The Cultural and Social Incorporation of Sociological Knowledge

Author(s): Robert K. Merton and Alan Wolfe

Source: The American Sociologist, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Fall, 1995), pp. 15-39
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27698733 .
Accessed: 27/05/2013 17:41
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The American Sociologist.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

The

and

Cultural

Social

Incorporation

of Sociological
Robert

Any

evaluation

examine
into

the

methods

and

public

degree
on

alienation

point

the

sociology

that made

obtuse

culture

to

point

develop

and

the

society.

The

techniques

incorporation

possible

between

in the

first

sociology
caused

problems

public

the

danger

notion

cannot

is that

by
that

compre

is too

sociology

is, the less likely itwill be tomaintain

its

we

incorporated

the

when

the way

article,

sociological

example

that

language
that

this

been

relationship

culture?for

general

problems

into American

incorporated

popular

in an

to

the

the

often

sociologists

from

is written

sociology
hend?we

edge

While

of

impact

on

only

In

have

concepts

and

society,

not

it is consumed.

the

society,

and

politics

Wolfe

to focus

ought

sociological

of American

policy.

certain

a discipline
on how

also

to which

the vernacular

and

but

and Alan

Merton

as

of sociology

is produced,

sociology

K.

Knowledge

readily

the more

the sharp intellectual

place.

Introduction
One of the least understood
of a science
is the
stages in the development
scientific
which
and
of
leave
take
process
by
findings, concepts,
ways
thinking
from the scientists who
enter
them
and
the
culture
and
the
originate
general
occurs
This
in
which
con
is of particular
larger society.
process,
any science,
cern

has

to sociologists.
described

been

everyday

The

terms and concepts

of sociology
that
through a process
can
become
diffused
incorporation
throughout
in the process,
in the academic
language?often,
losing their origins
that gave them birth. Moreover,
and tech
sociological
knowledge
as cultural

discipline
nique can be

of social
the direct
subject to the parallel process
incorporation,
or indirect (and unwitting)
reliance on the findings and methods
of sociology by
social
institutions and aspects of the social structure, both macro
and micro.

Robert
Scholar

Merton

K.
of

Merton

is University
Professor
Foundation.
Sage

the Russell

Emeritus

at Columbia

University

and Wolfe

and

Foundation

15

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

and cultural
of a science
incorporation
assess
state
to
then
effort
the
of sociology
is,
any
in American
the way sociology has been received

If the social
ence
with

presumably

we

culture,

particular

ate

have

most
their discipline,
from a sister discipline?on
is produced.

Our

limited

to our

ourselves

edge
the knowledge

that originates
that academic

The sociology
of knowledge
to chart
of sociology. We want
as academic
becomes
sociology

As

sociologists

to

evalu

is often better

than
appreciated
of the ways
inwhich work
part of the culture and society
In so doing, we may well discover
some

themselves
sociologists
study.
of
into
the culture
incorporation
sociology
than
many
blessing
sociologists
might prefer.

Language

own.

are
are

focus?to
terms
borrow
quite properly
the supply side of the equation:
how new knowl
concern here is with the demand
side: how social knowl

that the

The

of the most

of them will

is consumed.

mixed

One

aspects

particular;

edge

culture.

is that the findings of science, which

of this subject
are incorporated
into cultures
universal,
that, by definition,
since, in studying scientific incorporation, we must limit ourselves

interesting

is part of what
that sci
as a science
should deal

and

society

is more

of a

of Sociology

to begin
is with
the use of sociological
place
term charisma
knows Weber's
has
highly technical
istic expression
for those covering politics
well
(as
One

words.

Every sociologist
a favorite journal
as sports and popular mu
is also the name of a software
become

how many of us also know that CHARISMA

the name of a woman's
(Another store
program?or
clothing store in Brooklyn?
which
closed, this one inManhattan, was called Gemeinschaft
[Wrong 1990:24]).
sic);

It is common

to find the term thick description

inmany areas of inquiry besides
and
but it is also the name
criticism;
philosophy
anthropology,
especially
literary
in San Francisco.
A popular
of an experimental
theater company
book on self
was
even though
movements
Fm
called
Dysfunctional/You're
help
Dysfunctional,
it contorted

to some

of dysfunction,
the proper
meaning
degree
sociological
a journalist can write an article titled "We Have Met the Anomie
and He
to
Is Us." Clearly one way in which we can begin to get a grasp on the degree
are
terms
is
vernacular
which
into
the
sociological
by examining
incorporated
while

their use

in the popular media.

fact that terms used

are also used by journalists does

by sociologists
move
terms
from
the
direction;
general culture back to sociology
as
move
to
from
the
general culture. Still, there is something
they
sociology
just
are prevalent
in popular
to be gained by examining which
sociological
expressions
The mere

not establish

are not. One way to approach

is to explore,
this problem
usage and which
using
of citation for common
such as Nexis/Lexis,
the frequency
on-line data bases
sociological

Nexis/Lexis,
measuring

expressions

and

terms.

This

is,

of

course,

measure,

rough

some rough estimates

availability of such information does make possible
mass media.
to
in
the
which
appear
concepts
degree
sociological

16

since

helpful a tool for journalists and lawyers, is not a precise

instrument
the
that can be relied on by sociologists.
Nevertheless,
however

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of the

1995

1 presents
the frequency of selected
Table
(and related social
sociological
terms as cited in major newspapers
in the United States between
science)
Janu
can
A
be
and
number
of
observations
made
from
this
1991
1993.1
ary
June
that the frequency with which
information. For one thing, it appears
sociologi
terms enter

the general culture does not correlate with the frequency with
While
the Parsonian
has had
which
they are used by sociologists.
paradigm
enormous
within
Parsons's
less
the
such as
field,
impact
jargonistic concepts,
sick role, do not register in the general culture. Max Weber
gave contemporary
a way of discussing
and (as did Alfred Adler)
charisma
America
lifestyle, but
cal

are

informal
uninterested
spectacularly
rationality.
in entering the general culture is usually associated with those terms
the "triumph of the therapeutic"
has been called
that touch on what
(Rieff
a
term
one
ex
of
the
in
The
is
social
sense,
1966).
popularity
dysfunctional,

Americans

Success

shall see below,

the use of this term has skyrocketed
in the past
ample; as we
and lifestyle fit this general characterization,
few years. Peer group, subculture,
of everyday lifewith others. Yet although sociologi
for they refer to the worlds
are close to psychology
are more
cal terms which
in the
likely to be popular

general culture, itwould not be correct to conclude

are more frequently cited than macro ones. There
about

the ideas of Mead

that microsociological
is nothing

concepts

especially
complex
other nor looking

and Cooley, yet neither generalized

are
cited.
Terms associated with Garfinkel and ethnomethodology
widely
glass self
are rarely cited at all. Even more surprising, considering
the novelistic
quality of
of
most
his writings, many
as total
Erving Goffman's
important concepts?such
institution,
impression
in the general culture.

management,

or interaction

ritual?are

not common

some obvious
to the way
are, in addition,
aspects
political
sociology
the general culture. Wrong
has
that
enters the
(1990)
argued
sociology
general culture as a debunker of popular beliefs, and this is clearly confirmed by
our investigation. Terms which emphasize
less than positive aspects of American
There

enters

life tend

to be

the most

press, such as
frequently cited in the popular
it
must
be
alienation,
deviance,
anomie,
although,
pointed out, upward mobil
more
use
is
in
far
in
the
culture
than
downward
(The
general
ity
mobility.
to this point may well be words
that have a Marxist
exception
origin, such as
among

are closer
to the bottom of
which
aristocracy,
in
to
to
look
accentuate
the
list.) Journalists
not,
general,
sociology
of
more
American
is
to
be incorporated
positive aspects
society; sociology
likely
into the general culture when Americans
or
that culture as problematic
perceive

false
the

consciousness

and

labor

do

flawed.

as an additional
A political
element enters into our discussion
form; sociologi
cal expressions,
like the realities to which
Gans
they point, are hotly contested.
use
has
that
not
term
should
the
underclass
because
(1990)
argued
sociologists
it carries the implication of blaming those to whom
it is applied
for their con
or not sociologists
use the term,2 however,
dition. Whether
journalists clearly

do, for the term was one of the most widely cited of all sociological
expressions,
as is the term culture of poverty, which
is also disliked
for its political
implica

Merton

and Wolfe

17

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Very

Strongly

_Cover
Lifestyle
Role Model
Standard of Living
Dysfunctional

Strongly

1
Terms

TABLE

of Selected

Frequency

Sociological

Terms
Incorporated
50OO citations)
106607
27054
19852
6260

Incorporated

Weakly

Underclass

Terms

3831
3433
2763
2303
2192
2179
2104
1417
1395
1254
1199

Demographic (y)
Peer Group
Subculture
Division of Labor
Altruism
White Collar Crime
Upward mobility
Self-fulfillingprophecy
Conspicuous consumption
Socialization

