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The noise power spectrum of CT

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ARTICLE in PHYSICS IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY JUNE 1987
Impact Factor: 2.76 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/32/5/003 Source: PubMed

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Marie Foley Kijewski
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Phys. Med. Biol., 1987, Vol. 32, No 5, 565-575. Printed in the UK

The noise power spectrum of

CT

images

Marie Foley Kijewski and Philip F Judy

Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Womens Hospital,
Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA

Received 22 July 1986

Abstract. Anexpression for the noise power spectrum of images reconstructed

by the
discretefilteredbackprojectionalgorithmhasbeenderived.
Theformulationexplicitly
includessamplingwithintheprojections,angularsampling,andthetwo-dimensional
sampling implicit in the discrete representation of the image. The
effects of interpolation
arealsoconsidered.Noisepowerspectrapredictedbythisanalysis
differ fromthose
predicted using continuous theory in two respects: they are rotationally asymmetric, and
they do not approach zero at zero frequency. Both of these properties can be attributed
The predictionswereconfirmedby
totwo-dimensionalaliasingduetopixelsampling.
measurement of noise power spectra of both simulated images and images from a commercial x-ray transmission CT scanner.

1. Introduction

The quality of computed tomographic (CT) images is usually evaluated in terms of

spatialresolutionand
level of noise.Asingle-parametermeasure
of imagenoise,
however,suchas the standard deviationover an area, is inadequate to predict the
utility of an image for a given task. Riederer et al (1978) showed that the random
variation in CT number at one point of an image is not independent of the random
variation at other points. These spatial correlations can be fully described
by either
the autocorrelation function or its Fourier transform, the noise power spectrum ( NPS)
(Dainty and Shaw 1974).
Riederer er al (1978) used the continuous convolution-backprojection model to
predict the image NPS from the projection NPS, under the assumption that the noise
in theprojections is uncorrelated (white). The image NPS was analysed in light of
decision theory by Wagner et a1 (1979) and by Hanson (1979), also using continuous
variables. These authors concluded that the shape
of the NPS is determined by the
reconstruction algorithm, specifically the convolution filter, and that, consequently,
the image NPS is rotationallysymmetricandproportionalto
frequencyat
low
frequencies.
For discrete backprojection, the reconstruction algorithm includes sampling and
interpolation,as well as filtering and backprojection. Faulkner and Moores
(1984)
derived a formula which represented the
NPS for a discrete reconstruction process.
Although they considered sampling within the projections and angular sampling, they
neglected both the interpolation and the two-dimensional sampling intrinsic to discrete
backprojection. The formula which they derived for the
NPS resulting from discrete
convolution-backprojection was equivalent to those derived previously for continuous
0031-9155/87/050565+ 11$02.50 @ 1987 IOP Publishing Ltd

565

M F Kijewski and P F Judy

566

convolution-backprojection, and, therefore, the

NPS which they predicted
were also
rotationally symmetric and proportional to frequency at
low frequencies. We show
here that the formulation of Faulkner and Moores (1984) does not describe the N P S
of images reconstructed by discrete convolution-backprojection, and that the spectra
which they predict, particularly for the standard ramp filter, are inaccurate.
In 5 2 we derive an expression for theNPS of an image reconstructed by the discrete
convolution-backprojection algorithm. We include the effects on the image N P S of all
sampling operations, including the two-dimensional sampling caused
by the discrete
two-dimensional representation of the image. We also explicitly incorporate the effects
of theinterpolationrequiredduringbackprojection.
Our formulationpredictsthat
aliasing of noise destroys the rotational symmetry of the image NPS. A second implication is that because noise is aliased into all portions of the spectrum, the ramp-like
low-frequency behaviour predicted by Riederer er a1 (1978) and Faulkner and Moores
(1984) will be altered and, furthermore, the zero-frequency
( D C ) component will be
non-zero. In 0 3 we compare our predictions with measured NPS from both simulated
images and images from a commercial cr scanner.

