sequence Networks (A phase)

Phase Phase fault
Positive and Negative sequence components only

And consider the special case where
A phase equal in magnitude but opposite in phase
I1 = I 2
z
Z1s
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
Source
B to C
Phase to Phase fault
Source
Z2s
z
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
A phase
IA1 & IA2 antiphase
Sum to zero
B phase
IB1 & IB2 at 60o
C phase
IC1 & IC2 at 60o
IB = - IC
Slide 28
Sequence Networks (A phase)

Phase Phase fault
I1 = I 2 =
Z1s
Relay
Location
Z1f
I1
Z2s
Relay
Location
V
Z pos + Z neg
z
z
|I1| = |I2| = 50% of 3 phase fault level

Thus |IB| = |IC| = 86.6% of 3 phase fault level
(because of 60o angles)
Since Z1 ~ Z2
|I1| = |I2| = 50%
of 3 phase fault
level
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Sequence Components
Phase Phase fault
Source
Source
Slide 29
Fault
Location
Slide 30
Sequence Components
Earth Fault
Phase to Phase Example

V1 = 1 / 0
Source
Z1s = 0.10
Relay
Location
Z1f = 0.15
I1
Source
V1 = 0.5
V2 = 0
V1 = 0.8
Slide 32
Z2s = 0.10
z
Relay
Location
V2 = 0.5
A phase
positive sequence
negative sequence
zero sequence
Equal in magnitude
and phase
Z2f = 0.15
I2
Fault
Location
V2 = 0.2
Fault
Location
I = 2.0
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 5
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 33
Sequence Networks
A Phase Earth Fault
Relay
Location
Z1f
Z2s
Relay
Location
Z0s
Relay
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Source
Z1s
I1
Source
Source
Sequence Components
Earth Fault
Slide 34
Z0f
I0
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Slide 35
Sequence Networks
A Phase Earth Fault
V1 = 1 / 0
V
+ Z neg + Z zero
IB = 0
ZS1
IC = 0
Relay
Location
I NEUT = 3 I 0
ZS2
I1
ZS0
I2
Relay
Location
Zl
Zl
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Positive
Sequence
Negative
Sequence
I0
Relay
Location
Zl
Source
IA = I1 + I 2 + I 0
V2 = 0
Z1s = 0.10
V1 = 0.90
Relay
Location
Z1f = 0.15
I1
Zero
Sequence
V1 = 0.75
Fault
Location
V0 = 0
Source
Source
Z2s = 0.10
V2 = -0.10
Relay
Location
Z pos
Phase to Ground Example
I1 = I 2 = I 0 =
Slide 36
Z0f = 0.35
V2 = -0.25
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Sequence Components
Summary
Z1f
I1
Fault
Location
Z2f
I2
Fault
Location
Source
Z0s
Relay
Location
Z0f
I0
Fault
Location
Fault
Resistance
33xxR_fault
R_fault
Barrie Moor
V0 = -0.50
Fault
Location
Slide 38
Earth Fault current is 3 x Io

Source voltage drop across
Source
Hence,
the fault
resistance will be 3 x Io x R_fault
Z1s
But
the sequence modelZ2s
only has Io
flowing
Relay
So,
include 3 x R_fault in Relay
the model
Location
Location
I0
I = 1.0
Slide 37
V0 = -0.15
Relay
Location
Z2f = 0.15
I2
I = 1.0
Sequence Networks
Resistive Earth Fault
Z0s = 0.15
May 2012
Positive Sequence
Balanced three phase load
Balanced three phase fault
No neutral (earth) current
Negative Sequence
Unbalanced load
Phase to phase fault
No neutral (earth) current
Zero Sequence
Earth fault
Neutral current = 3 . Io
Cannot flow into or out of a delta
Can circulate around (within) the delta
Io = 0
Io = 0
Io = 0
Io
Io
Io
3Io
Page 6
Fault Calculations
Sequence Components
Slide 39

ZS
ZS
LV
LV
HV
Z1HL
HV
Slide 40

Zfdr
ZS
Zfdr
ZS
LV
LV
HV
Z1HL
HV
Zfdr
Zfdr
Slide 41

ZS
ZS
Barrie Moor
LV
LV
HV
Z1HL
HV
Zfdr
Zfdr
May 2012
Page 7
Over Current Protection
Slide 1
of
Slide 2

z
Over Load Protection
Over Current
Protection
Operation to the thermal capability of plant

Primarily for clearance of faults
Some measure of over load protection may be
provided
Overcurrent Relays
Directional Relays
Fuses & Fuse Contactors
Slide 3
Discrimination by Time
z
z
z
Discrimination by Time
Setting chosen to ensure CB nearest to the fault

opens first
Often referred to as
Independent Definite Time Delay Relay
Timing intervals selected to ensure upstream relays
do not operate before CBs trip at fault location
Disadvantage
Longest fault clearing time occurs in section closest
to the power source where fault level is the highest
RELAY A
RELAY B
RELAY C
TIME
Slide 4
RELAY A
0.4 secs
RELAY B
0.4 secs
RELAY C
CURRENT
Slide 5
Discrimination by Current
z
z
z
Apply where fault current varies with fault location

due to intermediate impedance
Set to operate at current values so that only relay
nearest to fault trips its CB
Difficulties
RELAY A
Same fault level at the end of one zone and the start
of the next
Fault levels vary with changing source impedance
(eg. As generators come on and go off line)
Barrie Moor
Slide 6
Relay A cannot distinguish

between a fault here, for
which it needs to operate
May 2012
RELAY B
And a fault here for

which it should not
operate
Page 1
Slide 7
Slide 8
Discrimination by Time & Current
FDR OC
B
IAmax
HV OC
IBmax
RELAY A
RELAY B
ICmax
RELAY C
TIME
FDR OC
Significant difference between

currents seen for Faults A & B
Set HV OC to 1.3 x maximum
through current for LV Fault
Time and current

coordination
RELAY A
FDR OC
Instantaneous
element
RELAY B
RELAY C
FDR OC
ICmax
IBmax
IAmax
CURRENT
Slide 10
Discrimination with
Inverse Time Over Current Relays
Inverse Over Current Relays

Time of operation inversely proportional to fault
current
Faster operating times at higher fault levels

Faster operating times for faults nearer to the source
IAmax
RELAY A
Curves generally plotted in log - log or

log(current) linear(time) format
TIME
Slide 11
IBmax
RELAY B
ICmax
RELAY C
Inverse time and

current coordination
RELAY A
RELAY B
Instantaneous
element
RELAY C
ICmax
IBmax
IAmax
CURRENT
Slide 13
Slide 12
Relay Curves to IEC 60255

(BS142)
TIME S tan dard _ Inverse =
z
z

(BS142)
0.14 TMS
I
P

TIME Very _ Inverse =
0.02
I = Actual relay current

Relay Settings
TMS = Time Multiplier Setting
P
= Plug (Current) pickup setting
Usual curve for transmission and distribution systems
Barrie Moor
May 2012
13.5 TMS
I
P 1


Relay Settings
P
Systems where the fault level decreases significantly
between relaying points
Page 2
Slide 14
Slide 15

(BS142)
TIMEExtremely _ Inverse =
z
z

(BS142)
80 TMS
TIMELong _ Time _ Inverse =
I
P 1

z

Relay Settings
P
Grading with fuses
120 TMS
I
P 1


Relay Settings
P
Long time thermal protection
Motor & Generator Protection
Slide 16
IDMT Relay Grading Curves
100
Standard Characteristics to IEC 60255

10
Standard Inverse (SI)
Seconds
Relay Characteristic
0.14 TMS
I0.02 1
Very Inverse (VI)
Extremely Inverse (EI)
Long Time (LTI)
13.5 TMS
I 1
80 TMS
I2 1
0.1
100
120 TMS
I1
1 .10
Fault Current
1 .10
Standard Inverse
Very Inverse
Etremely Inverse
Long Time Inverse
Slide 18
Slide 19
TD = Time dial (TMS)

M = Multiple of pick-up current
US Characteristics to IEC 60255

disc.
U1 Moderately Inverse
0.0104
TD 0.0226 + 0.02
M 1
U2 Inverse
5.95
TD 0.180 + 2
M 1
U3 Very Inverse
3.88
TD 0.0963 + 2
M 1
U4 Extremely Inverse *
5.64
TD 0.02434 + 2
M 1
U5 Short Time Inverse
0.00342
TD 0.00262 + 0.02
M 1
Barrie Moor
Electro Mechanical Relays

L FLUX PRODUCED BY SHADING LOOP
FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT CURRENT
k I
(1-k) I
SHADING LOOP
DISC
TAPPED
COIL
DISC
- L
FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT
May 2012
Page 3
Slide 20
Slide 21

Construction
Time multiplier
(TMS) Settings

Inverse Definite Minimum Time
disc.
Trip Contacts
and
Flag
(continuous adjustable)
Current sensitivity selected by Plugs on the magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit saturates at extreme over current
Shaded Pole
z
Moving Contact
Limits the minimum operating time

Typically around 20x plug setting
Hence IDMT performance : DM = definite minimum
Time coordination via Time Multiplier setting
Current (Plug)
Settings
Trip Contacts
Higher sensitivity selected via more turns

ie. Same Ampere Turns operating quantity
more turns = less current
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
Adjusted the starting point of the induction disk wrt the fixed trip
contact
Often called Lever Setting
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
100
Adjust TMS to
achieve time
coordination
3.5
If we have
sufficient
margin here
10
Seconds
Seconds
2.5
Then with the same

characteristic, we tend to
have greater margin at
lower currents due to
divergence of the curves
1.5
0.1
100
And since we are usually interested in

operating times of 3 seconds or less,
we may get a better perception if we
use
a linear axis for time . 4
3
1 .10
1 10
0.5
1 .10
Fault Current
1 .10
100
Fault Current
Slide 24
OC
OC
OC
OC
IDMT Curves
4
Must not pick up at < 1.00 pu current

Must pick up at > 1.30 pu current
May not have well defined characteristics between
1.3 and 2.0 pu current
2.5
Electromechanical relays tend to a definite minimum

time at high currents, say > 20 x ISET
3.5
Electromechanical relays
Seconds
1.5
Due to saturation of their magnetic circuits

0.5
100
Barrie Moor
0.4 Seconds
Margin
Microprocessor based relays will have a genuine

definite minimum time.
May 2012
1 .10
Fault Current
3
1 .10
0.4 Seconds
Margin
Page 4
Slide 26
OC
OC
OC
OC
Instantaneous Element
4
3.5
Reduces tripping time at high fault levels

Allows a the discriminating curves behind the high set
element to be lowered
2.5
Grading of upstream relay now occurs at the instantaneous

setting and not at maximum fault level
Minimises fault damage in both cases
Beware
Simple E/M instantaneous elements may have a
substantial transient overreach on fault currents that
include DC offset
Seconds
Set Tx HV inst
element and now
grade here
1.5
0.5
100
1 .10
Fault Current
3
1 .10
Slide 29
Relay Coordination Procedure

z
Slide 30
Relay Current Pick-up Setting
Start with selection of relay characteristic

As far as possible, use relays of the same characteristic
Choose current settings
Determine maximum load current limitations
Determine starting current requirements
As far as possible, select operating current of each upstream relay greater
than that of the successive downstream relay
Coordinate relays via time multipliers to achieve appropriate grading margins
Determine, under various system configurations, the values of short circuit
current that will flow through each protective device
Set relays to give minimum operating time at maximum fault currents
Check performance (discrimination) at lower fault levels
Plot and coordinate relay curves on log/log or log/linear format
Plot to a common current base (across transformers)
Earth faults are considered separately and require separate plots
Set above maximum load current
z
z
Allow for emergency loading conditions

Allow safety margin
Allow for relay reset ratio
Set below the current pickup level of the next

upstream relay
Allow for load pickup current
Slide 31
Load Pickup Current

z
z
z
z
z
Slide 32
Load Pickup Current
Motor starting current

Auxiliary heaters
Transformer magnetising inrush
Capacitor charging current
Lighting loads - 10s to 100s of msec
Filaments and electrodes heating

Arc lamps starting
Hot load pickup
Cold load pickup
May 2012
Load pickup, but now with loss of diversity between

cyclic loads
Voltage recovery pickup
Barrie Moor
Short term loss of supply and subsequent load pickup

currents on return of supply
Pickup currents not as severe as for complete loss of

supply and subsequent hot load pickup
But more motors may still be on-line as under voltage
releases may not have disconnected them
Page 5
Slide 33
Slide 34
Relay TMS Grading

z
Relay TMS Grading
Must provide for

CB tripping time (0.1 sec ??)
Relay timing errors
Relay overshoot
CT errors (10% ??)
Safety margin (10% ??)
A typical figure of 0.3 - 0.4 seconds is usually OK
0.3 for numerical relays
0.4 for electromechanical relays
Alternatively calculate a margin
Only necessary for slow tripping times (> 1.0 sec)
Slide 35
Slide 36
OC
OC
OC
OC
OC
Relay TMS Grading
Grading of Parallel Elements

z
Relay Technology
ElectoMechanical
7.5
Timing Error %
Static
Digital
Overshoot Time (s)
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.02
Safety Margin (s)
0.1
0.05
0.03
0.03
Typical margin (s)
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.3
Numerical
Hence for an E/M relay tripping in 0.5 seconds

t = (7.5 + 7.5 + 10)% x 0.5 + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.1
t = 0.375 seconds
Worst case for grading is with only 1 transformer in service