Moderately

Incorporated

Youth culture
Belief System
Meritocracy
Gender role
Life course
Counter culture

903
767
649
586
582
517

Folkways
Social mobility
Lifecycle
Glass ceiling

488
359
346
331

Primarygroup
Inner-directed
Social stratification
NOTE:
observe
Source:

18

Although
whether
Lexis/Nexis,

85
61
60
56
51

Upward mobility
Lumpenproletariat
Collective behavior

48

Authoritatianpersonality
Intermediategroup
Cultural lag
Gemeinschaft
Relative deprivation
Collective Conscience
Hidden currinculum

38
34
29
29

Cooptation
Generalized other
Thick description
Sexual division of labor
Unanticipated consequences
Labor aristocracy
Unanticipated consequences

12

10

Gift relationship
Anomie
Definition of the situation
Authoritarianpersonality
Role distance
Structuration
Ascribed status
Interactionritual
Total institution
Impressionmanagement
Symbolic interaction
Legitimation crisis
Looking glass self
Structural-functionalism
Organic solidarity
Habitus
Working class authoritarianism
Formal rationality
Abstracted empiricism
Cooling-out process
Instrumentalrationality
Indexical expression
Mechanical solidarity
Moral entrepreneurs

our
terms are used
these
by sociologists,
context.
in a sociological
cited
they were

all

January

27
25
21
21
19
17
16

~?;IXnfi o^tatedTerins
; <0-9citations)

268
263
257
231
224
218
215
192
169
161
159
150
133
123
114
105

Status Symbol
Achieved Status
Anomie
Class consciousness
Reverse discrimination
White collar crime
Ethnocentrism
Downward mobility
Leisure class
Other-directed
Culture of poverty
Mass societv
Reference group

Meritocracy
Unanticipated consequences
Civil religion
False consciousness
End of ideology

Gessellschaft

Terms

Terms

citations)

Civilizing process
Postindustrialsociety
Sick role

325

Double bind

Incorporated

!(10^

(1000^5000 citations)

Press

in the Popular

1,

1991

to June

30,

method

does

not

allow

us

to

1993.

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

of a term such as gender

the other hand, the popularity
is
role, which
mass
than
that
write
indicates
those
who
the
in
media
"sex,"
jargonistic

tion. On
more

to the feminist revolution

in America.
The rise and
clearly paid attention
terms in the general culture
is evidently
fall of sociological
related to the rise
and ideologies.
and fall of social movements

have

terms are

as
in different ways.
Some can be described
incorporated
a respectable
but not spectacularly
terms; they achieve
high visibility in
the general culture and tend to stay there. (Mass society, social
stratification,
are examples).
and end of ideology
Moreover
these terms achieve widespread
use among specialists
in a particular
field, even if they do not become
part of
the common
outside
discourse
that field; writers on religion nearly always use
Different

"niche"

Robert

Bellah's

term civil

religion,

the expression.
Some terms which

with

even

ifwriters

on politics

may

not be

familiar

are put forward with the apparent

that they
expectation
are
the general culture because
and
have
they
general appeal
catchy
is one such term that was widely
do not. Cooling-out
nevertheless
used
process
a
it
to
real
with
wide
moreover,
by sociologists;
applies
phenomenon
popular
enter

will

the term has rarely appeared

in the mass media. Other
Nonetheless,
applicability.
such terms would
include working-class
authoritarianism
and moral
entrepre
one might expect to be widely
neurs, both of which
cited, given their relevance
to

events,

newsworthy

but

are

not.

In general,
the past few years have apparently
not seen any decrease
in the
extent to which
terms
have
been
into
the
sociological
incorporated
general
culture. Although
the recent availability of on-line technology makes
it impos
to search

in time for any length of time, we were

backwards
able to
for changes
in the incorporation
terms since
of sociological
1986 by
We found evidence
that many sociological
terms
examining selected newspapers.3
that enter the language with some frequency either maintained
or increased
in
sible

account

to examine
this trend (see Table
usage during the period when data are available
seems
This
true
can
terms
of
that
be
used
in the context of self
2).
especially
or role model,
such as dysfunctional
both of which
help or group process,
the general
entered
culture with
increased
Less
during this period.
frequency
rapidly, but still notably,

other

terms?such

as anomie

or norm?also

increased

in usage.

to be something
like a natural history of the incorporation
of
appears
terms.
some
It
takes
time
before
sociological
clearly
any sociological
expression
enters the general culture; relatively recent terms?habitus,
dependency,
legiti
mation
crisis?will
have to rattle about in the academy
for some time before,
if ever, they enter the general culture. Other terms which
to have their
continue
uses among sociologists,
such as relative deprivation,
never seem to enter the
There

general

culture.

civil

At

the

same

time,

ox folkways,

far

older

terms,

such

as

conspicuous

con

are unlikely to be displaced

for some time;
it tends to stay, even well beyond
its frequent

sumption,
religion
once a term enters the culture,
use among professional
even if, as Table 2 shows, such terms reach
sociologists,
a steady-state. However,
not all terms which
a certain popularity will
achieve
remain in the culture forever. White-collar
crime and modernization
are terms

Merton

and Wolfe

19

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

2
TABLE
of Sociological

Incorporation

American

Four

Terms

Newspapers*

1985-1996
Term

Anomie

Peer

group

Role

model

1484

613

396

490

476

490

44

64

163

242

410

550

1538

1749

1978

2129

2025

1879

82

59

76

86

72

78

845

Folkways

41

Ethnocentrism

17

1536

1375

1648

1393

87

82

97

82

99

85

93

207

242

359

336

360

274

341

68

78

71

109

106

77

94

234

211

164

60

206

57

165

1988

1099

906

141

116

White-Collar
crime

451

71

58

Subculture

56

18

151

Conspicuous
Consumption

31

409

73

Underclass

46

39

650

Self-fulfilling

40

38

72

Prophecy

48

25

1554

Norm

1991

1987

14

Dysfunctional

1990

1986

371

Charisma

1992

1989

1985

113

150

252

250

57

56

58

65

41

11

23

24

25

18

184

209

145

102

116

Relative
Deprivation

Civil

religion

*New

York

less

likely

phenomena

Times,

to be

Post,

Washington

Angeles

lives. Economists,
everyday
the unity of their discipline;

economic

20

Chicago

Sun-Times.

are

the
the

into American

incorporated
is economics,
for, like sociology,
lead their
close to the way people

are fairly self-conscious

about
sociologists,
their work
tends to group
itself into recognizable
and Small 1992). Al
of citation
(Crane
patterns

unlike

with
fairly common
is a far more
economics

though
rhetorical

Times,

now

Finally, it isworth
in which
the terms of other disciplines
way
culture. The most obvious point of comparison
that deals with matters
this is a social science

schools

12

a decade
than they were
ago, even
though
as
as
ever.
refer
be
may
they
ubiquitous
terms with
the incorporation
of sociological
comparing

cited

to which

Los

it too has a
than sociology,
discipline
no
matter
how
abstract
1985). Furthermore,
(McCloskey
can
more
direct policy
than
be, it is taken to have
implications
theory
technical

dimension

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

sociology;
For all
science

life. Indeed

economic
plines

is no Council

terms have

in Washington.
that economics,
of all the social
into
the
general culture of
incorporated

of Sociological
be thought

it might

reasons,
disciplines, would

American
logical

there
these

Advisors

be fairly well
it is, as Table
3 shows, but
into general
been
incorporated
seem

terms; if anything, the two disciplines

terms that are widely
have provided

there

is no

evidence

that

far more

than socio
usage
rather parallel.4
Both disci
if lifestyle leads the list in

used;
leads the list in economics.

also
Both disciplines
a particular niche in the general culture; elasticity of
strati
is cited in the general culture at roughly the same rate as social
demand
as
terms
case
such
As
is
the
with
consump
sociological
conspicuous
fication.
law of diminishing
returns, the invisible hand?
tion, much older terms?the
and

demand

sociology,5 supply
terms with
have analogous

terms that grab the

than the new and innovative
frequently cited
or indifference
curve.
such as satisficing
attention of professional
economists,
terms
that
have
such
As McCloskey's
resonance,
suggests,
analysis
metaphorical
enter
as crowding
to
out or wage drift, are more
than
the
culture
general
likely
are more

that sound

those

more
use

have
their business
sections,
Newspapers
from economics,
but they also have
their
terminology
use terminology
from sociology.
jargonistic.

of course,
lifestyle sections, which
terms that one might have expected
to
Moreover,
just as certain sociological
terms.
enter the general culture did not, the same is true for some economic

which,

that lies at the heart of modern

it is
economics;
utility is a concept
Marginal
as common
as
cited no more often than unanticipated
Terms
consequences.
returns were cited far less frequently
invisible hand or the law of diminishing
large number of terms used by
and marginal
propen
inelasticity
into the vernacular,
be
perhaps
character. The gap between
the discipline
of economics
terms are used in the popular media
is actually
rather

than the concept

of self-fulfilling prophecy.
in their professional
life?price
not widely
sity to save?were
incorporated
economists
cause

of their technical
the way

and

economic

theorem,
Journalists
simply do not talk about the Coase
terms
School
such as backward-bending
Chicago
supply curves

wide.

let alone

non

and preference

schedules.