2. Theory
In thissection, we derive an expressionforthe
NPS which includesthe effects o f
interpolation and of all sampling operations. We use parallel geometry and assume
thatthenoise
in the rawprojection data is stationary,additiveanduncorrelated
(white).Theprojection NPS is constant, with independentcomponents confinedto
frequenciesbelowtheNyquistfrequency,which
is determined by theprojection
samplingdistance.Becausetheprojectionsarediscrete,however,thespectrum
is
replicated at intervals of twice the projection Nyquist frequency (Barrett and Swindell
1981). This can be expressed by (see figure l ( a ) )

u2 *

N ( f )= p

u2

rect[a(f-2kffl)]

k=-*

=-

rect(af-k)

where a is theprojectionsamplingdistance,
ffl= 1/2a is theprojectionNyquist
frequency, U' is the variance, P is the number of projection elements, and rect( . . . )
is the rectangle function (Gaskill 1978),
rect(x) =

if 1x1 <t
otherwise.

Filtering the projections multiplies their power spectrum by the squared magnitude of
the filter frequencyresponse. Theconvolution-backprojectionalgorithm
filters the
projections by a ramp filter which may be apodised by a function H ( f ) . The NPS then
becomes (see figure l ( b ) )

The points of the projection atwhich data are required for backprojectionwill not,
in general, correspond to points at which data were measured. The projection values
between the measured points must be estimated; interpolation converts the discrete

The noise power spectrum of

CT

images

567

l
i

Spatlal f r e q u e n c y i x p r o l e c t l o n N y q u l s t
frequency I

Figure 1. ( a ) NPS of discrete projection consisting of white noise (equation

( l ) ) . The main portion of the
spectrum, shown by full curves, is replicated at f = 2 k f n , where k is an integer. The projection Nyquist
frequency, f,,equals 1/2a, where a is the projection sampling distance. The dots on either side of the plot
indicate that the main portion of the spectrum
is replicated ad injnifurn. ( b ) NPS of discrete projection
( 3 ) in text, H ( f )= 1). ( c ) N P S of continuous projection
consisting of ramp-filtered white noise (equation
formed from spectrum shown in
( b ) by nearest-neighbour interpolation (equation
(4) in text, H ( f ) = 1,
G ( f ) = a sinc(af)). ( d ) N P S of continuousprojectionformedfromspectrumshownin
( b ) bylinear
interpolation (equation (4)in text, H ( f ) = 1, G ( f ) = a sinc2(af)). Note: these four noise power spectra
are scaled differently in order to show detail.

projection to a continuous one whose power spectrum

is (figures I ( c ) and ( d ) )

where G ( f ) is the frequency space representation of the interpolating function.

It is important to emphasise that although the raw projections are discrete, their
powerspectrum is continuous. Furthermore, because
of the discretenature of the
projections and the consequent replication in frequency space, the spectrum extends
to infinite frequencies regardless of the extent to which the apodisation filter rolls off
the power within each replication. Both of these points were recognised by Joseph et
ul (1980), although the presenceof supra-Nyquist frequency components
was attributed
to the interpo1,ating function. These components are present in the raw and filtered
projections; the interpolating function, in fact, apodises the high-frequency components

568

M F Kijewski and P F Judy

(see figure 1). Interpolation, furthermore, is the only mechanism for removing veryhigh-frequencynoisepowercomponents.
The NPS is not apodised, as is thesignal
spectrum, by the physical aperture.
According to thewell known projection-slice theorem (Deans 1983), backprojecting
a projection at a given angle superimposes its power spectrum along a spoke through
thefrequencyspace originat thatangle.The(two-dimensional)
NPS of animage
formed by backprojection of L projections over T radians is

where fi = (f;+f;)"*, fx and f , are rectilinear frequency space coordinates, ( T / L ) is

a normalisation factor and S [ f x sin(Tl/L)
c o s ( ~ l / L ) ]is a two-dimensional delta
function (Gaskill 1978) which lies along a spoke in frequency space.
Twocharacteristics of thisimage NPS shouldbepointedout.
Firstly,the NPS
extends, in general, to infinite frequencies; this follows from the fact
its components,
that
the projection spectra, extend to infinite frequencies. Secondly, the NPS is continuous
in radialfrequencyanddiscrete
in angularfrequency,i.e.
it lies alongspokesin
frequency space which are separated by gaps.
The NPS described by equation (5) incorporates all sampling operations except the
discreterepresentation of the image.Samplingtheimageatdiscretepoints
in a
two-dimensional
array
corresponds
to
convolving
its spectrum with the
twodimensional sampling function (Gaskill 1978):

