Vehicle-to-grid

A battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle which

uses its excess rechargeable battery capacity to provide power to the electric grid in response to peak
load demands. These vehicles can then be recharged
during o-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping
to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system
to buer power.[5]

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) describes a system in which plugin electric vehicles, such as electric cars (BEVs) and plugin hybrids (PHEVs), communicate with the power grid to
sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[1]
[2]

Vehicle-to-grid can be used with such gridable vehicles,

that is, plug-in electric vehicles (BEVs and PHEVs), with
grid capacity. Since most vehicles are parked an average
of 95 percent of the time, their batteries could be used
to let electricity ow from the car to the power lines and
back, with a value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year
per car.[3]

A solar vehicle which uses its excess charging capacity to provide power to the electric grid when
the battery is fully charged. Here the vehicle eectively becomes a small renewable energy power station. Such systems have been in use since the 1990s
and are routinely used in the case of large vehicles,
especially solar-powered boats.

One notable V2G project in the United States is at the

University of Delaware, where a V2G team headed by
Dr. Willett Kempton has been conducting on-going
research.[4] An early operational implementation in Europe was conducted via the German government-funded
MeRegioMobil project at the KIT Smart Energy Home
of Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in cooperation with
Opel as vehicle partner and utility EnBW providing grid
expertise.[5] Their goals are to educate about the environmental and economic benets of V2G and enhance
the product market.[4] Other investigators are the Pacic
Gas and Electric Company, Xcel Energy, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, and, in the United Kingdom, the University of Warwick.[6]

History

The company AC Propulsion Inc. coined the term V2G

A gasier system on a pickup truck can be used to power the truck
for vehicle-to-grid.[7]
and produce electricity
It should also be noted that besides vehicles which have
an onboard battery, vehicles without a large battery,
but which connect to/recharge a battery placed at the
V2G is a version of battery-to-grid power applied to ve- house (for example being part of an o-the-grid electrihicles. There are three main dierent versions of the cal system or net metering system) could in eect form a
vehicle-to-grid concept, all of which have an onboard bat- vehicle-to-grid system. Even a renewable energy source
(like wood gas) could be used.[8]
tery:

Three versions

A hybrid or Fuel cell vehicle, which generates power

from storable fuel, uses its generator to produce
3 Types
power for a utility at peak electricity usage times.
Here the vehicles serve as a distributed generation
system, producing power from conventional fossil V2G is classied based on the power ow direction: Unifuels, biofuels or hydrogen.
directional V2G and Bidirectional V2G. [9][10]
1

8 FUTURE PLANS FOR VEHICLE-TO-GRID (V2G) IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

Peak load leveling

or solar electric.

The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to

help balance loads by valley lling (charging at night 7 Utilities
when demand is low) and peak shaving (sending power
back to the grid when demand is high). It can enable These utilities currently have V2G technology trials:
utilities new ways to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning
PG&E, USA, converting a number of companyreserves (meet sudden demands for power). In future deowned Toyota Prius to be V2G PHEVs at Googles
velopment, it has been proposed that such use of eleccampus
tric vehicles could buer renewable power sources such
as wind power, for example, by storing excess energy pro Xcel Energy, USA, converting six Ford Escape Hyduced during windy periods and providing it back to the
brids to PHEVs with V2G [15]
grid during high load periods, thus eectively stabilizing
the intermittency of wind power. Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as a renewable energy 8 Future Plans for Vehicle-to-Grid
approach that can penetrate the baseline electric market.
It has been proposed that public utilities would not have
to build as many natural gas or coal-red power plants
to meet peak demand or as an insurance policy against
blackouts[11] Since demand can be measured locally by
a simple frequency measurement, dynamic load leveling
can be provided as needed.[12]

Related Terms

carbitrage: This is a portmanteau of 'car' and 'arbitrage'.