But this will be an unusual operating condition
E/M & Electronic Relays
Only a single relay setting is available
Hence, effectively no option but to set for the worst case,
namely 1 transformer case
And accept slower performance for system normal,
namely when both transformers are in service
Microprocessor based relays
These relays have multiple setting groups
So, maybe set Group 1 for system normal : 2 transformers
And change to group 2 when one transformer is OOS
Automatically ??
Via SCADA & operator intervention ??
CT Errors
Slide 37
SI( P , TMS , I) :=
0.14 TMS
I
P

z
z
20MVA
Fdr_1 OC
800A FLC
33kV
20MVA
Barrie Moor
300A FLC
Fdr_2 OC
SI 400A
TMS 0.2
11kV
HV OC
3 Fault Levels
2 Tx IN : 10000A
1 Tx IN : 7500A
3 Fault Levels
2 Tx IN : 16000A
1 Tx IN : 12000A
Imax:= 10000
Fdr2_Plug := 400
Imax
Fdr2_TMS := 0.2
Fdr2_Plug
Tripping time at maximum fault level
Fdr2_Tmin := SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax)
Fdr2_Tmin = 0.421
So select settings for Feeder 1
Fdr1_Plug := 1000
Given data for Feeder 2
Maximum through fault level occurs when both

transformers are in service
But the maximum individual transformer current flows
when the 2nd transformer is OOS
Need to consider both conditions when grading relays
HV OC
Grade Fdr_1 OC over Fdr_2 OC at the maximum through fault level of 10kA
Set Fdr_1 OC above maximum feeder load of 800A
and check against maximum fault level of 10kA
Grading of Parallel Elements

z
0.02
Required tripping time
Fdr1_Tmin := Fdr2_Tmin + 0.4
Assume TMS = 1.0
Fdr1_TMS_1 := SI( Fdr1_Plug , 1.0, Imax)
This would result in a tripping time of
Fdr1_TMS_1 = 2.971
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time
Imax
Fdr1_Plug
= 25
= 10
Fdr1_Tmin = 0.821
Fdr1_TMS := 1
Fdr1_Tmin
Fdr1_TMS_1
Fdr1_TMS = 0.276
Round Up
May 2012
Fdr1_TMS := round ( Fdr1_TMS + .003, 2)
Fdr1_TMS = 0.28
Page 6
Feeder 1
Relay_2 := SI Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , I2
Feeder 2
n
n
SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax) = 0.421
_T = 0.411
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)
Grade Transformer HV OC under the maximum current condition, namely with one transformer OOS
3
2.8
Imax:= 12000
2.6
FLC_33kV:=
2.4
20000000
3 33000
FLC_33kV= 350
130 % FLC_33kV= 455
Set
Allow for 33/11kV ratio
2.2
Tx_HV_Plug := 500
Tx_HV_Plug := 3 Tx_HV_Plug
Tx_HV_Plug = 1500
2
1.8
Fdr Tripping time at maximum fault level
Fdr1_Tmin := SI( Fdr1_Plug , Fdr1_TMS , Imax)
Fdr1_Tmin = 0.769
1.6
Transformer HV OC
Tx_HV_Tmin:= Fdr1_Tmin + 0.4
Tx_HV_Tmin = 1.169
1.4
Assume TMS = 1.0
Tx_HV_TMS_1 := SI( Tx_HV_Plug, 1.0, Imax)
1.2
This would result in a tripping time of
Tx_HV_TMS_1 = 3.297
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time
Tx_HV_TMS := 1
0.8
Tx_HV_Tmin
Tx_HV_TMS_1
Tx_HV_TMS = 0.355
0.6
Tx_HV_TMS := round ( Tx_HV_TMS + .003, 2)
Round up
0.4
Tx_HV_TMS = 0.36
0.2
0
100
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC
Feeder 1
Tx HV
Relay_3 := SI Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, I3
n
n
Slide 42
SI( Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, Imax) = 1.187
_T = 0.418
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)

3
Resetting of Over Current Relays
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
Electromechanical relays tend to have a slow reset of

their operating mechanism
Other relays may have
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.2
0
100
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
Disk simulation resetting

Instantaneous resetting
This becomes important in auto-reclosing schemes
0.6
0.4
eg. For the disk to rotate back to the stops
E/M relays may not have fully reset before re-application of

a fault via autoreclose
They will thus be partially integrated to the trip and will
require less and less time to reach a trip on each
successive reclosure
Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC
Tx HV OC
Slide 43
Sequential Operation of Over Current

Relays
z
z
of
As CBs trip, fault current magnitudes and flows will

change
We need to integrate how far each relay progresses
towards tripping in each stage
Slide 44
Directional
Over Current
and Earth Fault
Protection
To determine total tripping times

To ensure relays that should not trip, remain stable
Relay 1 operating time must have a suitable margin

above the total of Relay 2 and the subsequent Relay 3
operations
Relay 1
Relay 2
Barrie Moor
Relay 3
May 2012
Page 7
Slide 45
Directional Over Current Relays

Application to Parallel Feeders
Directional Over Current Relays

z
z
z
z
Slide 46
Extra discrimination may be achieved by making the

response of the relay directional when current can
flow in both directions
Achieved via voltage (polarising) connections to the
relay
Digital and numeric relay achieve phase
displacements via software
EM & Static relays require suitable connection of
input quantities to the relay
OC
OC
Fdr 1
B
Fdr 2
OC
OC
Apply directional relays at the feeder receiving ends
Typically set to 50% of FLC, TMS = 0.1

Grade below non-directional relays at the source end
Ensure DOC relay thermal rating is OK
Slide 49
Earth Fault Protection

z
z
z
z
Not suitable for

2:1:1 Current
applications
(Transformer HV
current in the case of
Star/Delta or Delta/Star
through phase/phase
faults)
Implement more sensitive protection responding only to

residual current of the system
Low settings are permissible and beneficial
Slide 50
Earth faults are the most frequent

Earth faults may be limited by earth fault resistance
Earth faults may be limited by neutral earth impedance
EF Prot
OC
OC
Typical settings 20 - 40% x FLC

Time grade in the same manner as for phase OC relays
Beware of the burden that electromechanical relays may
place on CTs at low current settings
EF Prot
OC
OC
EF Prot
OC
Although burden does decrease at very high currents with

saturation of the relays magnetic circuits
Slide 51
Directional Earth Fault Protection

z
z
Directional Earth Fault Protection
Voltage Quantity required to polarise relay

Use the system residual voltage
z
z
This is the vector sum of all three phase voltages

This is thus three times the zero sequence voltage
This voltage will be zero for balanced system

voltages
Slide 52
Normal Load conditions

Three phase events
2 phase events not involving earth
3 . V0 is obtained from a VT with the secondary

connected in a broken delta
Primary star point of VT must be earthed
And to provide the path for zero sequence flux
VT must be
Va
5 limb core type
3 x 1 phase units
Vc
Vb
3.Vo
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 8
Slide 53
of
Slide 54
Fuses
z
Fuses
and
Fuse Contactors
Performance effectively
follows I2t law
Pre Arcing time
Arc time
Fuse Fuse grading
requires that the total I2t of
the smaller fuse be less
than the pre-arcing I2t of the
larger fuse
Slide 55
Fuse
Bullrush Curves
maximum
total I2t
minimum
pre-arcing
I2t
z
z
Used where expulsion gases cause no problem such as in

overhead circuits and equipment
Special materials (fiber, melamine, boric acid, liquids such as
oil or carbon tetrachloride ) located in close proximity to fuse
element and arc rapidly create gases
These produce a high pressure turbulent medium surrounding
the arc
Expulsion process deionises gases them as well as removing
them from arc area
In inductive circuits, transient recovery voltage (TRV) will be
maximum at current zero.
250
200
160
125
80
100
63
50
32
Discrimination between fuse

links is achieved when the total
I2t of the minor fuse link does
not exceed the pre-arcing I2t of
the major fuse link
But note that this applies only
for high speed operation where
there is no heat dissipation
ie. I2t adiabatic performance
As a starting point, a current
rating ratio between fuses of
1.6 - 2 is probably OK
(but this depends on the specific
fuse design)
40
Expulsion Fuses
35
Slide 56
Fuse Rating
Slide 57
Fuses & TRV Performance
Current Limiting Fuses (HRC Fuses)

Current
interrupted at
natural
current zero
Current lags
Voltage by 90
deg
Slide 58
1.5
System
Voltage
0.5
0.5
Fuse Voltage
z
1.5
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
0.022
0.024
TRV across
blown fuse
element
Circuit Voltage
Fuse Voltage
Current
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Fuse is designed to insert a large resistance

Hence, prospective level of fault current is reduced
And zero crossing of the current and voltage will be
reasonably in phase TRV significantly reduced
Fuse element is completely surrounded with filler material,
typically silica sand
Arc energy melts the sand, thus inserting the required high
resistance
But this design may have difficulty interrupting low level overloads.
Overcome by
M Effect designs
Spring assisted designs
Page 9
Slide 59
Slide 60
Tin for M Effect low

overload fuse performance
See later
Current Limiting Fuses
Slide 61

M Effect for low level overloads
z
Slide 62
M Effect : A.W. Metcalf - 1939
Slide 63
Grading Relays with Fuses

z
z
Extremely Inverse curve follows

a similar I2t characteristic
Relay current setting should be
approximately 3 times the fuse
rating
Grading margin of not less than
0.4 seconds recommended
EI( P , TMS , I) :=
Slide 64
Grading Relays with Fuses

z
80 TMS
2
I 1
First relay upstream of the fuse should be set to EI

characteristic
Now to coordinate further upstream relays
Option 1 : Also select EI characteristics

Option 2 : Check also for the possibility of setting
Or
T ' 0.4 t + 0.15
Barrie Moor
May 2012
The next relay to a VI characteristic

And subsequent further upstream relays to SI
characteristics
Page 10
Slide 65
Fuse Contactors
z
High fault level applications
Slide 66
Fuse Contactors
eg
100
40kA fault level

Contactor rated to only 10kA
Fuse operates for all faults above say 7 kA
Contactor and associated protection relay operate for
lower fault levels
Warning the fuse may also have a minimum
breaking capacity and the contactor must be set to
operate above this point
0.1
10kA Contactor
operates for faults
below 7kA
Fuse operates for

faults above 7kA
0.01
100
Barrie Moor
Fuse operation
below 2kA is not
permissible
10
May 2012
1 .10
Fuse
Relay / Contactor
Fuse
1 .10
1 .10
Page 11
Voltage Transformers
Current Transformers
Slide 1
of
Slide 2
Basic Concepts of Distance Protection

z
z
VOLTAGE
and
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
Measure V/I
If this falls below some preset value, a fault is detected and
relay operates
Zfault
DIST
V
= Z
I
fault
Slide 3
Slide 4
Specification of VTs
AS1243 (Superseded by AS60044)
of
Protection Class
Percentage voltage
ratio error
Phase displacement
(crad)
1P
2P
5P
VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMERS
Specification to AS60044.1
11 crad
crad == 34.4
34.4 mins
mins
Slide 5
AS60044 : Specification of VTs
Slide 6

z
Protection Class
3P
6P
Barrie Moor
Ratio error
(percent)
Phase displacement
(minutes)
Percentage voltage
Percentage voltage
100
FV
100
FV
6.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
240
120
120
120
12.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
480
240
240
240
May 2012
Protection VTs to operate between

V = 0.05 pu
V = Voltage Factor : FV pu
Rated Voltage Factor
Rated Time
1.2
Continuous
1.5
30 s
1.2
Continuous
1.9
30 s
1.2
Continuous
1.9
8h
System
Phase earth in effectively earthed
neutral system
Phase earth in non- effectively
earthed neutral system w e/f tripping
Phase earth in isolated neutral
system
Page 1
Slide 7
Slide 8
of

z
Voltage Error
KN = rated transformation ratio
UP = actual primary voltage
US = actual secondary voltage
Voltage _ Error _ % =
U P K N U S
100
UP
VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMERS
Phase displacement
Primary and secondary voltage phase difference
Said to be positive when the secondary voltage leads
the primary
Transient Performance
Slide 9
Magnetic Voltage Transformer

Energisation & De-energisation
VT Fundamentals
z
Magnetic VTs
Capacitor VTs
Requirements of VT plus Relay
Slide 10
HV systems
EHV systems
z
In Zone Faults
Out of Zone Faults
Switching
Minimal problems with magnetic VT transient performance

Transient effects typically short term
Energisation
Flux Doubling depending on POW switching
OK since VTs are designed to operate at low flux densities
(also minimises errors in normal operation)
De-energisation
Flux cannot immediately decay to zero
Primary Fault
Collapse of voltage on fault occurrence
Recovery of voltage on fault clearance
Slide 11
Capacitor Voltage Transformer

z
z
Voltage Divider Principles
Use a voltage divider principle to reduce system HV

voltage to a lower level
And then use a lower ratio transformer to
Slide 12
RH
provide final step down ratio to protection relay

provide galvanic isolation
N:1
Voltage divider implemented via capacitors

Loading effects eliminated via series tuning choke
RL . V
RL
RH + RL
Barrie Moor
Voltage across RH varies

with current supplied to
VT burden, ZL
May 2012
ZL
Resistive losses heating effects

Performance varies with load burden
Page 2
Slide 13
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent to
resistors in
parallel !!
RL.RH
RL+RH
Slide 15
Capacitor Voltage Transformers : CVTs
Intermediate VT voltage
source reduces as
burden current
increases => errors !!
CH
X
N:1
CH . V
CL
ZL
CH + CL
RL.V
RL+RH
ZL
Resistive losses nil

Performance at 50Hz does not vary with load burden
Slide 16
CVT Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent to
capacitors in
parallel !!
CH+CL
Slide 17
CVT Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Capacitive divider and series

tuning choke with identical
impedance at 50Hz.
Impedances cancel.
CH+CL
CH.V
CH+CL
ZL
Capacitive divider and series

tuning choke with identical
impedance at 50Hz.
Impedances cancel.
CVT loading effects eliminated
CH.V
CH+CL
CH.V
CH+CL
ZL
Slide 19
CVT Transient Performance

z
CVT Transient Performance
Resonances
Low frequency transient response between

z
Slide 20
Resonant effects minimised via simple resistive

damping
Intermediate VT magnetising branch

Thevenin equivalent of main capacitors
CH+CL
High frequency transient response between

z
z
Tuning choke
Capacitance of intermediate VT
High Frequency
X
RP
XP
XM RM
CH.V
CH+CL
XS
CM
RS
N2ZL
ZL
Low Frequency
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 3
Slide 21
Slide 22
of
CVTs and Distance Relay Performance

z
Distance Relay Reach Measurement
Distance Relay Directionality
Distance Relay Problems
Accuracy at Zone reach