-x,

where b is the (square) pixel dimension. The spectrum

is replicatedatpoints
of a
rectangular grid in frequency space; the spacing
of these points is twice thepixel
Nyquist frequency. Components at frequencies higher than can be represented in the
pixelarrayarealiased,i.e.
addedtolower-frequencycomponents
(figure 2 ) . The
aliased spectrum is

The discrete angular sampling, represented in equation

(5) by the delta function,
was not made explicit by Faulkner and Moores (1984),who assumed sufficient angular
sampling and replaced the summation
of delta functions by the spoke density. We
emphasisetheangularsamplingoperationbothforgeneralityandbecause
of our
concern with the high-frequency components of the spectrum. Even if the image is
formed from what is generally considered a sufficient number of projections (Joseph
and Schulz1980), the supra-Nyquist-frequency components which are aliased onto
the main portion of the spectrum can be undersampled in angle.
For illustration, we will consider the spectra which characterise images that have
been reconstructed using an unwindowed ramp filter ( H ( f )= l ) , and two interpolation
methods: nearest-neighbour interpolation (G(f) = a sinc(af)) and linear interpolation
( G ( f ) = a sinc'(af)). A ramp filter was considered in previous publications on image
NPS (Riederer et al 1978, Faulkner and Moores 1984). Nearest-neighbour and linear

noise
The

power spectrum of

CT

images

569

interpolation are the most commonly used methods. If the pixel dimension, 6, equals
the projection sampling distance, a, then the NPS becomes

(8)
where f A

[(fx - n / a ) 2 + (f,- m/a)']'" for nearest-neighbour interpolation and

for linear interpolation.

Thepredictions of equations (8) and(9) willbe compared with spectrafrom
simulated images which were reconstructed using a ramp filter with nearest-neighbour
and linear interpolation, respectively. The resultsof equation (9)will also be compared
with the spectrum of images, reconstructed using a rampfilter and linear interpolation,
from a commercial x-ray transmission CT scanner.
3. Methods
3.1. Simulations
Two sets of 2000 imageseach were reconstructedfromprojectionsconsisting
of
Gaussian-distributed random numbers. Each random number
was generated by summing twelve pseudorandom numbers from a uniform distribution and scaling the sum
to yield a Gaussian distribution of zero mean and unitvariance(James
1980). For
eachimage, 200 projections, each containing 256 elements, were convolvedwitha
ramp filter and backprojected, using nearest-neighbour interpolation for one set and
linear interpolation for the other, onto 256
a by 256 array. The pixel sampling distance,
the projection sampling distance, and the convolution
filter sampling distance were
all the same. The projections covered 180, and parallel geometry was used.
To demonstrate two-dimensionalaliasing, 2000 images were reconstructed by backprojecting a single filtered projection using linear interpolation.
3.2. Measurements
The Technicare Corporation Deltascan
2020 CT scanner is a fourth-generation fan-beam
device, consistingof a rotating x-ray sourceand a stationary ringof solid-state bismuth
germinatedetectors.Imagesarereconstructed
by theconvolution-backprojection
method, with several convolution filters available; we selecteda ramp filter. Linear
interpolation is implementedduringbackprojection.
Sixty-six images of a 25 cm
diameter water phantom were obtained at 120 kVp and 50 mA. Scanning time was 2 S
and slice thickness was 10 mm.
3.3. Calculation of power spectra
Two-dimensional NPS were calculated from both sets of 2000 simulated noise images,
and also from 33 images which were obtained from the 66 water-phantom images by

M F Kijewski and P F Judy

570

subtracting sequential pairs. We used difference images to ensure that the estimate of
the rips of the CT scanner was free of artefactsduetoscatter,uncorrectedbeam
hardening or other systematic errors. Spectra were estimated using a two-dimensional
extension of the method proposed by Welch (1967), similar to that used by Hanson
(1979). NPS of the simulated images were calculated from the central 128 x 128 pixels.
Spectra of the Technicare 2020 images were calculated from the central
256 x 256
pixels. In order to reduce truncation errors, the sub-arrays were windowed by