When the electric utility would like to buy power from
the V2G network, it holds an auction. The car owners
are able to dene the parameters under which they will
sell energy from their battery pack. Many factors would
be considered when setting minimum sale price including
the cost of the secondary fuel in a PHEV and battery cycle
wear. When this minimum price is satised, it is deemed
as meeting carbitrage.[13]

Backup power solutions

Future battery developments[14] may change the economic equation, making it advantageous to use newer
high capacity and longer-lived batteries in BEV/PHEVs
and in grid load balancing and as a large energy cache for
renewable grid resources. Even if cycled daily, such batteries would only require replacement/recycling every 55
years or so. Since BEVs can have up to 50 kWh worth of
battery storage they represent somewhat more than the
average homes daily energy demand. Even without a
PHEVs gas generation capabilities such a vehicle could
be used for emergency power for several days (for example, lighting, refrigerators etc. with combined load of 1
kW could be powered for 50 hours). This would be an
example of V2H or Vehicle-to-home transmission. As
such they may be seen as a complementary technology
for intermittent renewable power resources such as wind

(V2G) in various Countries

A study conducted in 2012 by the Idaho National Laboratory [16] revealed the following estimations and future
plans for V2G in various countries. It is important to note
that this is dicult to quantify because the technology is
still in its nascent stage, and is therefore dicult to reliably predict adoption of the technology around the world.
The following list is not intended to be exhaustive, but
rather to give an idea of the scope of development and
progress in this area around the world.

8.1 United States

Current environmental issues in the US are playing a vital
role in the demand for V2G technology. The decrease in
costs for implementation of V2G will be directly related
to the speed of adoption by consumers. As smart grid
rollout continues and the population realizes the lower
cost of electric vehicle ownership, demand will increase.
Continued V2G testing and the further development of
two-way communications standards will oer interoperability across systems. Fleets such as the US Postal Service will be crucial to V2G development. Private grid
testing will continue as utilities, automakers, and colleges
form partnerships. The University of Delaware has recently signed its rst license for V2G testing with Autoport, Inc. They expect that by the second or third quarter
of 2011, 100 electric vehicles on the road will be capable
of V2G testing (Bryant 2010).
PJM interconnection has envisioned using US Postal Service trucks, school buses and garbage trucks that remain
unused overnight for grid connection. This could generate millions of dollars because these companies aid in
storing and stabilizing some of the national grids energy.
The US is projected to have one million electric vehicles
on the road between 2015 and 2019. Studies indicate
that 160 new power plants will need to be built by 2020
to compensate for electric vehicles if integration with the
grid does not move forward (ZigBee 2010).

8.5

8.2

South Korea

Japan

Japan currently is a leader in the electric vehicle industry.

This may allow the country to pioneer new V2G technology for the mainstream. In order to meet the 2030 target of 10% of Japans energy being generated by renewable resources, a cost of $71.1 billion will be required for
the upgrades of existing grid infrastructure. The Japanese
charging infrastructure market is projected to grow from
$118.6 million to $1.2 billion between 2015 and 2020
(ZigBee 2010). Starting in 2012, Nissan plans to bring to
market a kit compatible with the LEAF EV that will be
able to provide power back into a Japanese home. Currently, there is a prototype being tested in Japan. Average Japanese homes draw 10 to 12 KWh, and with the
LEAFs 24 KWh battery capacity, this kit could potentially provide 2 days of power (Howard 2011). Production in additional markets will follow upon Nissans ability to properly complete adaptations.

8.3

Denmark

Denmark currently is a world leader in wind power generation, with 20% of the countrys energy coming from
wind (there are enough installed turbines to meet up to
40% of the countrys energy needs). Initially, Denmarks
goal is to replace 10% of all vehicles with PEVs, with
an ultimate goal of a complete replacement to follow.
The EDISON Project implements a new set of goals that
will allow enough turbines to be built to accommodate
50% of total power while using V2G to prevent negative
impacts to the grid. Because of the unpredictability of
wind, the EDISON Project plans to use PEVs while they
are plugged into the grid to store additional wind energy
that the grid cannot handle. Then, during peak energy
use hours, or when the wind is calm, the power stored
in these PEVs will be fed back into the grid. To aid in
the acceptance of EVs, policies have been enforced that
create a tax dierential between zero emission cars and
traditional automobiles. The Danish PEV market value
is expected to grow from $50 to $380 million between
2015 and 2020. PEV developmental progress and advancements pertaining to the use of renewable energy resources will make Denmark a market leader with respect
to V2G innovation (ZigBee 2010).

8.4

United Kingdom

The V2G market in the UK will be stimulated by aggressive smart grid and PEV rollouts. Starting in January
2011, programs and strategies to assist in PEV have been
implemented. The UK has begun devising strategies to
increase the speed of adoption of EVs. This includes providing universal high-speed internet for use with smart
grid meters, because most V2G-capable PEVs will not
coordinate with the larger grid without it. The Electric Delivery Plan for London states that by 2015, there

3
will be 500 on-road charging stations; 2,000 stations oroad in car parks; and 22,000 privately owned stations
installed. Local grid substations will need to be upgraded
for drivers who cannot park on their own property. By
2020 in the UK, there will be a smart meter in every residential home, and about 1.7 million PEVs on the road.
The UKs electric vehicle market value is projected to
grow from $0.1 to $1.3 billion between 2015 and 2020
(ZigBee 2010).