To summarize,
it seems that sociology
does enter into the culture
in which
is practiced,
if the incorporation
the science
of terms from the discipline
into
can
as
one
measure
as
we
be used
of such influence. This,
have
general usage
is true of any science,
including
of
evolution
and
survival
conceptions
said,

a wide

for

variety

of

seemingly

some

have

non-natural

of the natural
been

used

phenomena.

a particularly
form of what might
heightened
success."
know that their field is more
Sociologists

faces

sciences;
and misused

be

However,

called

Darwinian
to account
sociology

"the paradox

of

recog
likely to gain public
a reputation as useful, and entry into the vernacular
if the field develops
a
Faced with a choice
between
is often taken at least as a sign of relevance.
one
to
is
and
that
that
is
the
of
culture
concepts
sociology,
general
impervious
nition

willing
be

to adopt

advantages

Merton

sociological
to

the

terms as part of its language,

there would

seem

to

latter.

21

and Wolfe

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TABLE
of Selected

Frequency

3
Economic

Terms
^< ^

Y?ry.&f3&te^

126902
21396

Supply and demand

of payments

Balance

-Steeply Incorporate

1465
1312

Price system
advantage

Comparative

??^Wl

f?in?BSii^li
946
935
823
739
691
630
538
399
227
220

side economics

Supply
Trade

regime

Invisible hand
Externality
out

Crowding
Stagflation
Excess

Demand

Disequilibrium
Law

returns

of diminishing

Fiscal

drag

182
119
117
108
104

Effective demand
Welfare

economics

Random

walk
of demand

Elasticity

Surplus value
^^
Marginal

NWeaklytneorporafe?

Veranar
62

utility

Allocative

60

power

Countervailing

50

efficiency

Cost push inflation

48

Wage drift

36

Clearing

themarket

33

Revealed

preferences

25

Shadow

prices

23

Demand

pull inflation

17

17

Disutility
Price

14

preference

Liquidity

10

inelasticity

Rational

expectations

10

theory

Mniii|jM
Satisficing
Indifference curve
Fiscal

illusion

Marginal

propensity

Preference
Average

Source:

22

Lexis/Nexis,

schedule

propensity

Age-earnings
Coase

to save

bending supply curve

Backward

to consume

profile

theorem

January

1,

1991

to June

30,

1993.

The American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

as well.

there are disadvantages

Yet
words

As has been

reiterated with

become

noted,
"many sociological
successive
diminution
of mean

modish,
boringly
As terms in the vernacular
take on a life of their own,
ing." (Merton 1982:101).
can
far from any original sociological
wander
their meaning
associated
purpose
of such terms. One result is to denude
with
the development
important socio
conse
and scientific value?the
inevitable
of their precision
concepts
runs
in
the
of
risk
of
turn,
This,
quence
undermining
widespread
popularity.
to the discipline's
in direct relationship
support for the discipline
public
public
that the vagueness
and imprecision
For it is possible
of an incorpo
usefulness.
logical

with the discipline

that gave the term life, even if
that altered
the terms meaning.
the culture, and not the discipline,
can
terms
to
be
used
of
the paradox
number
illustrate
of
sociological
Any
success. There are few other sociological
that have been stripped of
expressions
term can be associated

rated

itwas

more

than charisma,
is now routinely
which
with
consciousness
appear
any frequency
at all, irrespective of what qualities
attention.
(Cars, and
bring them to public
are
we
other machines,
But
this
is
charisma
also,
being told, possess
quality.)
to rival charisma
not alone
in this regard. Role model
has surely come
in its
their precise
conceptual
to
applied
people who

meaning

in the public

as professional
from original meaning,
basketball
insist on
players
that they are not one.6 Max Weber's
Lebensstil
signified fairly pre
some of the cultural attributes associated with social class, and even when

wanderings
television
cisely
itwas

into lifestyle in the early 1970s, it retained, as Robert Erwin

a broad view of human development
"rich possibilities,
and the life

transformed

suggests,
an

course,

tinues,

order

that

rather

fulfilled

than

constricted."

he

"Unfortunately,"

and

con

it even more

trivialized

salesmen,
pop psychologists
1994: 109). Indeed, a glance
(Erwin
through the most fre
we
terms
1 suggests
list in Table
that most of them, in
incorporated
quently
have lost much or all of their original meaning
their popularity,
and
achieving
"journalists,
than usual"

rapidly

often

Sociology
text,

new

acquired
we

meaning.

has often been

point

contrast

by

mocked
to

the

for its jargon

opposite,

but

(Darden
in many

1992).
ways

In this con

more

serious,

terms for concepts

the risk of coining
that, far from jargonistic, reso
problem:
nate nicely with the larger culture. Yet if this problem
differs from the problem
of jargon, it has similar consequences.
Public distrust of social science
increases
when

people

that it is introducing
The public
knowledge.

believe

for commonplace
at all, since
needed

therefore,
presumably,
terms into the general
completed?when
new observations

it and

new words
comes

or complex
formulations
to ask why
social science
is

the general
culture
share the same language
and
the same knowledge.
The
of
sociological
incorporation
a mixed
culture becomes
the cycle
is
blessing. When

terms to express
new concepts
or
have coined
sociologists
of social reality, only to have these transformed
into popular
of seeing their new
expressions,
they may gain the satisfaction

but misleading
in lights; but they lose the pleasure
that comes from having introduced
concepts
a way of seeing the social reality that the culture, inward looking as it is, cannot
see.

Merton

and Wolfe

23

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Techniques

Sociological

is incorpo
that the discipline
terminology
just through sociological
or so
social
The
realities.
into
of
rated
obtaining
knowledge
larger
techniques
of sociology; more
the discipline
cial information have also reached out beyond
It is not

not only into the culture but into the larger

incorporated
they have been
as
find
Americans
well.
themselves
surrounded
by surveys, polls, demo
society
on
and
focus
methods.
even,
occasion,
groups,
ethnographic
graphic analyses,
over,

used to explain what

been widely
and often indiscriminately
kind of a society we are and how we have changed.
has been as much a search after appropriate methods
The history of sociology
as it has been a search for appropriate
and findings. The development
concepts
such as the social survey?used
of sociology and the use of techniques
generally

All of them have

in specific urban areas?are

social conditions
linked; be
closely
there were fewer than ten surveys
1896 and 1921 in the United Kingdom,
the number
conducted
annually, but from the 1920s until the Great Depression,
to more
than forty. In the United States, the "golden age" of the social
increased
I (Bulmer, Bales,
the years before and after World War
and Sklar
survey was
to uncover
tween

an increased
use of this
In short, both countries
experienced
was pub
the
when
Recent
Trends
Social
1933,
however,
year
By
technique.
that time the most comprehensive
in the
lished?until
effort ever undertaken
1991:

18, 29).

men
to apply social knowledge
to contemporary
conditions?no
tion of these earlier local surveys was made
1991: 290). Elites wanted
(Bulmer
information about national, not local, conditions;
and academic
them
sociologists
selves turned away, for a time, from the social survey as insufficiently scientific.

United

States

in the vacuum
the technique
of choice
created
opinion polling became
of
the
the
social
decline
As
Converse
stresses, survey research,
(1987)
survey.
by
the election polls taken by the Survey Research
Center of the Univer
especially
took its name from the social survey; but its inspiration came
sity of Michigan,
Public

social scientists who understood

the need for knowledge
from professional
about
on
It
attitudes
the
of
commercial
elites.
is
and
part
survey
governmental
public
than any other sociological
has been
research
that, more
technique,
incorpo
sur
rated into the organizations
and institutions of American
life. The election
of Michigan's
Center
and the General
veys of the University
Survey Research
Social Survey of the National Opinion
Research Center at the University of Chicago
are the best known,
but they have been
variety of
supplemented
by a wide
are
to sociology:
others. Nor
the Survey of Consumer
regular surveys confined
in 1954, has increased
in frequency from three
Confidence,
begun systematically
times a year

in the

time?constituting
tudes and behavior

in the 1970s,
1950s, to quarterly
one of the most durable
records
(Curtin

1982).

a sociological
process by which
American
society functions

way

sions

are

not

the official

24

only

used

"economic

to measure

indicators"

There

at the present
atti
of people's
no better example
of the
to monthly

we

is probably
has become

technique
than this regularly
consumer

of impending

have

an important

reported

confidence,

states

The

survey;
they

are

part of the
its conclu
also

among

of the economy.