~,~=1-{[(i-1)-((~-1)/2)]~+[(j-l)-((~-1)/2)]*}[((~+1)/2)-~]

(10)

NPS was estimated as the average over

all samples of
and Fourier transformed. The
the squared modulus at each frequency.
We did not remove the low-frequency components from the data before calculating
the spectrum, as did Hanson (1979). The purpose of such an operation would have
beentoremovefromthespectrumanyvariationwhich
is constantfromimageto
image, such as that due to uncorrected beam hardening.
These systematic errors are
not present in simulated images, and were eliminated from the Technicare images by
using difference images for the estimation. Any remaining variation is truly random,
and, thus, properly part of the NPS.

4. Results and discussion

The two-dimensional aliasing effects predicted by our analysis (figure 2) were demonstrated in the NPS of images reconstructed from a single simulated projection (figure
3). The projection NPS has contributed to the imageNPS along a spoke at the projection
angle; however, components of the projection NPS at frequencies higher than can be
represented by the pixel array have been aliased onto other portions of the spectrum.
The apodisation due to linear interpolation is also apparent; the departure from the
ramp-like spectrum predicted by continuous theory is marked. The complete image

fx

Figure 2. Illustration of two-dimensional aliasing. The contribution to the image

N P S from a single projection
at angle p is shown. The projection contributes to the spectrum along a spoke through the origin at angle
p . The two-dimensional sampling implied by the discrete representation of the image causes the spectrum
to be replicated at f,,f, = m / b , n / b ; m and n are integers, b is the pixel dimension. For clarity, only the
main spectrum and three replications are shown. The projection
N P S is as described in figure l ( d ) . The
pixeldimension is equal to the projection sampling distance. Dark shading indicates both primary and
aliased contributions to the image NPS.

The noise power spectrum of

CT

images

57 1

Figure 3. Two-dimensional image NPS calculated from 2000 images reconstructed from a single simulated
noise projection at 10". Zero frequency is at the centre of the plane. The image was reconstructed using a
ramp filter and linear interpolation. The pixel dimension was equal to the projection sampling distance.
NPS is composed of contributions from all projections; the agreement between the
predicted spectra and those calculated from the simulated images is excellent (figure
4). The major features predicted by our formulation, i.e. the apodisation due to linear
interpolation, the rotational asymmetry and the additionallow-frequency components,

Figure4. ( a ) Image NPS predicted by equation (8) (ramp filter, nearest-neighbour interpolation). ( b ) Image
NPS predicted by equation (9) (ramp filter, linear interpolation). ( c ) Image NPS calculated Prom 2000 images,
each reconstructed from 200 simulated noise projections, using a ramp filter and nearest-neighbour interpolation. ( d ) Image NPS calculated from 2000 images, each reconstructed from 200 simulated noise projections,
using a ramp filter and linear interpolation.

572

M F Kijewski and P F Judy

Figure 5. Image noise power spectrum of commercial

CT

scanner (ramp filter, linear interpolation).

are also present in the NPS of images from the Technicare 2020 (figure 5 ) , although it
does not agree exactly with the predictions. The discrepancies in the low-frequency
components probablyreflect deviations of the noisein the Technicare projections from
the assumed model, i.e. stationary white noise. The minor discrepancies in the highfrequency components are not surprising, since the images were reconstructed in a
fan-beam geometry rather than
in the parallel-beam geometry assumedfor theanalysis.
The rotational asymmetry can be seen in a plot of noise power against angle for a
constant radial frequency (figure 6). The NPS calculated from the simulated images
agree closely with the predictions; the spectrum calculated from the Technicare images
agrees qualitatively. The implication of a NPS which is not rotationally symmetric is
that the detectability of an object, or the precision of an estimate of the average CT
number over an area, will depend on the orientation of theobject or area with respect
to the pixels.
The low-frequency portion of the NPS (figure 7) departs from the ramp function
which would describe it in the absence of two-dimensional aliasing; furthermore, the
zero-frequency (DC) component is non-zero. The increase in low-frequency noise is