8.5 South Korea

South Korea has set a goal that by 2030, 100% of electric customers will be using smart grid technology. Beginning in March 2010, the government will invest $23.3
billion in development and rollout of smart grid technology. Grid revenues are projected to increase from $4.8
to $53.2 million between 2015 and 2020 (ZigBee 2010).

9 Current projects
9.1 University of Delaware
Dr. Willett Kempton, Dr. Suresh Advani, and Dr.
Ajay Prasad are the researchers at the US University of
Delaware who are currently conducting research on the
V2G technology, with Dr. Kempton being the lead on the
project. Dr. Kempton has published a number of articles
on the technology and the concept, many of which can be
found on the V2G project page.[4] The group is involved
in researching the technology itself as well as its performance when used on the grid. In addition to the technical
research, the team has worked with Dr. Meryl Gardner,
a Marketing professor in the Alfred Lerner College of
Business and Economic at the University of Delaware, to
develop marketing strategies for both consumer and corporate eet adoption [17]

9.2 Edison
Denmark's Edison project, an abbreviation for 'Electric vehicles in a Distributed and Integrated market using Sustainable energy and Open Networks is an ongoing partially state funded research project on the island of Bornholm in Eastern Denmark. The consortium of IBM, Siemens the hardware and software developer EURISCO, Denmarks largest energy company
DONG Energy, the regional energy company stkraft,
the Technical University of Denmark and the Danish
Energy Association, is currently exploring how to balance the unpredictable electricity loads generated by Denmarks many wind farms, currently generating ~20% of
the countrys total electricity production, by using electric vehicles (EV) and their accumulators. The aim of the

12

project is to develop infrastructure that enables EVs to intelligently communicate with the grid to determine when
charging, and ultimately discharging, can take place.[18]
At least one rebuild V2G capable Toyota Scion will be
used in the project.[19] The project is key in Denmarks
ambitions to expand its wind-power generation to 50% by
2020.[20] According to a source of British newspaper The
Guardian 'Its never been tried at this scale' previously.[21]

10
10.1

Completed projects
Southwest Research Institute

In 2014, Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) developed

the rst vehicle-to-grid aggregation system qualied by
the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT). The
system allows for owners of electric delivery truck eets
to make money by assisting in managing the grid frequency. When the electric grid frequency drops below
60 Hertz, the system suspends vehicle charging which removes the load on the grid thus allowing the frequency to
rise to a normal level. The system is the rst of its kind
because it operates autonomously.[22]
The system was originally developed as part of the Smart
Power Infrastructure Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Security (SPIDERS) Phase II program, led by
Burns and McDonnell Engineering Company, Inc. The
goals of the SPIDERS program are to increase energy security in the event of power loss from a physical or cyber
disruption, provide emergency power, and manage the
grid more eciently.[23] In November 2012, SwRI was
awarded a $7 million contract from the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers to demonstrate the integration of vehicle-togrid technologies as a source for emergency power at Fort
Carson, Colorado.[24] In 2013, SwRI researchers tested
ve DC fast-charge stations at the army post. The system passed integration and acceptance testing in August
2013.[25]

11

Skepticism

There is some skepticism among experts about the feasibility of V2G. As the New York Times states:

VEHICLES

that purpose.[6] However, in December 2013, Honda announced a partnership with the University of Delaware
where they delivered an Accord Hybrid with on-board
bidirectional charger to enter into the PJM Interconnection's frequency regulation market.[26]

11.1 Poor net eciency

Charging a fairly ecient battery system from the grid is
at best 70 to 80% ecient. Returning that energy from
the battery to the grid, which includes inverting the DC
power back to AC with eciencies of about 90% yields
6372% energy return to the system. This needs to be
factored against potential cost savings as well as the additional wear and tear on the batteries (current batteries
last a few thousand cycles at maximum) and especially increased emissions if the original source of power is fossil
based. This cycle of energy eciency needs to compared
with pumped-storage hydroelectricity which is more efcient (around 70-80%).[27] However, pumped storage is
limited by geography so it could be practical to take a
small amount of energy from a large number of batteries
if there are enough PHEV/BEV vehicles on the grid. 1
kW from 1000 vehicles is 1 megawatt of power and the
energy is already distributed so it will not tax the existing
powerlines if properly managed.
Not all skepticism is warranted. Jon Wellingho, from
the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, points
out that partial grid regulation (absorbing excess surges,
but not supplying peak power) can be done without decreasing the life of the battery. This can be done without
aecting the charge whatsoever. [28]

12 Vehicles
This list is incomplete; you can help by
expanding it.

The REV 300 ACX vehicle includes a V2G system.