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

Survey research
they first expanded
are cited in more
our concern

Since

were
into American
society after
incorporated
techniques
in usage within
the social sciences.
The results of surveys
and more articles appearing
in social
science
publications.
in this paper
is with the demand
for sociological
knowledge

the supply, it is not the number of surveys undertaken

by social scien
tists alone that is of interest, but rather the frequency with which
they are used
are
Data
in this
from
the
National
Center
others.
Research
Opinion
helpful
by
use
and
the
of
articles
track
since
number
that
make
of
reports
regard,
they
and not

NORC

surveys.

Although

can be distorting
averages
an increase
1 demonstrates

when

preferences
in such citations
since the

differ dramatically,
Figure
1940s, from an average of about
of over

one

hundred

in the

citations

of survey findings
form in which
the GSS was

magazines,

specialized

annual

twenty in the 1940s and 1950s to an average

of this use was
in sociology
1980s. Much
itself,
in sociological
most prevalent
the
journals being
used. Yet the survey has also been used by news

newsletters,

U.S.

government

agencies,

and

in

the

report

indicators
(Smith 1992: 4-19).
ing of social
of such methods
and techniques within
The expansion
the social sciences has
a
similar
outside
been accompanied
them, as institutions and or
by
expansion
in the larger society, especially
the mass media,
also come to rely on
ganizations
them. When

cited

the mass

media

surveys;
to one
according

opinion

about

science
reported social
half of all social science

findings, they invariably

studies reported
in the
a
data,
figure that
opinion

1982 study, were of public

media,
are mentioned
rises to 81 percent when
specific techniques
by the news media
the academic world of public opinion
(Singer 1988: 413). This overlap between
is hardly surprising; key individuals
research and the mass media
such as Frank

director and then the longtime president

of CBS,
Stanton, first the research
moved
back and forth between
and regularly drew on the insights
these worlds
and methods
of academic
such as Paul Lazarsfeld.
sociologists

there are, of course, major

differences
how academics
between
However,
the
of
and
the
discuss
in particular,
surveys
way journalists
report
findings
polls;
the latter tend not to be interested in methodological
fine points. Perhaps
for
that reason, over the course of the 1980s a significant change
took place
in the

information: rather than relying on academic

sources
reporting of public opinion
or those of professional
news
the
media
to
polling organizations,
carry
began
out their own
surveys. The first in-house polling
among networks
operation
came at CBS in 1967, due, in large part, to Stanton's
efforts. The major break
into
through came as late as 1975, when CBS and the New York Times entered

a joint venture
to sample public opinion
1992: 2).
(Mann and Orren
repeatedly
Since that time, the use of polls and other ways of measuring
public opinion
can be compared
has grown;
1975 and the present
indeed, the period between
to the period
in the 1920s and the 1930s when
the social survey, which
had

for some time, suddenly

became
No one knows
popular.
are
how
in
the
taken
United
States, but there are
many polls
exactly
routinely
some educated
a
that over 200
guesses.
Singer (1988: 413) cites
study suggesting
million
with poll results reached
of newspapers
readers in a one-month
copies
been

in existence

Merton

and Wolfe

25

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

0\
G\
I
ON

00
to
P

?o 10?om ^ ;

26

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

some 6,900 questions were

asked
period in 1980. Ladd and Benson estimate that
in
and
in
the
the
in
the
of the American
89,000
1970s,
1960s, 37,000
people
use
of
of
estimates
Benson's
the
and
Ladd
1980s (Ladd 1992: 20).
polls by major
in the use
in Table 4, demonstrates
the increase
media
organizations,
reprinted
The wide
of this sociological
technique with respect to politics and elections.
as the widespread
as well
and frequent
of polling
that
suggest
single greatest
groups
impact on the
sociology's
the
realm
of
than
in
realm
rather
the
of
is
in
terminology,
technique
society
substantive
ideas, or other empirical
findings.
use

effective

and

spread
misuse

of focus

of course, but it
and surveys are not used simply for electoral purposes,
that
their longtime and increasing validation by actual voting outcomes
one
The
dra
the technique
has accorded
1988).
legitimacy (Crespi
generalized
election of 1948 that forecast the defeat
matic polling error in the presidential
Polls

has been

et al. (1949)?
error consequentially
of Harry Truman?an
analyzed by Mosteller
in
those
of
confidence
led to only a temporary
among
newspaper
polling
lapse
in the use of polls (Merton and Hatt
served as strategic gatekeepers
editors who
information on just
1949). Since then, polls and surveys have come to collect
about

polls
birth

life. In 1992, the New York Times

every aspect of American
reported on
attitudes
toward
with
American
AIDS,
abortion,
Asian-Americans,
dealing
crime,
capital punishment,
firearms, gambling, homelessness,

defects,

education,
medicine,

parks,

sex

religion,

savings
hunting,

taxation,

transit,

crimes,

time,
urban

areas,

labor,
waste,

So extensive

in the realm

with

respect
enable
the scientist to measure what people
that they would
research evidently anticipated,
the founders of public
opinion
rate of nonresponse,
use of polls has led to an increasing
to the technique
(Smith 1989;
of the findings from efforts to poll

effect from the culture

feedback
as well,

abuse,

drug

immigration,

a phenom
has polling become
that we may witness
to
similar
of sociological
the
of success
technique
paradox
to sociological
terms. Early in the use of surveys, itwas
assumed

and women.
enon

police,

daylight
housing,

do

at least

some

think. More

Steech

1989). So,
the public
about
not believe
that

some Americans,
in general, do
while
trusting polls
can
the
entire
American
represent
accurately
samples
population
are also
effects from the society to social science
Feedback

polling;

than

the widespread
thus reflecting

(Roper
a part

1986).
of this

some
story. Inundated with polls and skeptical about their scientific character,
come
to feel that polling
is itself problematic.
individuals
Recent
criticisms of

argue that polls are used by elites to manipulate

polling, which
public opinion
to this sense
rather than to represent
it, contribute
1986; Herbst
(Ginsberg
it
As
with
is
this
takes
1993).
public unhappiness
polling
place,
just a short step
for the distrust to reach the social sciences which
first developed
survey tech

are divided
about whether
their field has suf
themselves
Sociologists
niques.
fered a crisis of legitimacy
1990; Horowitz
1993), but the general
(Hargens
as Darden
in the popular culture seems to have decreased;
prestige of sociologists
(1992) discovered,
but positive.
The

Merton

use

the portrayal

of "focus groups"

on

of sociologists
the grand

scale

in popular
(Leo

literature

Bogart

is anything

[personal

and Wolfe

commu

27

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Mean

TABLE 4

of Media
Polls
196&-89

Number

Year

TV

Newspapers

1968

1.7 0 0
19722.0
19762.1
1980
3.2
3.9
1984
1988
5.6
1989
5.2

Conducted

Stations

Annually

Media
Major
Organizations*

0.3
0.4
2.2
4.4
5.616.4
6.226.6
6.132.4
7.120.1

etc.
Wall
CBS News,
Street Journal,
News,
Ladd
and John Benson,
"The Growth
of News
Everett
Carll
in Thomas
E. Mann
and Gary R. Orren,
Polls
Politics,"
eds., Media
*ABC

Source:

(Washington:

Brookings

Institution,

the mixed

in American

Politics

23.

that some
research, estimates
advertising
in the use of this research procedure)
annually
can have as they are incorpo
fate sociological
techniques

the dean of marketing

nication],
are now expended
$250 million
illustrates

1992),

in American

Polls

and

II and afterward,
and practices.
During World War
to obtain more
the
of
the
"focused
interview"
sociologists
developed
technique
data about the character
and sources of individual opinions,
detailed qualitative
in social

rated

institutions

than could be obtained

from the use
sentiments, and activities
and highly structured interviews. Such data led to new hypoth
test by quantitative
research (Merton
then be put to empirical
Some
and
Kendall
and Kendall
1990).
Fiske,
[1956]
years later,
1946; Merton,
in the marketplace
took up a version of this technique which
social research

attitudes, beliefs,
of questionnaires
eses which
could

came

to be known

as the "focus group"

and hypotheses

guesses
ingly, plausible
been
taken as conclusive
decisions.

New

products
Politicians

findings and
are marketed

(Krueger
derived
as partial
on
based

1988; Morgan
1988). Increas
from focus group data have
and policy
for practical
bases

re
of focus-group
to the
election
precincts

the basis

alone.
of every stripe, from local
to the unsampled
draw upon focus groups to tailor their messages
House,
summit between
Ronald
It is even reported
that the 1988 Moscow
electorate.
was
on
the
American
and
Mikhail
Gorbachev
side, on
Reagan
partly designed,
search

White

of focus-group
data (Stewart and Shamdasani
1990: 124-126).
story does not end there. In the first stage of the incorporation

the basis
The

process
in
the aca
interview
(which
group
emerged
examining,
as a qualitative
source of hypotheses
for more
and
demic domain
systematic
was
into
and
marketers
transformed
by
political
pundits
quantitative
inquiry)
a sufficient basis for discovering what
focus groups
that were
taken to provide

we

are

was

on

28

the focussed

the minds

of Americans.