Figure 6. ( a ) Noise power plotted against polar angleat Nyquist frequency (along a semi-circle in frequency
space) for ramp filter, linear interpolation. The data points are from the NPS measured from simulated
images and the full curve indicates predictions of equation (9). The corresponding complete spectra are
shown in figures 4(b) and 4 ( d ) . The variation with angle is a result of two-dimensional aliasing due to
pixel sampling; the broken line shows predicted NPS without aliasing. ( b ) Noise power plotted against
polar angle at Nyquist frequency, images from commercial CT scanner. The complete spectrum is shown
in figure 5.

of cr images

noise
power
The
spectrum

573

4.8

3.6

2.4

1.2

0
S p a t l a l frequency l

t
l

Figure 7. ( a ) Image NPS

frequency-space
along
diagonal,ramp filter, nearest-neighbourinterpolation. The data points show measurements from simuNPS
lated images and the full curve represents the
as predicted by equation(8). The broken curve indiNPS in theabsence
of twocatesthepredicted
dimensionalaliasing.Thecorrespondingcomplete
4(a ) and 4(c).(b)Image
spectra are shown in figures
NPS alongfrequencyspacediagonal,ramp
filter,
linear interpolation. The data points show measurementsfromsimulatedimagesandthefullcurve
represents the NPS as predicted by equation(9). The
NPS in the
brokencurveindicatesthepredicted
0.6
1.2
two-dimensional
absence
of
correaliasing.
The
1 x Nyquist frequency1
sponding complete spectra are shown in figures 4(b)
and 4(d). ( c ) Noise power along frequency space
diagonal, images from commercial CT scanner. The
complete spectrum is shown in figure 5.

L , *b.:,, l

CL
~

L"

.-. ...

0.4
0.8
1.2
Spatlal frequency l X Nyqulst frequency)

Nyqulst frequency)
1

I - >

3L

.'

.*

0.4

greater for nearest-neighbour interpolation (figure 7 ( a ) )than for linear interpolation

(figure 7 ( b ) )becauselinearinterpolationapodisestheprojection
NPS to a greater
extent. The sourceof the zero-frequency componentcan be understood by considering
a projection at 45" to the axes. Those replications of this projection which originate
at ( l / b, l / b ) and ( - l / b, - l / b ) intersect the frequency spaceorigin at frequency
b
in the replicated projection, i.e. the noise power present at frequency &'/b is aliased
onto zero frequency. When the pixel dimension equals the projection sampling distance, the contribution to zero-frequency noise power
in the image NPS is from frequency
2 a f n = 2.8fn in the NPS of these diagonal projections; significant noise power
is present
at this frequency when a ramp
filter and either nearest-neighbour or linear interpolation
are used (figures l(c) and l ( d ) ) .
The question of the low-frequency components of the NPS is far from academic.
As pointed out by Hanson (1979), the detectability of large, low-contrast objects is
mainly determined by the low-frequency portion of the
NPS. Our findingthat the
low-frequency components are greater than previously believed may help to explain
the discrepancy between the performance
of human observers and that of the ideal
detector for large, low-contrast objects (Kijewski er a1 1983). These findings may also

a/

574

M F Kijewski and P F Judy

have implications for quantitativeCT. Zero-frequency (DC) components due toaliasing