Boulder Electric Vehicle 500 series and 1000 series
trucks (in production: 2012-2014).

An Environmental Defense representative stated: Its

hard to take seriously the promises made for plug-in hy1.
brids with 30 miles (48 km) all-electric range or any serious V2G application any time soon. Its still in the science
The ACPropulsion T-Zero, E-box and MINI-E all have
project stage (in 2007).[6]
V2G).
The Vehicle-to-grid potential of Hondas full hybrid vehicles is unexplored, but Honda is doubtful of using them
to power homes. We would not like to see stresses on The NISSAN LEAF has V2H Vehicle To Home in Japan
the battery pack caused by putting it through cycles it with an external inverter.
wasnt designed for, said a Honda spokesman. Instead,
they should buy a Honda generator that was made for Also read www.V2G-101.webs.com

13

See also

Charge Control
Charging station
Distributed generation
Electranet
Electric vehicle battery
Electrical substation
Electricity meter
Energy demand management
Feed-in Tari
Grid energy storage
Grid-tied electrical system
Inverter (electrical)
List of energy storage projects
Load prole
Load balancing (electrical power)
Operating reserve
Peaking power plant
Power outage
RechargeIT
Small is Protable
Smart meter
Unied Smart Grid

[6] Motavalli, Jim (2007-09-02). Power to the People: Run

Your House on a Prius. New York Times. Retrieved
2014-12-20.
[7] Emadi, Ali (2005). Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives. p. 34.
[8] Dave Nichols using a wood gas generator to power his car
and produce electricity when he parks it at his house
[9] Yong, Jia Ying, et al. A review on the state-ofthe-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and
prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
49 (2015): 365-385.
[10] Sortomme, Eric, and Mohamed El-Sharkawi. Optimal charging strategies for unidirectional vehicle-to-grid.
Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on 2.1 (2011): 131-138.
[11] Woody, Todd (2007-06-12). PG&Es Battery Power
Plans Could Jump Start Electric Car Market. Green
Wombat. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
[12] US 4317049, SCHWEPPE, FRED C., Frequency adaptive, power-energy re-scheduler, published 1982-02-23
[13] RMI Smart Garage Charrette Report (PDF). Rocky
Mountain Institute.
[14] Toshibas New Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Battery
Recharges in Only One Minute (Press release).
Japan: Toshiba Corporation. 2005-03-29. Retrieved
2007-12-05.
[15] Fang, X.; Misra, S.; Xue, G.; Yang, D. (2011). Smart
Grid - The New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey. IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials.
doi:10.1109/SURV.2011.101911.00087.
[16] Briones, Adrene; Francfort, James; Heitmann, Paul;
Schey, Michael; Schey, Steven; Smart, John (2012-0901). Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Power Flow (PDF). Idaho
National Laboratory. Retrieved 2015-04-29.
[17] Boyle, Elizabeth (2007-11-28).
Electricity--And Cash. UDaily.

14

References

V2G Generates

[18] Intelligent power grid. Zurich: IBM Research.

[1] Cleveland, Cutler J.; Morris, Christopher (2006). Dictionary of Energy. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 473. ISBN
0-08-044578-0.

[19] WP3 - DISTRIBUTED INTEGRATION TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT. Edison. Retrieved 2011-0830.

[2] Pacic Gas and Electric Company Energizes Silicon Valley With Vehicle-to-Grid Technology. Pacic Gas &
Electric. 2007-04-07. Retrieved 2009-10-02.

[20] Danish Climate and Energy Policy. Danish Energy

Agency.

[3] Car Prototype Generates Electricity, And Cash. Science

Daily. 2007-12-09. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
[4] V2G : Vehicle to Grid Power. June 2001. Retrieved
2008-02-05.
[5] Brinkman, Norm; Eberle, Ulrich; Formanski, Volker;
Grebe, Uwe-Dieter; Matthe, Roland (2012). Vehicle
Electrication - Quo Vadis?". Research Gate. Retrieved
2014-12-20.