Immunity to tripping on reverse faults
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
Spurious operation on transients

Eg. On simple de-energisation of feeder
Modern Relays
Specification to AS60044.1
and
Comparison with AS1675
May have special facilities to provide for CVTs
Slide 23
Specification of CTs
AS1675 (Superseded by AS60044.1)
z
z
z
z
Class P CTs
Equivalent to IEC P Class CTs
General purpose protection CT
Not usually used in HV systems
Not usually used in high speed
differential systems
Suitable for slower speed systems
where perhaps a few cycles of
distorted output will not seriously
affect relay performance (eg IDMT &
Def Time relays)
Not generally intended for applications
requiring good transient performance
Turns compensation is permissible
Slide 24
Composite
Compositeerror
error
%
%at
ataccuracy
accuracy
limit
current
limit current
Secondary
Secondary
ref
refvoltage
voltage
at
atALF
ALF
Accuracy
Accuracy
limit
limitfactor
factor
z
z
10 P 60 F15
Class P CTs
Composite Error
RMS value of the errors in the instantaneous values of the actual
secondary current expressed as a percentage of the nominal
secondary current
(ie. Basically the CT error, but via instantaneous values to allow for
both magnitude and phase errors) .. See next slide !!
Secondary reference voltage
RMS value of the secondary terminal voltage on which the
performance of the CT is based
Accuracy limit factor
Factor (applied to the rated primary current) for the accuracy limit
of the CT
ie. Factor (applied to the rated primary current) for which the CT
will comply with the requirements for composite error
If not specified F20 is assumed
Slide 25
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Class P CTs
Composite Error
KN = Rated transformation ratio

IP = RMS value of primary current
iP = instantaneous value of primary
current
iS = instantaneous value of secondary
current
T = duration of 1 cycle
Barrie Moor
AS1675 comparison with AS60044.1
z
EC =
Slide 26
100 1
2
(K N iS iP ) dt
IP
T 0
Square of sum of squares to

compute the RMS value of the
difference between the
instantaneous values of the
nominal and actual currents
May 2012
To convert P Class specification to IEC Specification
AS1675 Class P CT
100/5 5 P 60 F 20
IEC Class P CT
100/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20
Composite
Error
Page 4
Slide 27
z
AS1675 Class P CT
100/5 5 P 60 F 20
IEC Class P CT
100/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20
Slide 28
Accuracy
Limit Factor
AS1675 Class P CT
100/5 5 P 60 F 20
IEC Class P CT
100/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20
Terminal Voltage
Specified
at FAULT Current
Connected Burden
Specified
at LOAD Current
Slide 30
CT Assignment : Class P CTs

A Current transformer, for general purpose use in an
application NOT requiring good transient performance has
been specified, as per AS60044.1 as
200/1
z
5VA Class 5 P20
What is the maximum fault level (Primary Amps) where

the CT performance is guaranteed?
CTpri x ALF = 200 x 20 = 4000A
Slide 31
Slide 32


200/1
z
5VA Class 5 P20
200/1
At this fault level, what is the maximum secondary burden

[ie. leads plus relay(s)] in OHMS that the CT can supply.
Rated Burden = VA x 1 x 1 = 5 x 1 x 1 = 5 Ohms

A A
1 1
Barrie Moor
5VA Class 5 P20
What will the CT terminal voltage be under this condition
Vct = I x R = (Isec x ALF) x R = (1 x 20) x 5 = 100V
May 2012
Page 5
Slide 33

200/1
z
Slide 34
200/1
5VA Class 5 P20
It turns out that at the particular substation where this CT is

installed, the maximum fault level is actually only 3kA.
The connected burden of leads and relay is however 6 ohms.
5VA Class 5 P20
What is the equivalent (ie. old) AS1675 specification for

this CT
200/1 5P 100 F20

z
Is this CT adequate to supply the connected burden of 6

ohms at this site specific fault level of 3kA.
Vct = I x R = 3000 x 6 = 15 x 6 = 90V OK !!
200
At fault levels below ALF, we can confirm operation provided
rated terminal voltage is not exceeded
Slide 35

200/1
10% increase in voltage

requires a 50% increase in
magnetising current
Class PX CTs : AS60044.1

z
5VA Class 5 P20
Now, tests on the CT reveal that it has an internal resistance

of 1 ohm.
z
Comment on the suitability of using this CT at the 3kA fault

location, but now with a connected burden of 7 ohms.
Class PL CTs under AS1675

Applications requiring good
transient performance
High accuracy high speed
schemes
Vreq = I x Rtot = 15 x (7 + 1) = 15 x 8 = 120V OK

At fault levels above ALF, or if rated terminal voltage is
exceeded, we also need to know CT internal resistance to
confirm suitability.
Magnetising
Magnetising
current
currentat
atknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
CT
CTknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
General
Vknee = Vterm + Ialf x Rct = 100 + 20 x 1 = 120V
Jointless core wound from

continuous strip
Turns for each section of the
winding to be uniformly
distributed
Turns compensation not
permissible
CT
CTinternal
internal
resistance
resistance
0.1 PX 200 R5
Slide 43
CTs with multiple tappings

z
z
z
Because the Class PX CT has a uniformly wound

secondary winding, it may be possible to utilise
intermediate ratios
For CT with n terminals, .n.(n-1) ratios may be
available
CT specified as 2400/2000/800/1
May also provide 400/1200/1600/1
Beware of simple interpolation between ratios but
in general
Resistance Ratio (number of turns)
Voltage Ratio (number of turns)
Magnetising current 1/Ratio (inverse of turns)
Recommended to confirm performance of
intermediate ratios with the manufacturer
CT continuous rating
Rating of primary conductor
Rating of secondary : perhaps 2 x In
Barrie Moor
Slide 42
2400
Slide 44
of
2000
1200/1
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
800
Transient Performance
May 2012
Page 6
v ( t) := Vm sin( t)
Basic CT Requirement : No Transients
E := L
di
dt
i( t) := Im sin t
2
Isec
Current lags voltage by 90

Current cannot change
instantaneously
Fault Current : Inductive Power System

4
Rct
Rleads
Vk
Rrelay
1
v( t)
i( t)
Ifault
VKNEE =
I FAULT
( RCT + RLEADS + RRELAY )
CTRATIO
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
t
Seconds
E := L
Fault_Point = 0.025
i( t) := if t < Fault_Point , 0 , Im sin t
di
dt
E := L
Fault_Point = 0.020
v( t)
i( t)
di
dt
v( t)
i( t)
OK
I = 0 at fault inception
I lags V by 90 deg
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
NOT OK
I is not 0 at fault inception
0.1
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
t
Seconds
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
t
Seconds
E := L
Fault_Point = 0.020
i( t) := if ( t < Fault_Point) , 0 , Im sin t
di
dt
+ DC_Offset
2
E := L
Fault_Point = 0.030
di
dt
DC_Offset = 100 % Im
v( t)
i( t)
NOT OK
I is not 0 at fault inception
v( t)
i( t)
NOW OK
I lags V by 90 deg
But now there is DC offset
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
t
Seconds
Barrie Moor
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
t
Seconds
May 2012
Page 7
E := L
Fault_Point = 0.030
i( t) := if ( t < Fault_Point) , 0 , Im sin t
di
dt
Slide 56
+ DC_Offset
2
DC_Offset = 100 % Im
DC Offset in the fault current waveform
NOW OK
I lags V by 90 deg
But now there is DC offset
v( t)
i( t)
Faults occurring away from voltage peak will result in

DC offset in the fault current waveform
Up to 100% DC offset is possible
DC offset may be positive or negative
But the power system is not purely inductive, so the
DC offset will not continue but will decay
exponentially
z
1
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
t
Seconds
Primary Transient Fault Current

System Parameters
.1

. L = 31.416
= 0.1 sec
. L
= 88.177 deg
= 1.823 deg
90. deg
System Parameters
.03
. L = 9.425
= 0.03 sec
. L
= 83.943 deg
= 31.416
= 6.057 deg
90. deg
= 9.425
2
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
AC Component
DC Component
0.18
0.2
0.02
AC Component
DC Component
SECONDS
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
SECONDS
Slide 60

System Parameters
.01
. L
= 72.343 deg
= 17.657 deg
90. deg
DC Offset in the fault current waveform
. L = 3.142
= 0.01 sec
= 3.142
DC component of the fault current will magnetise the

CT core
If the CT core becomes fully magnetised (ie. above
its knee point) it cannot transform the primary current
to a proportional secondary quantity.
2
0
0.02
AC Component
DC Component
Barrie Moor
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
SECONDS
May 2012
Page 8
Total Flux : AC Component plus DC Component
( AC + DC )
PEAK
= AC peak
B
V
1 + power _ system
R
power _ system
35
CT Flux (times
AC component)
30
25
20
Imag
15
10
z
z
z
5
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.4
AC
Flux
AC Flux
DC
Flux
DC Flux
Totla Flux
Total
Flux
Seconds
CT terminal voltage is low based on E = N d/dt

ie Simply enough to drive current through the
connected burden
But in specifying a high flux capability we, by
default, have a high voltage capability
The high knee point is required because of the
flux, not the voltage requirements
Slide 64
Slide 63
CT Specification to provide for

Total Flux : AC & DC Components
( AC + DC )
z
PEAK
X 1
= AC peak 1 +
R1
( AC + DC )
For purely sinusoidal quantities, the VT voltage and

flux requirements are directly related
max =
z
Specify CT Voltage requirement to provide

for the AC & DC Flux requirements
VKNEE
Vmax
N
peak
= VAC
peak
PEAK
X 1
= AC peak 1 +
R1
X1
1 +
R1
VKNEE
rms
rms
To provide for the AC &

Component
DC Components
only
I I FAULT
X
VKNEE
= FAULT
1 + ( RCT (+RCT
+ RLEADS
+ RRELAY
VKNEE
=
RLEADS
+ RRELAY
) )
R
CTRATIO
CTRATIO
So, we can effectively specify the AC & DC flux

requirements by specifying the proportional AC
sinusoidal voltage requirements
Slide 66
35
CT Flux (times
AC component)
X1
= VAC 1 +
R1
30
25
CT Transient Performance
20
15
10
CT must cope with exponentially decaying DC

component of fault current
Normal practice is to allow transient factor of (1 + X/R)
0.1
AC
ACFlux
Flux
DC
DCFlux
Flux
Total
Totla Flux
Flux
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Seconds
Beyond the scope of our discussion
VKNEE =
I FAULT X
1+
( RCT + RLEADS + RRELAY )
CTRATIO R
Barrie Moor
May 2012
At Relaying Point
Or at Zone 1 Reach Point
CT saturation, after relay operation, may be acceptable
Modern microprocessor based relay algorithms may
accommodate some CT saturation
Page 9
Slide 67
CT Assignment : Class PX CTs

z
z
z
z
Slide 68
A distance relay is employed on a simple radial 132kV system,

with source and feeder impedances as per sketch
All figures are on 100 MVA base.
System operates at nominal voltage ie. Source voltage = 1 /0
Distance relay Zone 1 will be set to 85% of the outgoing feeder
ZS = 0.05 /85
ZS = 0.05 /85
Zfdr = 0.10 /75
132kV
Distance Prot
Zfdr = 0.10 /75
z
z
132kV
Distance Prot
Calculate the relay current (in Amps) for a 3 fault

occurring just in front of it, namely, at the relaying point.
Calculate the fault current (in Amps) for a 3 fault
occurring at the proposed 85% zone 1 reach point.
Slide 69
3 Fault at Relaying Point
Ibase :=
100 MVA
132 kV 3
3 Fault at Zone 1 85% Reach Point
Ibase = 437.387
Zs := rect ( 0.05, 85 deg )
Ibase :=
Zfdr := rect ( 0.10, 75 deg )
Ztot := Zs
Ifault :=
Slide 70
100 MVA
132 kV 3
Ibase = 437.387
Zs := rect ( 0.05, 85 deg )

Zfdr := rect ( 0.10, 75 deg )
Ztot := Zs + 85 % Zfdr
1
Ztot
Ifault = 1.743 19.924i
Ifault = 20
Ifault :=
arg( Ifault) = 85 deg
1
Ztot
Ifault = 1.457 7.29i
Ifault = 7.434
arg ( Ifault) = 78.701deg
XR := tan ( arg ( Ifault) )
XR = 11.43
XR := tan ( arg( Ifault) )
XR = 5.005
Ifault := Ifault Ibase
Ifault = 8748
Ifault = 3251
Slide 71
VT
VT == 132000/110
132000/110 volts
volts
CT
CT == 600/1
600/1 0.1
0.1 PX
PX 600
600 RR 55
Slide 72
CT Performance : 0.1 PX 600 R5

3 Fault at Relaying Point
Ztot := Zs
ZS = 0.05 /85
Zfdr = 0.10 /75

Ifault :=
8748A
132kV
X/R=11
Distance Prot
z
z
z
z
3251A
X/R=5
Lead resistance is 2 ohms (loop total)

Connected relay burden is 1 ohm
For the fault at the relaying point, check and comment on
the transient performance of the CT.
For the fault at the proposed Zone 1 reach point, check
and comment on the transient performance of the CT.
Barrie Moor
1
Ztot
CT :=
600
1
Rct := 5
Leads := 2
Relay := 1
Ifault = 1.743 19.924i

XR := tan ( arg ( Ifault) )
XR = 11.43
Ifault = 8748
Irelay :=
Ifault
CT
Half of lead loop

resistance for 3 fault
Vk := Irelay ( 1 + XR) ( Rct + 0.5 Leads + Relay)
May 2012
Ifault = 20
arg ( Ifault) = 85 deg
Irelay = 14.58
CT 600V knee point is