(On

the continuities

The

and differences

American

between

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

the focused

interview
source

the academic

the focus group, see Bogart

of the focused
interview
group
and

1984:
was

82.) Decades
"obliterated

later,

by in
it became

into the society, economy,

and polity. By the mid-1980s,
corporation"7
to
for
describe
focus
groups as "a relatively new research
sociologists
possible
to
and
tool (Morgan and Spanish
have them think about its applica
1984: 253)
tions to their own work.

on the
attended a workshop
Thus, fifty-two sociologists
use of focus groups
in social research
that was held at the 1992 meeting
of the
a
American
Association
has
(Billson
1993).
gone
Sociological
Rarely
technique
to the society and back again quite as rapidly as this one.
from sociology
and focus groups are not the only sociological
that have been widely
into American
incorporated
society
Polls

feed back
has

of course,
techniques,
and, as a consequence,
out. Demographic
analysis, for one,

into the way

is carried
sociology
the
of
Americans
think about
The census,
themselves.
way
part
not a research
tool wholly
is
the clearest
developed
by sociologists,
once viewed
as a way of collecting
information that would
tell us how
now
it
is
of
the
definition
of
the
that
various
changed,
part
changes

become

although
example;
we have

the ways
in which
financial benefits are distributed
groups hope to see. Given
to
federal
the ways
in which
legislation according
by
population?or
Supreme
means
Court decisions
have
it
to be represented
interpreted what
by legisla
tors?the
stake in the information collected
enor
has become
by the census
mous. The fact that social scientists can speak of a "politics of numbers"
indi
cates
and
social
have
tion.

can also have

that numbers

Starr 1986).
Yet even

an impact on

those who

collect

them (Alonso

if there were
how we

facts about

led to a proliferation

no political
stakes involved
in determining
basic
fascinations with
and
culture
live, American
lifestyle
of stories based upon systematic
statistical
informa
know the importance
of turning to magazines
such

Intelligent
journalists
as American
on the baby-boom
for materials
down
Demographics
generation,
ward mobility, and other inherently sociological
Technical
topics.
reports deal
with
the
size
and
of
the
American
have
become
factors in
ing
shape
population
the way we think about and relate to immigration, AIDS,
intergenerational wealth

of defense
to civilian uses, or public
installations
and
transfers, the conversion
work?William
private education.
Important sociological
Julius Wilson's
(1980,
Sarah McLenahan's
1987) studies of inner city job loss and residential concentration,
work on the effects of single-parent
families (McLenahan
and Garfinkel
1986;
McLenahan
examples
academic

and Douglas
and Dent?n

1991),
(Massey
sociology,

The

of segregation
are conspicuous
discussed
in worlds
outside
widely
oriented
especially
magazines.
intellectually
of successful
is less evident with respect
to
incorporation
Massey's
1993)?are

studies

paradox
demographic
analysis than it is with respect to surveys and polling. The subtle
ties of statistical
tend to be beyond
the reach of most people,
interpretation
are sufficiently well
trained to understand
including
journalists, few of whom
over appropriate
academic
debates
As
methodology.
important as demographi
based
be
for
work
not
the general public,
may
cally
policymakers,
by
reaching
such work
tends not to suffer feedback
effects from the general culture.
Ironi
Merton

and Wolfe

29

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

into the larger

the very failure of demographic
analysis to be incorporated
to the same extent as survey research
and polling
gives demographic
society
work greater credibility among social scientists themselves, and thereby increases
cally,

that public
influence over the society. It is possible
its potential
a cover
zines will
feature such work?The
Atlantic
contained

There

to the general
who
develop
is an obvious

corporated
trends and
ever,

one

story dealing
even
this level of
1993)?but
(Whitehead
findings
culture does not appear to shape the work of the social
the findings.

with McLenahan's

extensively
exposure
scientists

interest maga

reason why

and findings are in

quantitative
techniques
since
offer
that establish
numbers
institutions,
they
conclusions
about frequency
and social distributions.
How

into American
suggest
should also

not

overlook

as well.

into American

One

the incorporation
difference between

of qualitative
sociology
the two forms of incor

society
is obvious:
studies are generally used in work published
in
quantitative
are usually published
in book
qualitative
journals, while
techniques
or
reach
the public;
social
scientists
(Wolfe
1990).8 Articles
journalists

poration
technical
form

for a popular
audience
report on the scientific findings of
as
in
such articles, acting
brokers
the process.
Yet books, even those published
in newspapers
reviewed
are, under certain circumstances,
by university presses,
on radio and television (Coser, Kadushin,
and magazines
and discussed
and Powell
interested

in writing

1982).
the fact that incorporation
and qualitative
of quantitative
research
Beyond
more professionalized.
have become
As rewards
may be different, sociologists
to those who win the respect of their peers for their
and prestige are attached
technical
counts
for the general public
for less among
competence,
writing

true; [Wrong 1993:

(This has to some degree
193]
peers.
always been
out
most
that
of
the
cited
written
books
in
many
points
widely
by sociologists
the 1950s and 1960s were written by scholars who were
to
somewhat marginal
to have one's work reach
the discipline.)
Under
these conditions,
the best way
one's

into the general culture

is to have it discussed
among policy elites first, either
form or by direct interventions
into public policy such as the Coleman
Itmay also be that American
Report (see the next section of this article).
society
in book
is less

to sociological
in the popular

is that the
findings. The general
impression
on the
at the present
time concentrates
media
on
or
on
as
issues such
the other hand
popular
reporting of science
political
on the other, which
are usually
correctness
and multiculturalism
identified with
receptive
of ideas
coverage

will be recognized
if they have something
Sociologists
important
to say, but they rarely become
Between
academic
celebrities.
them, these two
trends suggest that, with
the exception
of books
such as Habits
of the Heart,
are
not
to
enter
ideas
culture
the
sociological
general
through direct in
likely
the humanities.

corporation.

of sociological
The incorporation
into American
society runs fewer
techniques
risks for practicing
of sociological
than the incorporation
sociologists
language
into the culture. To be sure, the widespread
and consequent
abuses
popularity
30

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

as focus groups
as well
with media
and interest polling
research. Non-response
of all sociological
for the delegitimation
for the science
rates will affect what
measure, with consequences
sociologists
a
retain
far greater control
of society that cannot be positive. Yet sociologists
over their technique
The world of research
than they do over their vocabulary.
associated

of method
could

make

remains

technique
fessional

standards

are

taken

lead
political pressures
dards for their techniques,
in polls

confidence

public

and

Sociology

Social

into one

in which
segment
peer review and pro
or
in
which
commercial
and
another
seriously,
to shortcuts. So long as sociologists
insist on high stan

bifurcated

if
their findings are more
likely to survive, even
or social knowledge
in general
is shaken for a time.

Policy

have usually been of mixed minds

about the possible
Sociologists
incorpora
into
the larger culture and society. Nowhere
tion of their findings and methods
clearer than with respect to issues of public policy. For some
is this ambivalence

that rely on statistics

scientists, the value-free research and techniques
of hard science
define their professional
the apparatus
Others
obligations.
can
lieve that the knowledge
accumulate
elites
make
that
they
help
policies
more rational and in accord with the latest findings about human behavior.
social

can
sociologist who
his or her findings with respect
an austere

immigration,
Yet when
will

or health-related

resist an invitation

to crime, alcoholism,
behavior.

to discuss

with

divorce,

and
be
are
It is

policymakers

poverty,

ethnicity,

do involve themselves
in public policy, many
sociologists
directly
who
invited them to do so and why.
In 1954, for example,
the
Court received a brief signed by thirty-five social scientists, headed
by

wonder

Supreme
Kenneth
addressed
response,

Clark

and

the social
Mr.

Justice

Paul Lazarsfeld
sociologists
of
school
consequences
segregation

including

Jackson's

chief

clerk,

E.