[21] Graham-Rowe, Duncan (2009-06-19). Denmark to

power electric cars by wind in vehicle-to-grid experiment. London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
[22] SwRI develops rst ERCOT-qualied vehicle-to-grid aggregation system. Southwest Research Institute. Retrieved 2015-02-26.
[23] SPIDERS: The Smart Power Infrastructure Demonstration for Energy Reliability and Secruity (PDF). Sandia
National Laboratories.

15

EXTERNAL LINKS

[24] SwRI will participate in a U.S. Army program to demonstrate alternative sources for an emergency electrical
power grid. Southwest Research Institute. Retrieved
2015-02-26.

20kW DC/AC Power Inverter Preliminary Specications, For Distributed Power Applications. UQM
Technologies, Inc. March 2003. Archived from the
original on 2008-03-03.

[25] SwRI deploys novel vehicle-to-grid aggregation system.

Southwest Research Institute. Retrieved 2015-02-26.

Electric Drive Transportation Association. EDTA.

Retrieved 2007-10-05.

[26] Honda Joins Vehicle-to-Grid Technology Demonstration

Project in Partnership with University of Delaware and
NRG Energy (Press release). US: Honda. 2013-12-05.
Retrieved 2013-12-06.

Electrifying Times Magazine, Latest Electric Car

News. Electrifying Times Magazine.

[27] Levine, John. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage

and Spatial Diversity of Wind Resources as Methods
of Improving Utilization of Renewable Energy Sources
(PDF). http://www.colorado.edu''. Retrieved 2014-08-28.

Hybrid Center. Union of Concerned Scientists.

Retrieved 2007-10-05.

[28] Plug-in Electric Vehicles 2008: What Role for Washington (PDF). Brookings Institution and Google.org. 200806-12. p. 347.

15

External links

Vehicle-to-grid V2G - EAA-PHEV Wiki. Electric vehicles plugged in for recharging their batteries can help stabilize a smart grid by occasionally
feeding power back into the grid to help prevent
brownouts and blackouts.
Vehicle-to-house V2H - EAA-PHEV Wiki. Electric vehicles can power critical functions in a home
during emergencies when the electrical grid is
blacked out.
Diehl, Stephen. Study suggests electric cars could
pay their owners back. Green Mountain College.
Archived from the original on 2008-02-25.

EV World. EV World. Retrieved 2007-10-05.

Real Hybrid Mileage Database. Green Hybrid.

Retrieved 2007-10-05.
Heather Silyn-Roberts. (2000). Reports, Papers,
and Presentations. AC Propulsion Inc. (Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann). ISBN 0-7506-4636-5.
Archived from the original on 2008-10-25.
Ingvar & Persson (2010). Vehicle to Grid State of
The Art System Design (PDF). Royal Institute of
Technology (Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology).
V2G: Vehicle to Grid Power.
Delaware research program.

University of

V2Green. Retrieved 2007-10-05. Company promoting v2G technology.

Worlds First V2G Demo. The California Cars
Initiative. 2007-10-22. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
In Two-Way Charging, Electric Cars Begin to Earn
Money From the Grid. New York Times. 201304-25.

Kempton, Willett (2005-06-06). Automobiles:

Designing the 21st century eet (PDF). Seattle V2G Related forums
Technical Symposium, University of Delaware.
Penney, Terry; Elling, Jennifer (August 2005). The
Race to Connect Cars, Communities and Renewables. Geotimes.org.
Snider, Laura (October 2008). Boulder Countys
cars to feed the grid. Daily Camera.
Woody, Todd (2007-06-12). PG&Es Battery
Power Plans Could Jump Start Electric Car Market. Blogs.business2.com. Archived from the original ( Scholar search ) on 2007-08-14.
Woolsey, Jim; Sexton, Chelsea; Brilliant,
Larry. RechargeIT: Plug-in Hybrids and V2G.
Youtube.com.
European Conference SmartGrids & E-Mobility.
OTTI. 2010-07-19. Retrieved 2010-07-19.

gridable-hybrids. autos.groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2007-10-05.

priusplus. autos.groups.yahoo.com.
2007-10-05.

Retrieved

Calcars. groups.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2007-1005.

16
16.1

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