will shift the values of the reconstructed quantities, leading to biases in quantitation.
Another implication of our findings is that two-dimensional aliasing destroys the
linearity of theconvolution-backprojectionalgorithm;convolvingtheprojections
before backprojection is not equivalent to convolving the backprojected image with a
two-dimensional filter. This means that the practice, sometimes used in
SPECT imaging,
of reconstructing the image with a ramp filter, then filtering the image with various
smoothing functions, can lead to systematic errors in quantitation.
Our results and conclusions differ significantly from those of Faulkner and Moores
(1984), who also investigated the
NPS of images formed by discrete backprojection.
Thediscrepanciescanbeexplained
by thefactthat
they consideredneithertwodimensional pixel sampling nor interpolatyon. They predicted that theNPS of an image
reconstructed with a ramp filter would be proportional to frequency, and reported that
they had obtained from simulated
images a spectrum which agreedwith their prediction.
Although no details of their NPS calculation were supplied, they presumably used a
method analogous to the one by which they calculated autocorrelation functions,
i.e.
they assumed rotational symmetry and performed one-dimensional calculationson the
rows and columns of the image. Such a calculation would yield only that portion of
the spectrum which lies along the frequency axes, and cannot reveal rotational asymmetry. Thefrequency axescorrespondtoprojectionanglesatwhichthedataare
backprojected parallel to the rows and columns of the pixels; if the pixel dimension
equals the projection sampling distance, then these angles are uniquein that interpolation is unnecessary. Had they calculated a true two-dimensional spectrum, Faulkner
and Moores wouldhave found that their prediction
was trueonlyalong
the axes.
Furthermore, had they off set the projections with respect to the pixel array by a fraction
of a pixel, their one-dimensional calculation would have given a very different result;
Parker et a1 (1983) have demonstrated dramatic effects of resampling with sub-pixel
translations.
The derivation of Faulkner and Moores (1984) contains several conceptual errors.
Their equation (4) implies that the projection power spectrum is discrete, when it is,
in fact, continuous. This led to expressions for the image NPS (their equations ( 5 ) - ( 7 ) )
which represented it as being discrete in radial frequency. As we showed in 2, this
spectrum is continuous in radial frequency and discrete
in angular frequency. Their
equation (8), whichimpliesthatthespectrum
is discrete in rectangularfrequency
coordinates, is inconsistent with the preceding development. They also comment that
if the projection sampling distance
is too small, aliasing will be caused by oversampling.
Aliasing, of course, can be caused only by undersampling.
Although the motivation for this work was to gain an understanding of the noise
power spectrum, our formulation can also be applied to the signal spectrum
if the
apodisation by the physicalaperture is included. Our analysisincludes a thorough
treatment of samplinginreconstruction,andcanbe
used topredictthe
effects of
sampling on objects as well as noise.
Acknowledgments

We wish tothankDrStefanMuellerandDrStephenMooreformanyvaluable
discussions. We are grateful to Dr NorbertPelc for his careful readingof the manuscript
and useful suggestions. This research was supported by USPHS Grants CA 32813 and
CA 40444.

The noise power spectrum of

CT

images

575

Resume
Spectre de puissance de bruit des images.
Les auteurs ont ttabli une expression du spectre de puissance de bruit pour des images reconstruites suivant
un algorithme de rttroprojections filtrtes tchantillonntes. La formulation comprend explicitement Iichantillonnage des projections ichantillonnage anguiaire et implicitement Itchantillonnage bi-dimentionnel suivant
la representation discrtte de Iimage. Les effets dinterpolation ont considirt aussi. Le spectre de puissance
de bruit obtenu par cette analyse difftre sur deux plans de ceux obtenus en utilisant la thtorie continue:
ils ne prtsentent pas de symttrie circulaire et ne tendent pas vers ztro i la frtquence nulle. Lensemble de
ces propriitis peut &re attribut au recouvrement bi-dimensionnel dfi i Iichantillonnage des pixels. Les
pridictions sont confirmtes par les mesures des spectres de puissance de bruit pour des images simultes et
pour des images obtenues i partir de scanneurs X i transmission distributs commercialement.

Zusammenfassung
Das Rauschleistungsspektrum von CT-Bildern.
Entwickelt wurde ein Ausdruck fur das Rauschleistungsspektrum von Bildern,
mit Hilfe
die eines Riickprojektionsalgorithmus mit diskreter Filterung rekonstruiert wurden. Die Formeln behandeln insbesondere die
Abtastung innerhalb der Projektionen, die Winkelauswahl und die zweidimensionale Abtastung bei der
diskreten Bilddarstellung. Der EinAuJ3 von Interpolationen wird ebenfalls beriicksichtigt. So vorhergesagte
RauschleistungsspektrenunterscheidensichvondennachderkontinuierlichenTheorievorhergesagten
Spektren in zwei Punkten: sie sind rotationsasymmetrisch und sie nahern sich nicht null bei der Frequenz
null. Diese beiden Eigenschaften sind auf zweidimensionale Abtastdefekte aufgrund der Bildelementauswahl
zuriickzufiihren.DieVorhersagenwerdenbestatigtdurchMessungenderRauschleistungsspektrender
Rontgentransmissions-CT-Scanners.
simulierten Bilder und von Bildern eines kommerziell erhaltlichen

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