Barrett

and Arnold
(Kluger

Prettyman,

Rose, which
In
1976: 557).

wrote

a memo

"if the country feels that a bunch of liberals inWashington

have finally
warning:
not only tolerate but aid
foisted off their social views on the public,
it will
v. Board
in Brown
circumvention
of the decision,"
"and James
of Education,
a
Reston would
write
column
like an
'read[s] more
saying that the decision
"
than a Supreme Court opinion'
1976: 691,
expert paper on sociology
(Kluger
the future, for within
fifteen years of its holding,
711). Yet Brown
anticipated
notions
would
become
in
expert
by sociologists
developed
major documents
to
of sociology
disputes over public policy in America. The growing relationship
in the 1960s was generally
state (Gouldner
social policy
related to the welfare
became
involved outside
activi
1970). The more government
purely economic

or tariffs), the more

ties (such as the regulation of business
as
as
well
for
and
economists
advice (Lazarsfeld,
gists
opinion

it called

Sewall,

on sociolo

and Wilensky

1967).
One

social policy and sociol

of the close
between
interrelationship
example
war
on
The
of
involved
the
social
scientists Lloyd Ohlin
ogy
writings
poverty.
one
as
writer
of
"the marriage
and Richard Cloward?described
by
representing

Merton

and Wolfe

31

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

two great traditions

in American
were
rates
of
higher
delinquency
at the National

scientists

Social

that
1991: 120)9?argued
(Lemann
sociology"
of blocked
in part the product
opportunities.
and the Ford Founda
Institute of Mental Health

tion brought
Administration
their ideas to the Kennedy
through David Hackett,
on Juvenile Delin
who had been named director of the President's
Committee
were
Before
the
their
notions
quency.
long
policy,
especially
shaping public
a key
of the poor"?which
became
participation
It is a sign of sociology's
in theWar on Poverty (Lemann
1991: 120-129).
on social policy
that when
later came under heavy criticism,
this phrase

notion

of

phrase

"maximum

feasible

impact
one of the

scientist: Daniel
also a sociologist
and political
leading critics was
in
to
Patrick Moynihan
added
his name
turn,
Furthermore,
(1967).
Moynihan,
as
of race and poverty
few
any serious discussion
(see Rainwater
1967),
just
to the Coleman
serious discussions
of education
took place without
reference
(Coleman
Report
Yet were
the
After
seemed

1966).
influence over social policy?
1960s the heyday of sociology's
if sociology's
fate is tied to the fate of the welfare
state, the latter

all,
to reach

its limits in the 1980s. Moreover

to
itself, according
sociology
so intertwined with one particular version of social policy?
critics, became
a leftist one?that
it became
tenor of the United
irrelevant when
the political
some

to shift. For Irving Louis Horowitz,

effects on social
began
sociology's
are
to political
the obverse
of its relationship
argues
policy
ideology. Horowitz
that at the very time when
has
become
critics
left-wing
sociology
by
captured
States

of American

life, it has also

of urbanologists,

to policy:

lost its relevance

social

"Sociology

has

seen

the

pe
departure
criminologists,
planners,
demographers,
international development
short,
nologists, hospital administrators,
specialists?in
the entire range of scholars for whom
is linked to public policy"
social science
of sociology does not mean
that
1993: 13). Thus the "decomposition"
(Horowitz
to Horowitz,
social science
is falling apart; according
is flourish
social science
ing, but
removed

it does

so with

new

from the American

and disciplinary
organizational
Association.
Sociological

is correct,
We
should, ifHorowitz
sociology on public policy decreased
the case
in the early
that this was
administration

made

clear

designations

far

to find that the impact of academic

expect
since the 1960s. There were certainly signs
1980s. Upon
office, the Reagan
assuming

its determination

to cut

for social

research;
that had funded sociological
agencies
governmental
including the Cen
projects,
ter for Metropolitan
Institute of Mental Health, were
Problems
of the National
support

so severe that the social science professional

associa
cutbacks were
abolished;
tions joined together in protest and the National
Endowment
for the Humanities,
to its critics, became
in its funding choices.
according
ideological
increasingly

undertaken
in Great Britain.)
(Similar efforts were
government
by the Thatcher
Moreover with the election of Republican
in Congress
in 1994, efforts
majorities
are underway
at this writing
to reduce or eliminate
the social and behavioral
sciences

from the National

Science

Foundation.

In one particularly
of hostility to social science,
the govern
striking example
ment made quite clear its view that research
into sexual behavior being carried
32

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

Professional

TABLE 5

to Presidential
Appointments
1973-1984

Field
Law
17
Economics
Medicine
Political

13
11
Science
6

Psychology/Psychiatry
2
Ethics/Theology
Journalism
1
1
Nursing
Environmental
Studies
Nutrition
1
1
Chemistry

Source:

Calculated

Commissions,

Appointments

Sociology
Engineering/Technology
6
Physics
5
Education
Business
Administration
Social
Work 4
4
History

Other

# of

Commissions

from
1973-1984

D. Zink, Guide
to the Presidential
Stephen
VA: Chadwyck-Healy,
(Alexandria,
1987).

Advisory

out by Edward Laumann

of the University of Chicago?research
that used net
on
to
work analysis
focus
the ways AIDS spread throughout at-risk populations?
was not to be funded, on the grounds that the Reagan administration
considered
research dealing with sexuality illegitimate; private foundations
eventually funded
the work
et
al.
such as Ford
(Laumann
1994). Moreover,
private foundations,

and Rockefeller,
research during this period, shift
grew unhappy with academic
in the direction of direct political
intervention
into
ing their own efforts more
seems little doubt that a combination
a changed
of less money,
society. There
to the country, and a public suspicion
coloration
of experimentation
ideological
in social

to limit rather drastically

combined
the effect that sociology
policy
have on public policy.
into public policy is not
Still, this story of declining
sociological
incorporation
assess
to
Another
the
of
the
in the larger
social
sciences
way
complete.
impact
culture
is to look at the role of presidential
commissions
1975).
(Komarovsky
These bodies are called into being when
the president
feels that there is a matter
could

of some urgency

Merton

that requires

expert,

and usually

nonpartisan,

advice.

and Wolfe

Since

the

33

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

issued re
such commissions
seventy-four
published,
at the
often esoteric, but they have included concerns
as
such
biom?dical
heart of sociological
ethics,
privacy,
inquiry,
population,
social secu
mental
the status of women,
health,
immigration,
unemployment,
volume

Komarovsky
ports. Their

was

subjects were

housing,
rity, alcoholism,
seventy-four commissions.

and

crime.

In all,

individuals

1,505

were

served

on

these

as profes
ninety-six
were
to
other
six
sociolo
of
whom
sors,
sociologists.10
disciplines,
Compared
were
were
seventeen
not bypassed
law professors
gists
during this period. There
as Table
on these commissions,
and thirteen professors of economics
represented
Of

this group,

identified

as fully represented
as political
5 indicates.
Still, sociology was
science,
engi
and
and
than
and
neering
technology,
physics,
better-represented
history and
are any indication,
If these commissions
impact on so
sociology's
psychology.
cial policy

did not grow

during

the 1970s

and

1980s,

but neither

did

it disap

pear.

to overlap with areas of public

continue
the subjects studied by sociologists
to
will
continue
involved
in public policy matters. Take,
be
concern,
sociologists
or paternal
contact with
for example,
theory and data dealing with divorce
As

after divorce
and Cherlin
1988; Furstenberg
(Cherlin
1991) This re
relevant to discussions
of welfare
is, at the moment,
reform; if families
were
assume more responsibility
to remain more
for
intact, or if fathers would
their children after divorce,
be lessened. The
the burden on government would
children
search

same
other

is true of criminology,
income
immigration,
that have both
topics studied by sociologists

cations
Direct

for public policy.

in public
involvement

during
ignored. Those
fast answers
makers want

and they usually

conditions,
ig
high-pressure
of real-world data. Our point is to empha
is incorporated
into
risk that flows from the way
sociology

the cautions

size one
American

any of the
interest and impli

that barely
policy does pose risks for sociologists
to be
the Reagan-Bush
when
tended
advice
years,
sociological
are
well
known
and
need
risks
repeating here; policy
barely

existed

nore

distribution?or
scientific

additional

If sociologists
sell their ideas to
on
too enthusiastically,
what
they can deliver.
they over-promise
may transfer its skepti
already skeptical of government,
public,

culture?the

policy-makers
The American

under

and ambivalences

risk of disappointment.

to social science
if social science
is seen as too close an ally to government.
In this way,
of sociology
into American
the incorporation
society through influ
ence over public policy could come to replicate
the implications
of the incor
terms are
that sociological
of terms and technique.
poration
Already convinced
cism

are flawed,
the consequences
for soci
trite, and that social science
techniques
came
to
if
that
would
be
serious
ideas
Americans
also
believe
sociological
ology
or counter-productive.
about public policy are inherently unworkable
Conclusion
Terms,
variously

34

and findings of sociology

have been widely
and
techniques,
into
culture
and
institutions
of
American
the
Our
incorporated
society.
concepts,

The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

to sociological
time seems particularly
ways of knowing. At the height
receptive
noted that "Those of us who
Richard
Rovere
of sociology's
postwar popularity,
think in sociological
in the twentieth
have been educated
century habitually
or
we
in
not
have
had
This
whether
terms,
is, if any
any training
sociology."
are
even
more
true
At
time
Americans
in the 1990s.
this
thing,
exceptionally
as

of ethnicity, group
they are, with questions
loy
a
to
We
live
in
continue
culture,
sociological
lifestyles.
in the United States. Sociology,
one important reason why sociology
prospered
has been influenced by the general culture and society. The women's
moreover,
sociolo
movement
has had a major
impact on the field; the number of women
sociological?preoccupied,
alty, immigration, and