INADEQUATE
Vk = 1269
Page 10
Slide 73
CT Performance : 0.1 PX 600 R5

3 Fault at Zone 1 85% Reach Point
Transient Performance Equation Aspects
Ztot := Zs + 85 % Zfdr
Ifault :=
1
Ztot
Ifault = 1.457 7.29i
Slide 74
How to determine X/R of power system?
Transient performance for close-in faults?
Transient performance for Zone 1 faults?
Transient performance for 3 phase faults?
Transient performance for 1 phase faults
Ifault = 7.434
arg( Ifault) = 78.701deg
XR := tan ( arg( Ifault) )
XR = 5.005
Ifault = 3251
CT :=
600
1
Rct := 5
Leads := 2
Relay := 1
Irelay :=
Ifault
CT
Half of lead loop

resistance for 3 fault
Vk := Irelay ( 1 + XR) ( Rct + 0.5 Leads + Relay)
Barrie Moor
Irelay = 5.419
CT 600V knee point is

ADEQUATE
Vk = 228
May 2012
Current angle from fault study simulation

High fault level & high X/R
Lower fault level & lower X/R due to fdr impedance.
No neutral return current in CT secondary wiring
Neutral return current in CT secondary wiring
Page 11
Distance Protection
Fundamentals of Performance
Slide 1
V
= Zline + Zload
I
Healthy Conditions:-
of
Zs
Z line
Z load
DISTANCE
PROTECTION
Slide 4
V
= Z fault
I
Fault Conditions:-
Zs
Distance Relay Zones
Z line
ZONE 3
TIME
Z fault
ZONE 2
ZONE 3
ZONE 1
Z load
ZONE 2
LOCATION
DIST
ZONE 1
DIST
LOCATION
DIST
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
TIME
ZONE 3
DISTANCE RELAY TIME DISCRIMINATION
Slide 5
Slide 6
Time and Reach Coordination

of Distance Relays
Distance Relay : Basic Scheme
Reach
Coordination
Time
Coordination
Reach
Coordination
ZONE 1
MEASURER
Time
Coordination
Zone 3
ZONE 2
MEASURER
ZONE 2
TIME
DELAY
ZONE 3
MEASURER
ZONE 3
TIME
DELAY
Zone 2
>1
TRIP
Zone 1
DIST
Zone 2
Zone 1
DIST
DIST
DIST
Basic Scheme
Barrie Moor
October 2010
Page 1
Distance Protection
Slide 7
Non Switched Distance Relay
Slide 8
Zone Switched Distance Relay

ZONE 3
Z3
A-E
Z1/2
ZONE 1
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
ZONE 2
B-C
C-A
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-C
C-A
ZONE 3
B-C
C-A
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-C
Fdr
C-A
Z1
ZONE 2
TIMER
ZONE 2
TIMER
ZONE 3
TIMER
ZONE 3
TIMER
ZONE 1
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-C
ZONE REACH
SWITCHING NETWORK
C-A
TRIP
NON-SWITCHED DISTANCE RELAY OPERATION
TRIP
Slide 9
Slide 15
Primary & Secondary Impedances
Fully Switched Distance Relay

STARTERS
A
VOLTS
A
B
C
N
CURRENT
A
B
C
N
Vsecondary = Vprimary / VTratio
Isecondary = Iprimary / CTratio
ZONE 2
TIMER
ZONE 3
TIMER
INCREASE
IMPEDANCE
SETTING
TO
ZONE 2 REACH
INCREASE
IMPEDANCE
SETTING
TO
ZONE 3 REACH
STARTER
TIMER
Vsec ondary
VOLTAGE
&
CURRENT
SWITCHING
NETWORK
VOLTS
Isec ondary
CURRENT
Vprimary
I primary
Zsec ondary = Z primary
MEASURER
CTratio
VTratio
CTratio
VTratio
TRIP
Slide 16
Simple Distance Relay Comparator

z
z
z
z
z
z
z
So, firstly, provide a ZSEC replica impedance within the relay to

establish the relays zone of operation
A real element of resistive and inductive components in an
electromechanical relay
An algorithm in a microprocessor based relay
And measure VSEC from the VT
And measure ISEC from the CT
The actual fault impedance will be given by VSEC / ISEC
If VSEC / ISEC < ZREPLICA, fault is in the zone and relay trips
If VSEC / ISEC > ZREPLICA, fault is out of zone and relay restrains
But, how can we easily perform the V / I calculation and comparison
with Z
Barrie Moor
Slide 17
October 2010
IX
I
z
IZ V
IR
Pass CT secondary current (I) thru relay replica impedance Z

This develops a relay internal, or replica voltage IZ
So, the R / X diagram has become a IR / IX voltage diagram, with
I simply being a constant of proportionality (Note: I at 0)
Page 2
Distance Protection
Slide 18
Operating & Restraining Quantities

Slide 19
Simple Amplitude Comparator
IX
Trip Condition
Alternatively
z
z
z
z
V Z
R
I
V
IZr
V I ZR
Operate
Quantity
Restrain
Quantity
IR
Hence, simply compare magnitudes of V and I*Zr

Trip if V < I*Zr
Stable if V > I*Zr
Restraining Quantity : V
Operating Quantity
: I*Zr
Operate = I * Zr
Simple
Beam Balance
Comparator
Restrain = V
And even though this is a voltage diagram where we compare V and IZ,
the IR & IX axes are usually labelled simply as R & X,
since I is just a constant of proportionality
Slide 20
Distance Relay Operation
Distance Relay Does :-
Distance relay does not

Store Current I
Store Voltage V
Compute ratio V/I
Determine this to be impedance to the fault
Check to see if this impedance is less than some preset value
Trip or not trip accordingly
Distance relay simply
Trips if the operating quantity lies inside the trip zone
Restrains if the operating quantity lies outside the trip zone
Operates in a simple GO / NO GO mode
Slide 21
Trip if impedance falls inside a

specified domain in the impedance
plain
V
X
No Trip
I.Zr
Inside = Trip
Outside = No trip
On the edge = Maybe !!
V
Marginal
V
Trip
R
Slide 22
Mho Circle Comparator

z
z
z
Consider the quantities

S1 = I.Zr - V
S2 = V
And set the operating criteria to
be the angle between these
quantities, not their magnitude
Select 90 as the criteria
Remember that the diameter of
a circle always subtends 90 at
the circumference
We have thus established a
circular characteristic,
with diameter of : I.Zr
Slide 23
Induction Cup Angle Comparator
X
I.Zr
S1 = IZ - V
S1
I2
S2
I1
S2 = V
Direction of rotation
depends on the phase
angle between S1 & S2,
either to open or close
the trip contacts
Induction Cup Comparator
Barrie Moor
October 2010
Page 3
Distance Protection
Slide 24
Phase Angle Comparators

z
z
z
Slide 25
Characteristics easily implemented

Pronounced operation, especially at the relay
characteristic angle
Polarising is available
S1 = I Zr V
S2 = V
Cross Polarising
XS2 =
S2
= Va
Va ++ k.Vbc
k.Vbc /+90
/+90 deg
deg
k.Vbc /+90 deg

A
Healthy Phase Cross Polarising

Memory Polarising
Positive Sequence Polarising
Contract for Reverse

Fault
Expand for Forward

Fault
Slide 26
Close-in Faults : MHO

z
Slide 27
Typical Mho Zones of Protection
Close-in faults are difficult to detect

For unbalanced faults, augment
S2 with some healthy phase
voltage
Modern microprocessor based
relays will most likely use the
positive sequence voltage.
(ref slide 39)
For 3 phase faults, augment S2
with some pre-fault memory
voltage
For 3 phase SOTF events,
special SOTF logic is required
S1 = I Zr V
S2 =V
Slide 28
Quadrilateral Characteristic
Slide 29
Three Phase Load Limits

X
Import Watts
Export Watts
X
Leading pf
Lagging pf
LOAD
R
Barrie Moor
Lagging pf
October 2010
Leading pf
Page 4
Distance Protection
Slide 30
Quadrilateral Characteristics
3 Phase Load Limits

z
Slide 31
Remember to allow for emergency conditions

eg. A single feeder carrying the load normally shared by 2
feeders
Except for the impedance circle characteristic, load transfer will
vary for
export and import conditions
and with power factor.
Allow a safety margin
And ensure the system operators are aware that the safety
margin has been included
And be aware that some relays have a different characteristic
under 3 phase conditions
This applies especially to old fully switched distance relays
Tall, narrow
quadrilateral for long
feeders : Good load
transfer performance
Z3
Z2
Feeder
Z1
R
QUADRILATERAL
Slide 32
Quadrilateral Characteristics
Slide 33
Load Encroachment Characteristic
Short, wide quadrilateral

for short feeders : Good
fault resistance
coverage
Feeder
z
z
z
Z3
Z2
Z1
Export Load near to unity pf

Import Load near to unity pf
Calculate impedance that
corresponds to max load
Limit characteristics for
export load (3 phase only)
Import characteristic is OK
in this example
R
QUADRILATERAL
Slide 34
of
Slide 35
Relaying Quantities
z
z
z
z
z
DISTANCE
PROTECTION
What Voltage will we apply to the relay

What Current will we apply to the relay
3 phase faults
2 phase faults
2 phase to earth faults
1 phase to earth faults
Comparator Connections
Barrie Moor
October 2010
Page 5
Distance Protection
Zl
Ia
Va
ZL =
Zl
Ib
Ib
Zl
VBC
= 2 ZL
IB
Vb
Zl
Ic
ZL =
ZL =
Zl
Ic
Vc
Zl
Vb
Ia = 0
Va
Vc
This could be used for detection of three phase faults.

However, [except by default in the Earth Fault Comparator
connection (see later)] it is not !
z
z
z
... (1)
2 I
V
... (2)
First equation is not used, except for starters in older style switched
distance relays.
The Second equation is used
This correctly detects three phase faults also.
I = Ib Ic
But Ib = Ic
I = Ib Ic = 2 Ib = 2 I
Slide 38
Slide 39
Phase Phase Comparator

and 3 Phase Performance
VA VB
I A IB
V A 3 30
I A 3 30
AB
Source
Z1s = 0.10
V1 = 0.90
Relay
Location
Z1f = 0.15
I1
Hence this - comparator also correctly detects 3 phase faults
Source
V1 = 0.75
V2 = -0.10
Relay
Location
At the relay location

Vph = 0.65 pu
Iph = 3 pu
VPH 0.65
Therefore
=
= 0.217
IPH
Z1f = 0.15
I1
V1 = 0.75
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Barrie Moor
V2 = -0.10
Relay
Location
Z0s = 0.15
V0 = -0.15
Relay
Location
Z2f = 0.15
I2
V2 = -0.25
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Z0f = 0.35
I0
ZS1
Relay
Location
V = (I1 + I 2 + I 0 ) Z1 + I 0 Z 0 I 0 Z1
Z 3
V = I Z1 + I 0 (Z 0 Z1 ) 1
Z1 3
Source
V1 = 0.90
Relay
Location
V0 = 0
Source
Z2s = 0.10
V0 = -0.50
I0
I = 1.0
V = I1 Z1 + I 2 Z 2 + I 0 Z 0
V2 = 0
Z1s = 0.10
Z0f = 0.35
V2 = -0.25
Fault
Location
V = (I1 + I 2 ) Z1 + I 0 Z 0
Source
V0 = -0.15
Relay
Location
Residual Compensation for Earth Faults
Wrong !?
V1 = 1 / 0
Z0s = 0.15
Z2f = 0.15
I2
Fault
Location
Source
Z2s = 0.10
I = 1.0
V0 = 0
V
= A
IA
z
V2 = 0
V1 = 1 / 0
Z=
Phase to Ground Example
V0 = -0.50
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Z Z1
V = I Z1 + 3 I 0 Z1 0
3 Z1
V = (I + 3 K 0 I 0 ) Z1
Z Z1
...... where K 0 = 0
3 Z1
October 2010
ZS2
I1
Relay
Location
ZS0
I2
Relay
Location
Z1
Z2
Z0
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Fault
Location
Positive
Sequence
Negative
Sequence
I0
Zero
Sequence
Phase
Voltage
Z1 =
V
I + 3 K 0 I 0
Residually
Compensated
Phase Current
How will this measure for a 3 phase fault ?
Page 6
Distance Protection
Slide 44
z
Correct !!
At the relay location
Vph = 0.65 pu
Iph = 3 pu
Z0 Z1 0.35 0.15
Residual Compensation K0 =
=
= 0.4444
3 Z1
3 0.15
VPH
0.65
=
= 0.150
IPH + 3 K0 I0 3 + 3 0.4444 1
Therefore
V1 = 1 / 0
V2 = 0
Distance Relay Comparator Connections

V0 = 0
ZONE 1
A-E
V1 = 0.90
Relay
Location
Z1f = 0.15
I1
V1 = 0.75
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
Barrie Moor
Z2s = 0.10
V2 = -0.10
Relay
Location
C-E
A-B
ZONE 2
B-C
C-A
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
ZONE 3
B-C
C-A
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-C
C-A
Z0s = 0.15
V0 = -0.15
V2 = -0.25
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
ZONE 2
TIMER
Relay
Location
Z2f = 0.15
I2
B-E
Source
Z1s = 0.10
Source
Source
Z0f = 0.35
I0
Z1 =
V0 = -0.50
Fault
Location
I = 1.0
October 2010
V
I + 3 TRIP
K 0 I0
Z1 =
ZONE 3
TIMER
I
NON-SWITCHED DISTANCE RELAY OPERATION
Page 7
Protection Signalling
Slide 1
of
Slide 2
Distance Relay Zone Discrimination
ZONE 3
TIME
ZONE 2
ZONE 3
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
DISTANCE
PROTECTION
LOCATION
DIST
ZONE 1
DIST
LOCATION
DIST
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
TIME
ZONE 3
DISTANCE RELAY TIME DISCRIMINATION
Slide 3
AEMC Requirements
(Australian Energy Market Commission)
National Electricity Rules : NER
Automatic Access Standards

To maintain system stability
To not constrain inter or intra regional power flows
Slide 5
z
z
Analogue
Digital
Communications Bearers
Maximum Fault Clearance Times (milliseconds)
System Voltage kV
Faulted End
Remote End
Breaker Fail
400kV
80
100
175
250kV to < 400kV
100
120
250
>100kV to < 250kV
120
220
430
100kV
As necessary to prevent plant damage and meet

stability requirements
Microwave
Fibre Optics (OPGW & ADSS)
Radio
Cable Carrier
Power Line Carrier
External Communications Network
Slide 6
Protection Signalling Equipment

z
Protection Signalling Schemes
External stand alone equipment
Duplex operation
Single signal
Multiple signals
Maintenance aspects
z
z
Built into protection relays
Duplex operation
Multiple signals
Maintenance aspects
Barrie Moor
Slide 7
May 2012
Permissive Intertripping
Under Reaching
Over Reaching
Blocking Intertripping
Direct Intertripping
Series Intertripping
Page 1
Slide 8
of
Slide 9
z
z
Applies primarily to non-switched distance relays

Remote end relay has a dedicated Zone 2 measurer
PROTECTION
SIGNALLING
Two schemes in use
Zone 2 measurer has detected the fault but has to wait

for expiration of Zone 2 timer before tripping
Signal sent to permit that measurer to trip in fast time
Permissive Underreaching ... PIT signal from Zone 1

(will not signal for faults beyond feeder end)
Permissive Overreaching PIT signal from Zone 2
(may signal for faults beyond feeder end)
Slide 10
Non-Switched Distance Relay

ZONE 1
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
Permissive Underreaching
ZONE 2
B-C
C-A
A-E
B-E
C-E
A-B
PIS
ZONE 3
B-C
C-A
ZONE 2
TIMER
A-E
Slide 11
B-E
C-E
A-B
B-C
C-A
ZONE 1
MEASURER
ZONE 2
MEASURER
ZONE 3
TIMER
At the feeder remote end,

one of these Zone 2
will have detected
NON-SWITCHED DISTANCE RELAYelements
OPERATION
the fault, but has to wait for
expiration of Zone 2 timer
before tripping is allowed
TRIP
PIR
ZONE 3
MEASURER
ZONE 2
TIME
DELAY
>1
TRIP
&
ZONE 3
TIME
DELAY
Slide 12
Permissive Underreaching
z
z
z
Permissive Overreaching
PUTT : Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip

Permissive signal sent via the Zone 1
underreaching element
Simply implemented
Slide 13
PIS
ZONE 2
MEASURER
No concerns since a signal is only sent when the fault

is actually on the protected feeder
PIR
ZONE 2
TIME
DELAY
&
>1
TRIP
ZONE 1
MEASURER
ZONE 3
MEASURER
Barrie Moor
May 2012
ZONE 3
TIME
DELAY
Page 2
Slide 14
of
Permissive Overreaching
z
z
z
POTT : Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip

Permissive signal sent via the Zone 2 overreaching
element
Not simply implemented
Slide 15
PROTECTION
SIGNALLING
Concerns exist since a signal may be sent when the

fault is beyond the protected feeder
Blocking Intertripping
Slide 16
Blocking Signalling
z
z
Slide 17
Distance Relay Blocking Scheme
Local end relay has Zone 2 set to trip in fast time.

Remote end relay sends a signal to inhibit this fast Zone 2 trip.
ZONE 2
MEASURER
ZONE 3
ZONE 2
SHORT
TIME
DELAY
TIME
NORMAL ZONE 2
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
TIME
DELAY
&
FAST ZONE 2
BR
DIST
>1
TRIP
LOCATION
ZONE 1
MEASURER
ZONE 3
MEASURER
Reverse looking Blocking Zone
ZONE 3
TIME
DELAY
REVERSE
LOOKING
ZONE 4
Signal sent from B to 'Block'

the fast Zone 2 of relay A
BS
Slide 18
Blocking Signalling Considerations

z
Blocking Send
Blocking delay timer coordination - Fast Z2

coordination delay setting must allow time for receipt
of blocking signal
For security, 2 signals are sent
Slide 19
POS
BS A
BS A
SYSTEM A
BS A
BLK A
BS B
Different signalling paths
Guard fail scheme provides security in the case of

communication system failure
SYSTEM A
Signalling Equipment
Feeder 'Y' Protection

BS B
SYSTEM B
BS B
BLK B
SYSTEM B
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 3
Slide 20
Slide 21
of
Blocking Receive & Guard Fail Logic

BR A
BR A
Feeder 'Y' Protection

POS
OR
BR A
GFB A
SYSTEM A
BR B
DIST
PROT
'Y'
POS
GFA
BLK A
GFB
SYSTEM A
BR B
SYSTEM B
BR_A
BR B
BLK B
GFB B
BR_B
1
1
GF_A
SYSTEM B
PROTECTION
SIGNALLING
AND
GF_B
Inhibit
Fast
Zone 2
Direct Intertripping
&
Slide 22
Direct Intertrip
z
z
z
z
Slide 23
DIT for CB Fail Event
Trips remote CB directly

Used where security not paramount
Single DIT for back-up protection applications
(eg. CB fail protection)
Duplicate DIT for primary protection applications
(eg. Line end transformer protection)
CB Fail
Prot
DIS
DIR
X uses one signalling path

Y uses a separate signalling path
Slide 24
Duplicate Direct Intertripping

Transf
Prot X
Slide 25
Series Intertrip
z
DIS
DIR
Trips remote CB directly

Security paramount
Increased security over direct intertripping

Reduced reliability compared with direct intertripping
Transf
Prot Y
DIS
DIR
Single SIT for back-up protection applications

(eg. CB fail protection)
Transf
Prot X
DIS
DIR
Duplicate SIT for primary protection applications

(eg. Line end transformer protection)
Transf
Prot Y
DIS
DIR
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Two signals over separate paths
X uses two signals over one signalling path

Y uses two signals over a second signalling path
Page 4
Slide 26
Slide 27
Series Intertrip Send
POS
CB Fail
Prot
SIS A
SIS A&B
SYSTEM A
SIS A
SIS
SIR
SIT A
SYSTEM A
Intertrip Cubicle
SIS B
SYSTEM B
SIS B
SIT B
SYSTEM B
Slide 28
Series Intertrip Receive
Slide 29
Duplicate Series Intertripping

Intertrip Cubicle
SIR A
SYSTEM A
POS
SIR A
SIT A
Transf
Prot X
SIS
SIR
Transf
Prot Y
SIS
SIR
SYSTEM A
SIR A&B
SIR B
SYSTEM B
SIR B
SIT B
SYSTEM B
Slide 30
Duplicate Series Intertrip Send

POS
SIS A
Slide 31
Duplicate Series Intertrip Receive

'X' Intertrip Cubicle
SIS A1
SIR A1
SIS A1
POS
SIR A1
SYSTEM A
SYSTEM A
SIS A2
SIR A2
SIS A2
SIT A1
SIT A2
SIT A1
SIT A2
SIR A2
SIR A
'X' Intertrip Cubicle

SYSTEM A
POS
SIS B
SYSTEM A
'Y' Intertrip Cubicle
SIS B1
SIR B1
SIS B1
POS
SIR B1
SYSTEM B
SYSTEM B
SIS B2
SIR B2
SIS B2
SIT B1
SIT B2
SIT B1
SIT B2
SIR B2
SIR B
'Y' Intertrip Cubicle

SYSTEM B
Barrie Moor
SYSTEM B
May 2012
Page 5
Slide 32
of
Slide 33
Power Line Carrier

z
z
HF signal sent over the transmission line

Coupling Equipment & Line traps
To allow signal injecting

To limit signal distribution
PROTECTION
SIGNALLING
Power Line Carrier
Slide 34
CVTs & PLC Signal Injection
Slide 35
CVTs & PLC Signal Reception
Line Trap
Line Trap
CH
CH
Inject HF Signal
N:1
N:1
CL
ZL
ZL
CL
CH . V
Receive
HF Signal
CH + CL
CH . V
CH + CL
Slide 36
Power Line Carrier

z
Low Power
OK for Blocking Schemes

Probably OK for DIT & SIT schemes
Some concerns for permissive schemes
z
z
Cannot be guaranteed to signal through a fault
Low Power Permissive schemes do seem to work in any case

Quiescent Scheme
Low power under normal circumstances (guard tone)
High Power to guarantee signalling through faults
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 6
High Impedance Differential Protection
Slide 1
of
Slide 2
!!!
Bus Zone Protection Requirements

z
z
HIGH IMPEDANCE
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
M
I
S
Dependability
Busbar Protection
and
Galvanically Connected Plant
E
L
Dependability
Must trip for all in-zone faults
Discrimination
Must not trip for any out-of-zone faults
Security
Against all sources of mal-tripping
&
Security
Speed of operation
As quickly as possible
Slide 4
Internal Fault
CT Connections & Polarity
P1
RELAY
I1
P1
S1
I1
S1
I2
I2
S2
S2
P2
Barrie Moor
P2
Internal Fault
External Fault
RELAY
RELAY
May 2012
Page 1
Slide 8
3 Phase CT Connections
Slide 9
Current Mismatch
z
CT MARSHALLING
z
z
CT Manufacturing Variations
Inequality of CT Burdens
CT Saturation
Highest Fault Current on CT exposed to through fault

Worst possible mismatch is
z
z
Total saturation of the CT on the faulted plant

All other CTs transform perfectly
HZ RELAY
Slide 10
External Fault
External Fault & CT Saturation
CT Saturates :
Magnetising branch
impedance becomes zero
External Fault
Rlead
Rct
High
Impedance
RELAY
Relay
Rlead
RELAY
15000A
5000A
5000A
5000A
VRELAY = IFAULT (R CT + R LEADS )
Slide 12
CTs will saturate under internal fault conditions.
But relay operation is assured provided absolutely all
CTs meet the requirement
Internal Fault
Setting Voltage and Margins

z
Fault current comprises
No additional margin on the setting is required
And considering 0% / 100% CT saturation case
High
Impedance
RELAY
Relay
Hence, employ a DC Stabilised Relay
AC Component
DC Component
This in an unrealistically extreme case

100% safety margin is automatically built in
So, no additional safety margin on setting is required
Barrie Moor
VKNEE 2 VRELAY
May 2012
Page 2
Slide 14
Magnetising
Magnetising
current
currentat
atknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
CT Selection
z
z
CT
CTknee
knee
All CTs to be the same ratio
point
pointvoltage
voltage
All CTs to have Vk 2.Vsetting
This is an absolute MUST
CT
CTinternal
internal
Preferably Vk 5.Vsetting
resistance
resistance
Need to know
Knee Point voltage
CT Resistance
Class Requirements
Not critical
But easiest to specify class PX CTs
CTs will almost certainly saturate under in-zone fault conditions
Not suitable for connection to other protection relays
0.1 PX 200 R5
Slide 15
Current Operated Schemes

z
z
z
Voltage operated
Current operated, incl
stabilising resistor
Typical current settings
as low as possible, but
> 20% of plant rating
< 30% of fault current
200 ohms
V = I.R
= 0.2 x (200 + 10)
= 42 volts
20% setting is usually OK
Relay
0.2A
10 ohms
Assuming the CT has

been selected to match
plant rating
Slide 16
of
Summary
z
Slide 17
Ensure Stability under through faults
VRELAY = IFAULT (R CT + R LEADS )
VKNEE 2 VRELAY
z
HIGH IMPEDANCE
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
Ensure Operation for genuine in-zone faults
Beware of short cut methods
Do not simply set
Preferably
Preferably55times
timestotooptimise
optimise
relay
relayperformance,
performance,but
but22isisthe
the
absolute
absoluteminimum
minimumtotoensure
ensure
reliable
reliablerelay
relayoperation
operation
VRELAY =
Application to other Plant
VKNEE
2
Slide 18
HZ Protn Application to Plant

z
z
z
Slide 19
Auto Transformers
Requires Galvanic Connection

All CT ratios the same
Can Apply To
All CT ratios to
be the same
This CT will carry
maximum current
and hence
dictates ALL CT
ratios
Busbars
Transformers
Generators & Motors
Capacitors
Reactors
Barrie Moor
DIFF
May 2012
But this CT is internal

and may have a single
fixed ratio.
Thus, must be specified
correctly at time of
purchase !!
Page 3
Slide 20
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Slide 21
Reactors Earthed Neutral
A
CT terminals
near to
protected object
are connected
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
CT terminals
away from
protected object
are connected
REF
Slide 22
Reactors Floating Neutral
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
Floating neutral
bus is also protected
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 4
Transformers and
Sequence Components
Slide 1
of
Slide 2
Transformer Current Flows

z
Star / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault
Current flows in corresponding HV winding

Appears as EF on the HV system also
TRANSFORMERS
and
SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
Slide 4

But, suppose we dont have an upstream power system earth
However, consider the effect of adding a delta connected tertiary winding
HV line current flows in a 2:1:1 ratio
No I0 on the HV system as there is no path for neutral current flow
Slide 5

Retain the delta connected tertiary winding
But, lets reinstate the generator earth
Power system and delta winding zero sequence current flow
distributions will depend on their relative Z0 impedances
I0
I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2
I0I0
I1,
I1, I2,
I2, I0I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
So
So where
where did
did the
the I0
I0 go
go ??
??
Slide 6
Transformers, Sequence Components

and Differential Protection
z

z
Star/Star transformers, with a delta tertiary winding:

Will have a mismatch between zero sequence current flows
on the HV & the LV windings
It is thus necessary to exclude zero sequence current from
the differential relay protection algorithms
Star/Star transformers, without a delta tertiary winding:
May still have a mismatch between zero sequence current
flows on the HV & the LV windings
Delta / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault
Current in corresponding HV winding only

Appears as phase to phase fault from the perspective
of the HV system
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2 only
only
The transformer tank can act as a low quality tertiary delta

winding
It is thus still necessary to exclude zero sequence current

from the differential relay protection algorithms
Barrie Moor
Slide 7
I1,
I1, I2
I2 &
& I0
I0
So
So where
where did
did the
the I0
I0 go
go ??
??
May 2012
Page 1
Transformers and
Sequence Components
Slide 8

z
Delta / Star Transformer : LV phase to phase fault
Slide 9
Current in 2 LV windings
Current in 2 HV windings
Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
Star / Delta Transformer : LV phase to phase fault
Current in all 3 LV windings

Current in all 3 HV windings
Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
I1
I1 &
& I2
I2
Slide 11
Slide 12
30 deg
Sequence Components
Transformer LV ph-ph fault
Sequence Components
Transformer LV ph-ph fault
HV
30 deg
Consider B-C fault on the LV of either of

Star Delta transformer
Delta Star transformer
30 deg phase shift
will shift + 30 deg
Positive seq components
Negative seq components
will shift - 30 deg
LV phase to phase fault

A phase I1 & I2 cancel
B & C phase I1 & I2 are 60o apart
HV distribution is 1 : 2 : 1
LV
I1 & I2 are shifted 30o across the transformer

On two of the HV phases, I1 & I2 are now 120o apart
On one of the HV phases, I1 & I2 are now exactly in phase !!
Slide 13
Transformers, Sequence Components

and Differential Protection
z
z
Compensate for the transformer phase shift

Exclude zero sequence current from the differential
relay protection scheme
Zero sequence current can flow into and out of

earthed star windings
Zero sequence current cannot flow into or out of delta
windings
Zero sequence current can circulate around delta
windings (said to be trapped in the delta)
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 2
Transformer Protection
Slide 1
of
Slide 3
Types of Fault
z
z
z
z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
z
z
z
z
Phase-ground faults - from winding to core or winding to tank

Phase-phase faults - between windings
Interturn faults - between single turns or adjacent layers of the
same winding (Buchholz)
Arcing contacts
Local hotspots caused by shorted laminations
Low level internal partial discharges (moisture ingress or design
problems)
Bushing faults (internal to the tank)
Tapchanger faults (often housed in a separate tank)
Terminal faults (external to the tank, but inside the transformer
zone)
Slide 4
Slide 5
Gas Sample
Float
Buchholz Protection
Pressure Relief Device (Qualitrol)
Alarm
Trip
Float
Two floats in the relay:

Upper float
z
z
z
To Tank
detects accumulation of gas

detects loss of oil
Incipient faults
To Conservator
z
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
z
z
Partial discharge
Winding & core overheating
Bad contacts and joints
Spring assisted pressure relief devices

Relieves pressure impulses due to massive internal fault
conditions.
Helps prevent the tank bursting or splitting
Relay contacts are also connected to trip the transformer.
May alarm only or may be set to trip
Lower float
z
z
Since pressure waves travel with a finite velocity, they may

rupture the tank locally before the pressure wave has reached
the pressure relief device, if it is some distance away. Several
units may therefore be required on larger transformers.
detects surge in oil < 100ms

although it does take a finite time for
pressure waves to initiate Buchholz
tripping
Slide 6
of
Basic Transformer Protection

z
Fuses
Transformers without CBs
Perhaps to a few MVA
Overcurrent & Earth Fault Protection
Transformers with CBs
Perhaps 5 - 50MVA
Differential Protection
Transformers > 10MVA
z
z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
Fast
Can be sensitive
May detect terminal faults also
Barrie Moor
Slide 7
Biased Differential Protection
May 2012
Page 1
Slide 8
Slide 9
IT IS NOT THE P1/S1 OR P2/S2
ORIENTATIONS THAT ARE
IMPORTANT, BUT THE
PREFERENCE FOR THE
AWAY SIDES OF THE CTs
TO CONNECT TO THE RELAY
CURRENT FLOWS
INTO PLANT
CURRENT FLOWS
OUT OF PLANT
P1
P2
S1
S2
Differential
Relay
CURRENT FLOWS
INTO RELAY
P1
P1
S1
S1
CURRENT FLOWS
OUT OF RELAY
Differential
SIDE OF CT AWAY
FROM PROTECTED
PLANT CONNECTS
TO RELAY
Relay
TRIP
ELEMENT
SIDE OF CT AWAY
FROM PROTECTED
PLANT CONNECTS
TO RELAY
Differential
Relay
Slide 10
Differential Protection of Transformers
Transformer Differential Mismatch
132/66kV
100/1
100A
Slide 11
z
200/1
200A
z
z
z
z
TRIPPING ELEMENT
DETECTS ONLY THE
MIS-MATCH CURRENT
1A
1A
Transformer turns ratio & tap changing

Inrush on energisation (2nd harmonic)
Over excitation (5th harmonic)
CT Mismatch
Some CT Saturation on through faults
Transformer phase shifts
Earth fault (neutral zero sequence) currents
TRIP
ELEMENT
BIAS or
RESTRAINT
ELEMENT
BIAS or
RESTRAINT
ELEMENT
Slide 12
Inrush Current on
Energisation of Transformer
Slide 13
Second Harmonic on Inrush

z
Transformer inrush current on energization.
TRIP
ELEMENT
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Inrush current produces a current from the energizing

side only, appearing as an internal fault.
Inrush current magnitude can be as great as a through
3 phase fault.
This current is characterized by the appearance of
second harmonics, so additional restraint can be
based on this 2nd harmonic signature
Relay setting below the 2nd harmonic level is required
(Ratio of 2nd harmonic to fundamental)
Page 2
Slide 14
Second Harmonic on inrush
Slide 15
Fifth Harmonic on over excitation

z
Transformer Inrush Current

12
10
Current
8
6
4
2
Overfluxing, caused by too high a voltage, or too low a frequency.

Increased magnetising current
This is characterized by third & fifth harmonics.
Fifth harmonic restraint to retrain tripping of the differential
element
Typically no user calculations or settings are required
Sustained overfluxing may damage the transformer
Time delayed V/f tripping function (long time)
Especially applicable to generator transformers
z
2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Not so necessary for transmission or distribution applications

z
Seconds
Transformer Inrush Current
Frequency can be anywhere from zero to nominal during run-up

and run down
Frequency will not deviate significantly from nominal
Slide 16
Unbalance Currents
z
Bias Differential Protection
Mismatched CTs
Slide 17
CTs do not exactly compensate for transformer turns

ratio
Transformer turns ratio changes with tap changing
Implement a biasing restraint system
P1
S1
Bias Windings
Magnetizing current in the CTs, especially as some

saturation due to DC fault current sets in.
P1
S1
Operating
Winding
The amount of bias is increased under heavy through

fault conditions to compensate for possible CT
saturation
z
z
z
Allow for Transformer turns ratio

Allow for Transformer phase shifts
Eliminate Zero Sequence currents from the relaying system
Slide 19
of
Slide 20
CT Connections and Ratios

z
z
TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
z
z
CONTINUED
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Star/Delta and Delta/Star transformers have a 30 degree phase

shift
Compensate with CTs connected opposite to the transformer
connections. ie:
Star connected CTs on the delta side of the transformer
Delta connected CTs on the star side of the transformer
Phase shift compensated
Zero sequence currents flowing in the transformer star windings
prevented from entering the relaying system
But how do we get the correct delta connection for our CTs ???
Page 3
Slide 21
Determination of CT Connection
Slide 22
Determination of CT Connection
Yd11
Dy11
Diff Prot
Diff Prot
D1
D1
D11
D11
CT Primary is star connected

CT secondary is D11 connected
Overall connection is thus YD11
CT Primary is star connected

CT secondary is D1 connected
Overall connection is thus YD1
Slide 23
Star/Delta and Delta/Star Transformers

CT Connection Summary
z
Slide 24
CT Connection Summary
z
Transformer HV is STAR connected

HV CTs are delta connected
HV CTs EQUAL to the transformer phase shift
LV CTs in star
Compensates for the phase shift across a star-delta

transformer.
Prevents any zero sequence currents flowing in the

star winding from entering the relay
And for Star / Star transformers ??
Transformer LV is STAR connected

LV CTs delta connected
LV CTs OPPOSITE to the transformer phase shift
HV CTs in star
The correct vector group must be chosen for the CTs

to ensure that through currents balance.
Since they are not present in the line on the delta side.
It is still necessary to eliminate Io from the relaying
system
Connect CTs delta / delta
Or use the D12 / D12 feature of microprocessor relays
Slide 25
CT YD11 Connections
CT YD1 Connections
A
S2
S2
S1
D11
D11
Slide 26
S1
D1
D1
A phase output is at "11 o'clock"

A phase "S1" connects to B phase "S2"
B phase "S1" connects to C phase "S2"
C phase "S1" connects to A phase "S2"
May 2012
S2
B
S1
C
D11

Barrie Moor
S1
C
S2
S2
S1
D11
S1
S2
S1
S2
S2
C
S1
S2
S1
D1

Page 4
Slide 28
Away side of CTs connected to relay.
Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out
P1
P2
S1
S2
A1
A2
a2
a1
P2
P1
S2
S1
There must be a path for the current to flow

There must be an Ampere Turns balance
If there is current flowing in one winding
If there is no current flowing in one winding
z
z
Bias Windings
Operating
Windings
There must be current in the coupled winding

There can be no current in the coupled winding
Notice that the

connections for
the Delta windings
are the same !!
Away side of CTs connected to relay.
Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out.
External Phase Earth Fault

P1
P2
S1
S2
A1
A2
a2
External Phase Phase Fault
a1
P2
P1
P1
P2
S2
S1
S1
S2
A1
A2
Bias Windings
a2
a1
Operating
Windings
Protection Scheme remains balanced

HV 0:1:1 (HV looks like a phase phase fault)
LV 0:0:1 (LV is actually a single phase fault)
Delta CTs and Ratio Selection
Operating
Windings
Protection Scheme remains balanced

HV 1:2:1 (HV has a 2:1:1 current distribution)
LV 0:1:1 (LV is actually a phase phase fault)
Barrie Moor
Delta CTs and Ratio Selection

z
1 / 0 1/-240
-24
= 1.732 /-30
1/
Slide 32
1/
CT ratios must allow for the

fact that current flowing into
the relay from the delta
connected CTs is 3 times
the CT secondary current
Hence, a standard 1A CT will
result in relay current of 3
times the CT secondary
current
Thus, CTs with ratios such as
1000/0.577 are, for this
reason, quite common.
P1
S1
Bias Windings
Slide 31
P2
S2
1 / -120
May 2012
CT ratios must allow for the

fact that current flowing into
the relay from the delta
connected CTs is 3 times
the CT secondary current
Hence, a standard 1A CT will
result in relay current of 3
times the CT secondary
current
Thus, CTs with ratios such as
1000/0.577 are, for this
reason, quite common.
1 / 0 1/-240
Ia - Ic = 1.732 /-30
Page 5
Slide 33
Slide 34
Modern Microprocessor Relays

z
z
z
All CTs connected in Star

Relay has to process phase shifts
Relay has to remove neutral current
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
IA RELAY = IA IC
P1
S1
P1
IBRELAY = IB IA
P1
ICRELAY = IC IB
P1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
P1
P1
P1
P1
IARELAY
1 0 1 IA
1
IB

RELAY = 3 1 1 0 IB
ICRELAY
0 1 1 IC
Slide 36
D1
IArelay
1 0 1 IA
IB
:= 1 1 1 0 IB
relay
3
0 1 1 IC
ICrelay
D11
IArelay
1 1 0 IA
IB
1 0 1 1 IB
relay :=
3
1 0 1 IC
ICrelay
S2
C
S1
S1
S2
B
S1
C
D1

Relay internal processing adjusts for phase angle

Relay internal processing rejects zero sequence
components
CT ratios mismatches can also now be

accommodated
S1
S2
S2
D11
All CTs can now be connected in Star
S1
B
S2
S2
S1
Internal processing within relay then adjusts CT

current to match transformer turns ratio
CTs can be fine tuned to match middle tap position
Allows for more sensitive relay settings

Slide 37
Transformer Bias Differential Protection

4
CT Phase and Ratio Adjustment
Differential
Current
TAP POSITION
Diff := I1 + I2
Dyn1
20MVA 33/11kV
3.5
Transformer
Transformer
Internal
InternalFault
Fault
Protection
ProtectionTrips
Trips
3
2.5
2
400/1
350A
1050A
OPERATE
OPERATE
1500/1
1.5
00
0.875A
00
RESTRAIN
RESTRAIN
-300
-300
Magnitudes normalised to transformer FLC

Phase angles compensated
Zero sequence current eliminated
1
0.5
0.7A
Software
CT Ratio
Adjustment
Barrie Moor
Software CT
x 1.143
00
1A
Differential
Element
00
Yd11
1A
Software CT
x 1.429
0.5
1.5
15% Differential Setting

Transformer Microprocessor Differential Protection Relay

Yy0
Through
ThroughFault
Faultwith
with
CT
CTSaturation
Saturation
May 2012
2.5
3.5
Bias Current
Through
ThroughFault
Fault
Mismatch
Mismatchdue
duetotoCT
CTRatios
Ratios&&
Transformer
TransformerTap
TapChanging
Changing
4.5
5
5.5
6
Bias :=
I1 + I2
2
Page 6
Low Impedance Busbar Differential Protection
Slide 2
of
Slide 3
Low Impedance Busbar Protn

z
Utilises Bias Restraint
Often applied as a retrofit

Expensive
Are not simple schemes
LOW IMPEDANCE
BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
z
z
1 x 3 phase input for every item of plant
Slide 4
Basic Types
z
Special Features
Central Unit
GE B30
SEL 487B
REB 670 & RED 521
Areva P746
Mismatched CTs
Areva P740
ABB REB500
Applicable where CT ratios vary

Applicable where CT classes vary
Poor quality CTs
Bay units with connection to central unit
Slide 5
Increased operating current pickup

Reduced knee point for increase in bias
Increased bias slope
CT saturation algorithms
Slide 7
Slide 8
CT Saturation
and Through Fault Performance
LZ Busbar Bias Differential Characteristic

Internal Fault
Operating
Current
Operating
Current
TRIP
ZONE
Internal Fault
Increased
operating
current pickup
CT
CT
Saturation
Saturation
Increased bias
slope
Reduced knee
point for
increase in bias
Monitor
Monitorthe
thelocus
locusand
anduse
usethis
this
to
todetect
detectCT
CTsaturation
saturationand
andrestrain
restrainthe
the
relay
relayunder
underthrough
throughfault
faultconditions
conditions
Through Fault
Through Fault
Bias Current
Barrie Moor
TRIP
ZONE
Bias Current
May 2012
Page 1
Slide 9
Special Features
z
Feeder and coupler

CTs for BZ1 scheme
One relay covers (say) up to 6 zones

Do not need separate CTs where zones overlap
Do not need separate CTs for Master & Check Zones
Feeder CTs for

overall check zone
Allow for dynamic switching of bus zones
Mis-matched CTs
Poor quality CTs
Provide for multiple bus zones
Multiple Bus Zones
CT problems accommodated
Slide 10
Feeder and coupler

CTs for BZ2 scheme
Requires Isolator status (a & b) inputs
Provide CB Fail and CB Fail Bus Trip Facilities
Slide 12
Dynamic Switching of Bus Zones
Slide 13
Two separate BZ
schemes
Diameter closed.
Single BZ scheme for
entire substation
Check
zone
Check
zone
Slide 14
Slide 15
Bus Zone CB Fail Protection

z
CB Fail for a bus zone fault
Fault on bus
CB Failure detected by BZ relay inbuilt CBF feature
BZ relay initiates tripping of remote CB(s)
z
z
Bus 2 disconnector
now open.
BZ schemes
reconfigured OK.
Remote end CBs for plant connected to bus

Next bus for coupler or section CB failure
Check
zone
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 2
Slide 16
CB Fail Protection & CBF Bus Tripping

z
CB Fail for a plant fault (eg feeder fault)

Plant protection detects fault and initiates tripping of its
CB(s)
Plant protection also initiates BZ relay inbuilt CBF feature
(via opto input)
CB Failure detected by BZ relay inbuilt CBF feature
BZ relay knows what bus the plant is connected to
BZ relay knows what other plant is connected to that bus
BZ relay initiates CBF Bus Trip of required CBs
Especially important for switched busbars
BZ relay is the only system that knows the busbar
topology !!
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Page 3
Feeder Differential Protection
Slide 1
Slide 2
Pilot Wire Relaying

Limitations and Requirements
of
Pilot Length
Pilot Cost
Pilot Wire Resistance
z
z
FEEDER
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
Pilot Wire Capacitance

z
z
Pilot Wire Protection

z
Must not exceed relay design limitations

But, add separate (padding) resistors to bring the pilots to the relay
manufacturers design value (say 1000 ohms)
May disable relay operation : circulating current scheme
May unstabilise relay operation : opposed voltage scheme
Relays at each feeder end tripping local CBs for

Strong infeed
Weak infeed
Zero infeed
Two Elements
Operating element - trips relay on mismatch
Bias element - restrains relay on through current
Slide 3
Circulating Current Scheme
Circulating Current Scheme
R
O
Slide 4
Through current results in relay current circulating between line end relays
z
z
z
Through current results in relay current circulating between line end relays
Feeder fault current results in current flowing in the relay operating
elements
And the effect of Pilot capacitance ??
Desensitises or even disables the relay operating elements
Slide 6
Opposed Voltage Scheme
z
z
z
z
Slide 7
Opposed Voltage Scheme
to relay
restraint
Through current results in relay current limited
circulating
between
line elements
end relays
Pilot wires crossed to create an opposed voltage scheme
And reconfigure the operating and restraining elements
And the effect of Pilot capacitance ??
Disables relay restraint : may trip on through faults
Barrie Moor
May 2012
Feeder fault current results in current flowing in the relay operating

elements
Page 1
Slide 8
Summation Transformer
z
z
z
z
Slide 9
Summation Transformer
This arrangement ensures

correct operation under
2:1:1 current distributions
Allows comparison of composite quantity

Must trip for all internal faults
Must be stable for all external faults
Various sensitivities ..... OK
1.25
FAULT
TYPE
RELATIVE
PICK-UP
A-B
B-C
C-A
A-B-C
A-N
B-N
C-N
0.8A
1.0A
0.44A
0.51A
0.19A
0.25A
0.33A
B
1
C
N
SUMMATION TRANSFORMER
Slide 10
Slide 11
of
Complete Scheme
Padding resistance at each
end to bring total pilot
resistance to the relay
specification requirements
PADDING
RESISTOR
PADDING
RESISTOR
STABILISING
RESISTOR
PILOT WIRES
TAPPED
PILOT ISOLATION
TRANSFORMER
Just a few ohms to improve

stability under heavy through
fault conditions
FEEDER
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
SUMMATION
TRANSFORMER
PILOT WIRE
RELAY
PILOT WIRE
RELAY
SUMMATION
TRANSFORMER
TAPPED
PILOT ISOLATION
TRANSFORMER
Digital Current Differential

Protection
STABILISING
RESISTOR
Tapped pilot isolation

transformers R Turns2
Slide 12
12
i2
i1
Digital Current Differential Schemes

z
z
z
z
Digital Communications
Individual measurements per phase
Channel delay automatically compensated
Data security checks
i4
i5
i6
12
2 N 1
I S = sin( n t in )
N n=1
CRC & Parity bits
IC =
Barrie Moor
i3
May 2012
i8
i7
2.
2 i0 iN N 1
+ + cos( n t in )
N 2 2 n= 1
Page 2
Slide 14
Slide 15
In-Phase & Quadrature Components
Current Differential Data Synchronisation

z
z
z
How can the local and remote end data samples by

synchronised
GPS
Ping Pong Topology
Asynchronous Samples
Synchronised Samples
Slide 18
RELAY
A
Curre
tA1
Data alignment for non-synchronised

schemes
RELAY
B
nt V e
Adjust
Adjustthe
thenonnonsynchronised
synchronised
samples
samplesvia
via
relay
relay
computation
computation
algorithm
algorithm
ctors
tB1
tp1
tA2
tA1
tA3
td
tp1 = tp 2 =
tB3*
(tA * TA1 td )
2
tA4
Curre
tp2
tA5
tA*
tB3
tA6
tA1
tB2
Remote
relay
samples
tB*
tB3
Local
relay
samples
ctors
nt V e
tB4
td
tB5
Relay ping-pong system
determines that it needs a sample
at tB3, whereas samples exist at
tA3 and tA4 choose the closest. tB6
Slide 19
IX
IY
Ping Pong Topology

Asynchronous Samples
z
Relay selects nearest available and uses the Ping Pong to

adjust the non-synchronised samples via its computation
algorithm
Both systems require equal send and receive times (paths)

GPS Synchronisation
Truly Synchronised Samples (time tagged)
Send and receive times (paths) do NOT have to match
Ping Pong Back-up
Barrie Moor
k2=100%
k2
k2=100%
Feeder
Feeder
Fault
FaultEvent
Event
TRIP
TRIP
NO
NO TRIP
TRIP
k1
k1=30%
k1=30%
Ping Pong system aligns the samples which can then be

compared directly
IBIAS = 0.5 (IX + IY + IZ )
IZ
Z
Synchronised Samples
z
DIFFERENTIAL
CURRENT
Current Differential Data Synchronisation
IDIFF = IX + IY + IZ
Through
Through
Load
Loador
or
Fault
FaultEvent
Event
IS1=0.2
IS1=0.2pu
pu
IS1
IS2 pu
IS2=2.0
IS2=2.0
pu
May 2012
BIAS CURRENT
Page 3
Slide 21
Slide 22
Trip
Trip
Restrain
Restrain
Alpha Plane Representation

Ziegler : Numerical Differential Protection
Alpha Plane Representation

z
z
Some relays now use the ratio of remote to local end

feeder currents to define their characteristic
This will ideally be -1 under through load and
through fault conditions
Increasing
IncreasingBias
BiasSlope
Slope
Conventional Differential
vs Restraint characteristics
can also be represented on
the alpha plane
Trip
Trip
Restrain
Restrain
Slide 23
Alpha Plane
Restrain Zone Requirements
z
Slide 24
Alpha Plane
Balance : Restrain & Trip Zone Requirements
Restrain Zone must, as a minimum, be adjusted to

provide for magnitude and angular deviation for
Line charging current

CT saturation
Relay trip region needs to expand

to accommodate angle variation
under in-zone fault conditions.
Similarly, the restrain zone needs
to expand to ensure stability
under through load and fault
conditions.
That is, allow for variations and
simultaneously increase both
zones to achieve the optimum.
Slide 25
Alpha Plane
SEL311L Recommendation
z
z
Barrie Moor
Current Differential Signalling
Trip Zone to ensure correct

tripping for all in-zone faults
Restrain Zone to ensure
stability for all external load
and fault conditions
195 recommended
Slide 26
z
z
z
2 ended schemes single comms

3 ended schemes dual comms
Daisy chained schemes
SEL advises that this allows 35

of margin for other sources of
error
May 2012
Page 4
Slide 27
2 Ended Scheme Single Comms
Slide 28
3 Ended Scheme Dual Comms
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
DIFF
Slide 30
Daisy Chain Scheme : >3 Ended
Slide 31
Daisy Chain Scheme : with Redundancy
D
DIFF
DIFF
B
DIFF
ID
IA + IB
B
DIFF
ID
IB + IC + ID
IA + IB
IA + IB + IC
DIFF
DIFF
IC + ID
IC + ID
IA
Schemes covering up to 6 ended

tee feeders are available
IA
Close the Daisy Chain
DIFF
A
Barrie Moor
IB + IC + ID
IA + IB + IC
May 2012
Redundant path is normally idle

Redundant path becomes active
when any other link is broken
DIFF
A
Page 5
Auto Reclosing
Slide 1
Slide 2
Application of Auto Reclosing
of
z
z
z
Most faults are single phase

Most faults are transient
Hence, an automatic reclosure is often provided to
restore faulted feeders to service
AUTO RECLOSING
EHV Systems
HV Systems
Distribution Systems
To improve transient and voltage stability of the

system
To restore the system to normal levels of security
To restore supply to customers
Slide 3
Safety Aspects of Auto Reclosing

z
z
Auto Reclosing Sequence
Auto Reclosing is usually blocked or inhibited for

Cases where the following plant may be affected
z
z
Cables
Transformers
Cases where the initial protection operation may

have involved backup for
Slide 4
z
z
CB Fail Event
Blind Spot Event
Failure of a remote protection scheme
Initiate by protection operation

CB Auto Recloses after Dead Time
With checks to ensure the CB was actually previously
closed
With checks to ensure the fault was actually on the feeder
and that protection operation is not a back-up function
Scheme resets after Reclaim Time
Scheme lockouts
Transmission schemes typically lockout upon occurrence of
a 2nd fault within reclaim time
Distribution schemes may allow multiple reclosures
Slide 5
Auto Reclosing Initiate Signal

z
Feeder differential protection

Distance relay Zone 1 protection
Distance relay Fast Zone 2 protection
Transformer or Shunt Reactor fault
CBF or Blind Spot faults

Following manual close of CB
AR Check systems
z
z
eg. Distance relay Slow Zone 2 protection
Usually not for tripping for remote faults

Allow for trip signal resetting
Usually not for slow speed tripping
Blocking of Auto Reclosing
Usually for high speed tripping only
Slide 6
May need to extend the relay trip signal
Barrie Moor
May 2012
eg. On receipt of DIT or SIT from remote end
Dead line check to prevent the master end reclose

onto a back-energised system
Live line check to only allow the slave end reclose
onto a healthy feeder
Sync check at the slave end to prevent re-connection
between systems that are now out of synchronism
Page 1
Auto Reclosing
Slide 7
Auto Reclosing Dead Time

z
Auto Reclosing Dead Time
Time delay between operation of protection and

initiation of CB close - has to provide for
Beware of AR effects on nearby power stations
Fault clearance (local and remote end clearance)

Dissipation of ionised air
Effects of parallel feeders, parallel phases (SPAR) &
coupling
z
z
Slide 8
AR onto multiphase fault should be avoided until

oscillations of the generator shaft have subsided,
perhaps:
z
z
5 seconds for double phase to ground faults

10 seconds for three phase faults
Inductive
Capacitive
Resetting of protection relay
Slide 9
Auto Reclosing Reclaim Time

z
z
EHV Auto Reclosing
To prevent multiple reclosures onto permanent faults

Time delay following autoreclosure during which
another fault is considered to be re-occurrence of the
original fault
Slide 10
Not to be set too short as reoccurring faults may not

be properly identified
Not to be set too long as totally independent faults
may be incorrectly identified as reoccurrence of the
original fault
To ensure the CB capability for Trip - Close - Trip

sequences is not be compromised
Weakly interconnected systems

System stability is of prime concern
Strongly interconnected systems
Return of system security is of concern
SPAR and/or TPAR
SPAR for 1 phase faults
TPAR for 2 and 3 phase faults
Perhaps with different dead times
Typically only single shot
Failed reclose attempts will have a serious effect on system
stability
Trip all 3 poles and lockout if AR is unsuccessful
Slide 11
Slide 12
Single Pole Auto Reclosing (SPAR)
of
Advantages
Single Pole Auto

Reclosing
(SPAR)
Requires phase selective circuitry
CB Pole discrepancy
Barrie Moor
May 2012
In-service phases maintain system synchronism

In-service phases improve system robustness
Less system disturbance on reclose
Tripping, Closing and CB Fail
Breaker must accept the single pole open operation
during SPAR
Page 2
Auto Reclosing
Slide 13

z
(Due to coupling effects, particularly capacitive coupling)
Weakly interconnected systems : 2 phasing

scenarios
May need to be increased over TPAR time

z
Dead Time
Slide 14
Minimal affect on power stations

But beware of possible cross country faults on
double circuit feeders
Reasonably short dead time may be required
Each feeder experiences a single phase fault

But the system, and nearby power stations, are
subjected to a double phase to ground fault
Strongly interconnected systems
Longer dead times may be acceptable
Slide 15

z
SPAR & Transformer Ended Feeders

z
No requirement for sync check
Slide 16
System synchronism is ensured by the remaining

2 in-service phases
Typically, no live line check implemented either
Single pole tripping of transformer ended feeders must not occur