(Roos and Jones 1993), and the influence of feminist ideas

gists has increased
can be felt in nearly every area of academic
sociology. As American
society itself
so
as
to lose its consensual
did
the
seemed
nature,
field,
sociology
split off into
a number
to be sure, but hardly
in the "doldrums"
of sub-fields?disunited,
either

(Collins

1986).

one finds considerable

of the question whether
discussion
sociologists,
as
a
and
has
lost
its
result
of the processes
of
integrity
viability, partly
sociology
discussed
this article. For those who
feel that it has,
throughout
incorporation
Among

a "golden age" for sociology,

a period
that saw
1960s constituted
in sociology,
in the number of doctorates
the expansion
of fac
in
the
and
American
Association
ulties,
(Turner
increasing membership
Sociological
In more recent years, according
to these critics, we
and Turner 1990: 133-141).
the 1950s and
rapid increases

a drop-off in the skills of those

enrollments
in sociology,
declining
a
the
and
of
in
loss
the American
Asso
field,
entering
Sociological
membership
means
For
in
ciation (D'Antonio
the
decline
that
skills
some,
1992).
quantitative
to weed
there no longer exists a quality-control
mechanism
out students who
not that good
that "sociology
has
(Blalock
1989). Others
argue
simply were
see

now

a series

for correct politics

rather than a set of studies of
it has been noted,
failed to
1993:
(Horowitz
17). Sociologists,
most
as
social
of
the
the
such
the rise
century,
important
predict
developments
or
of fundamentalism
of communism
the collapse
(Berger 1992). The academic
of the contemporary
"a discipline
in
fragmentation
university has left sociology
become

of demands

culture"

social

name

ancestors
have fewer common
only, whose members
common
to
few
less
talk
and
about
ago,
concepts,

years
about

than they did

less language

itwith"

twenty
to talk

criticisms do not, in general,

(Becker and Rau 1992: 71). These
are due to its inability to be incorpo
that the problems
facing sociology
into the culture and the society. On the contrary, from the point of view
of many of these critics, American
in a sense, deserve
society and sociology,
argue
rated

each

other,

since both have

"decomposition"

of sociology

lost standards
is one

direct

and a commitment

to excellence.

result of too extensive

The

a process

of

incorporation.

case

The
although

necessary
quality

Merton

that sociology
has lost its scholarly
to dispute,
integrity is open
come
to
has
be
it is not
(Wolfe
1992). However,
ideology
widespread
a
on
to take
of whether
the question
has lost its
position
sociology

in order

to consider

the benefits

and drawbacks

of cultural

and Wolfe

and

social

35

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

into the general culture is an

That sociology will be incorporated
incorporation.
of a social science
that is part of the culture it studies.
inevitable consequence
into the general culture
From this point of view, the incorporation
of sociology
society reflects the desire
this puts those who would

and

of Americans

to know

more

to understand
presume
some
that
deal
One
awkward
way
sociologists
position.
on
is to retreat from the general culture, to concentrate
of the interest that the culture
its findings irrespective
and

about

themselves,

society in an
the awkwardness

American
with

their own

and
discipline
in such findings.
is to transform sociology
A contrasting
directly into a policy science,
objective
in a sense,
its full incorporation
into the society.
Still others try to
seeking,
on circum
these two imperatives,
and
forth
balance
back
shifting
depending
shows

stances.
It is not our intention to argue for or against any of these responses,
that all of them have their roots in the problem
of social
rather to emphasize
cultural
incorporation.

but
and

eso
that it has become
variously maintain
exceptionally
a
fetish
of
teric,
language,
by making
technique,
political
ideology or
assume
more
a disci
critics
esoteric
foundations.
Such
that
the
epistemological
the less the public will be interested in its findings. Our analysis
pline becomes,
Critics

of sociology

either

to a different problem
of the public. A large risk
that leads to alienation
points
we face as a discipline
is that those whose
behavior we study will take what we
It is not the decline
take ourselves.
of
say about them more
seriously than we
us
so
as
to
that
the
of
interest
the
much
preoccupy
ought
balancing
sociology
public
social

in what

we

do with

our vocational

commitment

to the furtherance

of

knowledge.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Patrick Bova of the National Opinion
the information contained
in Figure 1.We also wish to acknowledge
by Jonathan Imber.

for making available

Research Corporation
the moral and editorial support provided

Notes
dictionaries
and a recent encyclo
obtain this information we consulted
the most common sociological
and
Collins Dictionary
George A. Theodorson
pedia: David Jary and Julia Jary, The Harper
of Sociology;
Achilles G. Theodorson,
A Modern Dictionary
of the
of Sociology; G. Duncan Mitchell, A New Dictionary
Social Sciences; Michael Mann, The International
Encyclopedia
of Sociology; Raymond Boudon and Fran?ois
and Edgar F. and Maria A. Borgotta, Encyclopedia
Bourricaud, A Critical Dictionary
of
of Sociology;
in these sources?bureaucracy,
Some of the terms contained
class, status, race, ethnicity, insti
Sociology.
so common that little could be gained by including them without modifications
tution, urbanization?are
"
instead of "class," "status symbol" rather
instead of "ethnicity," "class consciousness
Cethnocentrism"
than "status"). On the other hand, we did include terms such as "altruism,"
"lifestyle," "hegemony," and
terms of which we report on
"alienation."
We eventually examined
the frequency of 205 sociological

1. To

p. 92.
Although

use was
can be traced back to Gunnar Myrdal,
its more contemporary
the term "underclass"
to
to criticism, Wilson
indicated his willingness
In response
largely introduced by William Julius Wilson.
use other terms, such as "ghetto poor."
to search through Lexis/Nexis
for specific terms in specific years cited in specific
3. Our procedure was
newspapers.
followed a similar method here of consulting Donald
Rutherford's Dictionary
4. We
culling
of Economics,
are listed in Table 3.
from it 41 terms, which
2.

36 The

American

Sociologist/Fall

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1995

introduced in a distinctly psychological

5. Although the term lifestyle was later (and, it seems, independently)
sense
sense by Alfred Adler, we have the impression that its current usage is primarily in the sociological
introduced by Max Weber.
see Zuckerman
"role model"
6. For an analysis of how the term and concept
(1988).
developed,
in the cultural transmission of knowledge,
"obliteration by incorporation" or in the ultimate
7. As a process
or
of ideas, formulations, methods,
brevity of the acronym, OBI, stands for obliteration of the source(s)
see Merton
in current canonical knowledge.
On which
1968, pp. 27-29, 35-38
findings by incorporation
and in more specific detail Merton
[1965] 1993, pp. 311-312.
8. There exists a fine journal called Qualitative
Sociology.
School emphasis on ethnography and the Columbia University emphasis
9. Lemann is referring to the Chicago
on middle range theory.
on the Observation
of International Women's
10. Alice Rossi (National Commission
year [1975]); Charles Willie
on Mental Heath [1977]); Elise Boulding
on World Hun
(President's Commission
(President's Commission
on the Accident
at Three Mile Island [1979]); Ren?e Fox
ger [1978]); Cora Marrett (President's Commission
in Medicine
and Biom?dical
and Behavioral
for the Study of Ethical Problems
(President's Commission
for a National Agenda for the Eighties [1979]).
Research
[1979]); and Daniel Bell (President's Commission

References
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
and Paul Starr. 1986. The Politics of Numbers.
Alonso, William
12-18.
Berger, Peter L. 1992. "Sociology: A Disinvitation?"
Society, 30 (November/December):
in the 1990s." Society, 30 (November/December):
S. and William C. Rau. 1992. "Sociology
Becker, Howard
70-74.
in Focus Group Training." Footnotes,
1993- "Sociologists
Billson, Janet Mancini.
January, p. 6.
Participate
Contributions
of Quantitative
American
Blalock, Hubert M. Jr. 1989. "The Real and Unrealized
Sociology."

54 (June): 447-460.
Review,
Sociological
2d ed. Chicago:
Crain Books.
Bogart, Leo. 1984. Strategy in Advertising.
of the Social Survey Movement
and the Rise of American Empirical Sociol
Bulmer, Martin. 1991. "The Decline
Perspec
ogy." In Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, (eds.), The Social Survey in Historical
tive. New York: Cambridge University Press, 291-315.
In
Bulmer, Martin, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar. 1991. "The Social Survey in Historical Perspective."

and Sklar, 1-48.