The open phase remains magnetically coupled
100% voltage is likely on the open phase
Fault is sustained for the complete dead time
Disastrous consequences for the transformer and for system
stability
Flux from B & C
phases continues to
energise A phase
Single phase faults do not pose a significant risk to

system stability or to nearby plant
Common practice is to not implement such check
facilities.
Both ends simply reclose and both will be subject to
the effects of a permanent fault and will then trip (all 3
phases) and lock-out
A phase fault
current continues
Whoops !!
Slide 17
Slide 18
Three Pole Auto Reclosing (TPAR)
of
EHV Systems
Three Pole Auto

Reclosing
(TPAR)
SPAR often implemented for single phase faults

TPAR implemented for multi-phase faults
z
SPAR rarely implemented for single phase faults

TPAR usually implemented for all fault types
z
TPAR implemented for all fault types

z
May 2012
Master/Slave system usually implemented
Distribution Systems
Barrie Moor
Master/Slave system always implemented
HV Systems
System is usually radial
Page 3
Auto Reclosing
Slide 19

Live Line Check
z

Synchronism (Sync) Check
Simple Voltage check to implement a Master/Slave

system
Slide 20
Strongly Interconnected Systems
Master end recloses after the dead time

Slave end only recloses if the feeder is healthy
Prevents multiple reclosures onto permanent faults
Master end must have a secure source of supply
But near to Power Stations, the remote end may be

selected as Master
Minimising the power station effects of reclosure onto

permanent faults
Hence, usually the stronger end
Feeder tripping is unlikely to split the system

Synchronism is maintained
Sync Check is not needed
Dead times can be longer
Weakly interconnected systems
Feeder tripping may split the system

Synchronism may be lost
Sync check is needed
Dead times need to be shorter
Slide 21
Slide 22

Synchronism (Sync) Check
z
of
Sync Check may allow reclosure for:

LLLB : Live Line, Live Bus, in synchronism
LLDB : Live Line, Dead Bus
DLLB : Dead Line, Live Bus
DLDB : Dead Line, Dead Bus
Sync Check monitors both sides of the CB for:
Frequency
Voltage
Phase angle
Rate of change of frequency (df/dt)
Distribution System
Auto Reclosing
(To ensure the systems are not drifting at an unacceptable rate)
Slide 23
Distribution System Auto Reclosing

High Speed Tripping

z
z
z
Longer fault clearance times

Fault damage (eg. arc burning) can cause a transient fault to
become permanent
Longer fault clearance times
Slow clearance can allow a semi-permanent fault to burn clear
Connected load
Industrial Customers
z
Dead times must allow expensive, complex or dangerous processes to

become fully disconnected before restoring supply
Domestic Customers
z
z
Simple loss of supply is of prime importance

Autoreclose delay is chosen to optimise protection performance,
minimise fault damage, and to automatically return supply to as many
customers as possible
Barrie Moor
Slide 24
May 2012
High speed tripping results in minimal fault damage and

minimises the possibility of transient faults becoming
permanent
But protection discrimination is lost
Downstream faults may result in the rapid and non-selective
tripping of upstream circuit breakers
Auto reclose returns supply to all customers
Multiple reclosures are usually implemented
High speed tripping is inhibited after reclosure
On reclosure, permanent faults will be tripped by time
coordinated schemes, ensuring discrimination
After reclosure, permanent faults then result in tripping of
only the faulted portion of the system
Page 4
Auto Reclosing
Slide 25

Semi-Permanent Faults
z
CB
(Recloser)
System disturbances minimised

Transient faults cleared and system restored
Slower time graded tripping after reclosure
Sectionaliser
Sectionaliser
N=3
N=2
Perhaps due to contact with a tree
High speed tripping on the initial event

Sectionalisers
Slower protection operations allow for semipermanent faults to be burnt away
Slide 26
Slower, coordinated tripping clears just the faulted

portion of the system
Slower tripping allows for semi-permanent faults to be
burnt away
May involve multiple reclosures
Applies to radial distribution systems

Feeder fault is cleared at the source end CB (Recloser)
Sectionaliser
Cannot clear fault current
But counts the number of recloses
And sectionalises the feeder during the open dead time
Slide 27
Slide 28

Sectionalisers
CB
(Recloser)
z
z
z
z
Sectionaliser
Sectionaliser
N=3
N=2
of
Auto Reclosing
and
Safety
Fault occurs N = 1
CB Trips
No action by sectionalisers
Auto Reclose
Fault re-occurs N = 2
CB Trips
N = 2, so sectionaliser opens during the AR dead time
Auto reclose
System restored, but with faulted section isolated
Slide 29
Auto Reclosing and Safety

SEF Protection
Auto Reclosing and Safety

z
z
z
Slide 30
In autoreclosing fails, manual closing will be delayed

to ensure public safety
Autoreclosing should be turned off in times of power
system maintenance
Autoreclosing should not be initiated for faults not
likely to be transient
z
z
Barrie Moor
Distribution system sensitive earth fault protection
May 2012
Detects very low level earth faults

These pose a significant danger to the public
These are rarely transient events
Faults to trees, fences, even to dry roads
Long time clearance : 10 or more seconds
Auto Reclose Reclaim time must be set longer than

SEF protection times
SEF protection trips should inhibit or block any
subsequent auto reclosing sequences.
Page 5
Auto Reclosing
Slide 31
Auto Reclosing and Fire Considerations

(Victoria Black Saturday)
z
z
z
Auto Reclosing and Fire Considerations

(Victoria Black Saturday)
Of special relevance to distribution and SWER systems

Longer fault clearances increase the likelihood of fire ignition.
High speed autoreclosure also increases the likelihood of fire
ignition
The initial event may not cause fire ignition, but it
predisposes dry forest fuel to ignition on subsequent events
(reclosure)
Probability of fire ignition is perhaps 3 times greater on
reclosure than on the initial event
Barrie Moor
Slide 32
In times of fire risk:

Protection operations need to be high speed
Second shot, slow protection tripping should be avoided
Autoreclosing dead times should be extended (30 secs or
more)
Autoreclosing should be turned off
z
z
May 2012
Periods of extreme fire risk

Locations with extreme consequences
Page 6
Slide 1
Slide 2
of
Overcurrent & Earthfault protection
CAPACITOR BANK
PROTECTION
Differential protection
z
z
IDMT
INST
Eg. For HV & EHV applications
HZ or LZ biased schemes
Balance protection
Over Voltage protection
Slide 3
Capacitor Bank Ratings

z
In-Rush Current
z
Maximum continuous operation at 110% Voltage
Add these sinusoidal quantities
But the system typically operates 1.05pu voltage or

higher
Thus typically specify capacitor bank to provide for this
Eg. A 20MVar 33kV bank would be specified and
purchased as 24MVar at 36kV
Steady state (load) current

Inrush from the system
Inrush from adjacent banks
) (
2
ITOT _ RMS = IL + e 1t ISYS _ RMS + e 2 t IADJ _ RMS

2
Maximum continuous operation at 130% Current
Slide 4
(Extra component on current is to allow for harmonics)
z
z
1
Zc =
2 freq C
Slide 6
In-Rush Current
z
Effect of inrush on protection may be eliminated by

using stabilised relays
(ie. not sensitive to higher frequency components)
IDMT OC Protection
z
z
z
Series Reactor(s) installed to limit inrush current

May be installed at line potential
May be installed at neutral potential, one per phase, above the star
point
Apply to (n-1) banks to limit inrush from adjacent banks
Apply to all banks to limit inrush from the system
Also limits outrush to system faults
Inrush current may also be limited by POW switching
Barrie Moor
This is a worst case solution

As an absolute worst case approach, use this
current in determining IDMT O/C relay TMS Settings
Slide 5
In-Rush Current - Adjacent Banks
High set (Inst) OC Protection

z
z
May 2012
Probably no problems in any case

Typically set to 150%, 0.1 0.2 TMS
Should be stabilised
And even then, 1 or 2 cycle time delay may be
necessary
Page 1
Slide 7

z
Slide 8
Un-Earthed Capacitor Banks (non-effectively earthed systems)

With no earth connection, phase currents balance and residual
current on inrush is thus small.
Sensitive and fast IDMT EF protection can be applied.
Earthed Capacitor Banks (effectively earthed systems)
EF tripping on in-rush and also on out-rush is likely.
EF protection maybe disabled in such circumstances.
Stabilised EF protection can be simply set above load current.
Setting less than 2% of terminal EF levels not recommended.
Beware of setting electromechanical IDMT relays excessively
sensitive as the large relay burden can cause CT saturation under
heavy terminal fault events.
No timing issues, so TMS of 0.1 may be appropriate.
Slide 9
Slide 14
Internally Fused Can

z
Failed element has negligible effect

Failure mode of a capacitor element is for it to short circuit
Associated fuse blows
Only a small part of capacitor is lost
Adjacent elements
z
z
Small current increase

Small voltage increase
Requires at least 8 elements

in parallel
Applicable to larger cans
Discharge resistor
Reduce can voltage to 50V
within 5 minutes
z
z
Slide 15
Externally Fused Can

z
z
z
Fuseless Can
Failed element shorts the parallel elements

Whole row is shorted and is effectively OOS
z
Slide 16
Can impedance reduces

Can current increases
z
z
With further failures, external fuse operates

Typically for lower kVar cans
Few elements in parallel
Many elements in series
Cap bank made up of series and parallel cans
Parallel cans allow bank to remain in
service with one can out (fuse blown).
Discharge resistor
Reduce to 50V within 5 minutes
Barrie Moor
Failed element shorts the parallel elements

Whole row is shorted and is effectively OOS
May 2012
Can impedance reduces

Can current increases
Typically for lower kVar cans

Few elements in parallel
Many elements in series
HV Capacitor bank
Cans in series, none in parallel
LV Capacitor bank
Cans in parallel, few (or none) in series
Discharge resistor
Reduce to 50V within 5 minutes
Page 2
Slide 17
Balance Protection
z
Slide 18
Balance Protection
Unbalance detected by simple

neutral displacement voltage
measurement
But this will also be sensitive to
system voltage unbalances
Steady state
During faults
Monitor 3 phase terminal volts
also to compensate for any
system voltage unbalance
Time delay to allow system
faults to clear
z
z
z
Cans positioned at commissioning for minimum neutral

unbalance current flow
Monitor unbalance neutral current
Unaffected by system unbalances
Voltage
Displacement
Current
Balance
Slide 19
Balance Protection
Phase Segregated Scheme
B
Balance
Balance
Note that these two schemes give different results

Unearthed system neutral voltages are locked together, and
will change with unbalance
Earthed system neutral simply remain locked at earth
potential
Balance
Balance Protection
z
Slide 20
Current
Balance
Slide 21
Slide 22
1 Capacitor
Can
Capacitor Bank Construction

and Failure Mode
Balance Protection
Principles
Balance
Protection
Internally Fused
Capacitor Can
z
1 Capacitor
Can
Balance
Protection
Internally Fused
Capacitor Can
Barrie Moor
One Phase of a
36kV, 24MVAr Capacitor Bank
When initially commissioned, zero current flows via balance

protection
On failure of one element in one can, a small current is now
detected
The parallel elements in that can also now have a small
over voltage condition
Hence, all other things being equal, the most likely
subsequent failure is another element in the same row in
the same can
Unbalance current subsequently increases and is detected
One Phase of a
May 2012
Page 3
Slide 23
Slide 24
1 Capacitor
Can
Balance Protection
Principles
Internally Fused
Capacitor Can
Over Voltage Protection
Balance
Protection
One Phase of a
Trip before 10% overvoltage on the parallel cans small time

delay
Typically about 50% of elements failed
Alarm at half this value small time delay
Typically about 25% of elements failed
Unbalance current is very small maybe <1A primary
CT ratio typically 1 / 1A
CT does not need a protection class specification, in fact a
measurement class CT should probably be specified
Barrie Moor
z
z
z
May 2012
To trip the bank if the continuous voltage capability (110%) is

exceeded
To protect the system from over voltage due to the capacitor
banks
Coordinate with any nearby generator under excitation
protection
Trip capacitors to reduce system voltage before any
generator protections may operate
Staged tripping recommended
To prevent wide spread capacitor tripping and hence
prevent a subsequent under voltage event from occurring
eg. Where more than one bank is installed at a substation
eg. Where banks are installed a nearby substations
Page 4

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Fundamental Principles of

Power System Protection

The material presented in this module is for Educational

Fundamental Concepts of Protection Design

Seminar costs will vary depending on attendee

You can expect savings of between 40%

2 or 3 day seminar presentation

Each attendee receives:

Two or three day seminar presentation

Seminar conference room (preferably on-site, within your own facilities)

To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

Basic Calculations : 3 Phase Fault

Basic Calculations : Ph - Ph Fault

Basic Calculations : Earth Fault

Per Unit Values

For those who think this is hard you always

Per Unit Values

Per Unit Values and Transformers

But I manufacture 100MVA 132/66kV Transformers, so these

Transfer impedances to the HV side (via (turns))2

On the 66kV side 1 pu voltage = 66 kV

Convert impedances to per unit on 100 MVA base

Per Unit Values

So, with the same base MVA

Transfer impedances to the LV side (via (turns))2

Per Unit Quantities : Change of Base

So, with the same base MVA

Manufacturer base quantities most likely will not match the

Per Unit Quantities : Change of Base

Per Unit Quantities : Change of Base

System fault study

Classical Fault Study

Pre-fault voltages set to 1/0

This is adequate for setting of protection relays

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Positive sequence only

Three phase load

3 Phase Balanced Current

Balanced currents sum to zero

Positive Sequence Network

Sequence Networks (A phase)

Positive and Negative sequence components only

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Sequence Networks (A phase)

|I1| = |I2| = 50% of 3 phase fault level

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Phase to Phase Example

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Zero Sequence Network

Phase to Ground Example

Negative Sequence Network

Zero Sequence Network

Negative Sequence Network

Positive Sequence Network

Earth Fault current is 3 x Io

Positive Sequence Network