American Family and Public Policy. Washington:
The Urban Institute.
1988. The Changing
D.C: Government
Coleman, James S. 1966. Equality
of Educational
Printing Office.
Opportunity. Washington
in the Doldrums?"
American
1986. "Is 1980s Sociology
91 (May):
Collins, Randall.
fournal
of Sociology,
1336-55.
in the United States: Roots and Emergence
1890-1960.
Converse, Jean M. 1987. Survey Research
Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press.
and Walter W. Powell.
1982. Books: The Culture and Commerce
Coser, Louis A., Charles Kadushin,
of Publish
ing. New York: Basic Books.
Crane, Diana and Henry Small. 1992. "American Sociology Since the Seventies: The Emerging Identity Crisis in
In Terence C. Halliday and Morris Janowitz, (eds.), Sociology and Its Publics: The Forms and
the Discipline."
Fates of Disciplinary
Press, 197-234.
Chicago: University of Chicago
Organization.
Land Error. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Crespi, Irving. 1988. Pre-Election Polling: Sources of Accuracy
Curtin, Richard Y. 1982. "Indicators of Consumer Behavior: The University of Michigan
Survey of Consumers."
Public Opinion Quarterly,
46: 140-152.
in a Time of Changing Opportunities."
In Halliday and
D'Antonio, William V. 1992. "Recruiting Sociologists
Bulmer, Bales
Cherlin, Andrew.

Janowitz, 99-136.
12: 21-29.
Darden, Donna K. 1992. "Thou Shalt Not . . .Commit a Social Science."
Spectrum,
Sociological
1: 108-115.
Erwin, Robert. 1994. "Lifestyle." The Wilson Quarterly,
Families:
What Happens
to Children When Parents
Furstenberg, Frank F. and Andrew Cherlin. 1991. Divided
Part. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
as a Planning Concept." fournal
the Underclass:
The Term's Dangers
Gans, Herbert 1990. "Deconstructing
of

the American
56: 271-77.
Association,
Planning
Promotes
State Power. New York: Basic
1986. The Captive Public: How Mass
Ginsberg, Benjamin.
Opinion
Books.
New York: Basic Books.
Gouldner, Alvin. 1970. The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology.
Assessments
of the State of Sociology."
The American
22: 200
Hargens, L. L. 1990. "Sociologists'
Sociologist,
208.
Voices: How Opinion Polling Has Shaped American
Politics. Chicago: Univer
Herbst, Susan. 1993. Numbered
Press.
sity of Chicago
1993- The Decomposition
Horowitz,
Irving Louis.
of Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.
v. Board
The History of Brown
and Black America's
1976. Simple fustice:
Kluger, Richard.
of Education
New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Struggle for Equality.

Merton

and Wolfe

37

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

New York:
Commissions.
and Public Policy: The Case of Presidential
1975. Sociology
Komarovsky, Mirra.
Elsevier.
Guide for Applied Research.
Park, CA: Sage
1988. Focus Groups: A Practical
Newbury
Krueger, Richard.
Publications.
1922. "The Growth of News Polls in American Politics." In Thomas E. Mann
Ladd, Everett Carll and John Benson.
The Brookings Institution, 19-31.
Politics. Washington:
Polls in American
and Gary R. Orren, (eds.), Media
in the United States.
Laumann, Edward O. et al. 1994. The Social Organization
of Sexuality: Sexual Practices
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1967. The Uses of Sociology. New York: Basic Books.
Lazarsfeld, Paul, William H. Sewell and Harold L. Wilensky.
New
and How It Changed America.
Land: The Great Black Migration
1991. The Promised
Lemann, Nicholas.

York: Knopf.
In Mann and Orren,
Mann, Thomas E. and Gary R. Orren. 1992. "To Poll or Not to Poll. . . and Other Questions."
1-18.
1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and theMaking
of the Underclass.
Massey, Douglas and Nancy A. Dent?n.
Harvard University Press.
Cambridge:
Press.
Madison: University of Wisconsin
Donald.
1985. The Rhetoric of Economics.
McCloskey.
Interests." In Joan Huber, (ed.),
and Children's
Sarah. 1991. "The Two Faces of Divorce: Women's
McLenahan,
in Sociology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
Macro-Micro
193-207.
Linkages
Sarah and Irving Garfinkel. 1986. Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma.
McLenahan,

-.
-.

The Urban Institute.

D.C:
Washington,
Interview." American Journal
51:
1946. "The Focussed
Merton, Robert K. and Patricia Kendall.
of Sociology,
541-557.
Merton, Robert K. and Paul K. Hatt. 1949. "Election Polling Forecasts and Public Images of Social Science: A Case
13: 185-222.
Study in the Shaping of Opinion Among a Strategic Public." Public Opinion Quarterly,
Interview: A Manual
Merton, Robert K., Marjorie Fiske, and Patricia L. Kendall, (ed.) [1956] 1990. The Focussed
Second Edition. New York: Free Press.
and Procedures.
of Problems
and the Practicing
In Robert K. Merton, Social Research
Merton, Robert K. 1982. "Our Sociological Vernacular."
100-106.
Aaron Rosenblatt and Thomas F. Gieryn, (eds.) Cambridge, Mass: Abt Books,
Professions,
Press.
[1965] 1993- On the Shoulders
of Giants. Chicago: University of Chicago

1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press.
Research." Quali
1984. "Focus Groups: A New Tool for Qualitative
Morgan, David L. and Margaret T. Spanish.
tative Sociology,
7: 253-270.
Research.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Morgan, David L. 1988. Focus Groups as Qualitative
Polls of 1948.
1949- The Prediction
Frederick, Herbert H. Hyman, Philip J. McCarthy, Eli S. Marks.
Mosteller,
New York: Social Science Research Council.
Action in the War on Poverty.
Feasible Misunderstanding:
Community
Moynihan, Daniel P. 1967. Maximum
New York: Free Press.
1967. The Moynihan
Rainwater, Lee and William L. Yancey.
Report and the Politics of Controversy. Cambridge:
MIT Press.
Rieff, Philip. 1966. The Triumph
Roos, Patricia A. and Katherine

Sociology."
Ohio.
Roper, Burns.

-.

-.

presented

York: Harper and Row.

Inroads into Academic
Association,

Cincinnati,

50: 1-9.
1986. "Evaluating Polls with Poll Data," Public Opinion Quarterly,
In Herbert J. O'Gorman,
(ed.), Surveying Social Life: Papers
Singer, Eleanor. 1988. "Surveys in the Mass Media."
Conn: Wesleyan
in Honor
University Press, 413-436.
of Herbert H. Hyman. Middletown,
on the 1980 General Social Survey."
1989. "The Hidden 25 Percent: An Analysis of Nonresponse
Smith, Tom W.
In Eleanor Singer and Stanley Presser, (eds.), Survey Research Methods.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
50-68.
Social Survey,
and Why: An Analysis of the Usage of the General
1992. "Who, What, When, Where,
Research Center.
GSS Project Report # 18, National Opinion
1972-1991."
In Singer and Presser, 32-49.
1989. "Trends in Nonresponse
Rates, 1952-1979."
Steech, Charlotte.
1990. Focus Groups: Theory and Practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Stewart, David W., and Prem N. Shamdasani.

Publications.
Science: An Institutional
1990. The Impossible
Turner, Stephen Park and Jonathan H. Turner.
Analysis
of
American
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Sociology.
Barbara Dafoe.
1993. "Dan Quayle Was Right." The Atlantic
Whitehead,
(April): 47-84.
Institutions.
Wilson, William Julius. 1980. The Declining
of Race: Blacks and Changing American
Significance
Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
and Public Policy. Chicago: University
The Inner City, The Underclass,
1987. The Truly Disadvantaged:
of Chicago
Press.
Alan 1990. "Books versus Journals: Two Ways of Publishing
ber): 477-489.
1992. "Weak Sociology/Strong
Sociologists:
Consequences
Social Research,
59: 759-779.

Wolfe,
-.

Paper

Uses of Faith after Freud. New

of the Therapeutic:
Jones. 1993. "Shifting Gender Boundaries: Women's
at the 1991 Annual Meetings, American
Sociological

Sociology,"

Sociological

and Contradictions

Forum,

of a Field

5 (Septem
in Turmoil."

38 The American Sociologist/Fall 1995

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Ideas on American Culture."

In Herbert Gans, (ed.), Soci
Dennis.
1990. "The Influence of Sociological
in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
19-30.
Studies in Society
1993. "The Present Condition of American Sociology: A Review Article." Comparative
and History,
15 Ganuary):
183-196.
In Herbert
Zuckerman, Harriet. 1988. "The Role of the Role Model: The Other Side of a Sociological
Coinage."
Social Life: Papers
in Honor
Conn:
(ed.), Surveying
J. O'Gorman,
Middletown,
of Herbert H. Hyman.
Wesleyan
University Press, 119-144.

Wrong,
-.

ology

Merton

and Wolfe

39

This content downloaded from 79.175.121.210 on Mon, 27 May 2013 17:41:39 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions