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Peter Griffith has been on the faculty of the Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT)
since 1956. His primary research interests have been in two-phase flow, boiling,
condensation, supercritical heat transfer, and various applications of nuclear reactor
safety. He holds degrees in mechanical engineering from New York u., the u. of
Michigan, and MIT.
Introduction
Multiphase flow is found in many places. In the
petroleum industry it occurs in oil and gas wells ,
gathering systems, many piping systems, and key
pieces of equipment needed in refineries and
petrochemical industries, including boilers,
condensers, distillation towers, separators, and
associated piping. This article focuses on two-phase
flow in pipes. Though a lot has been learned about
two-phase flow in the past 25 years , much of that
knowledge has not been collected in a convenient
place . In particular, much work done for the nuclear
industry remains unknown to the petroleum industry.
The primary goal of this article is to describe the kinds
of problems we are now able to solve and to point out
where answers to these problems can be obtained.
When piping in which two phases are flowing is
designed , a number of questions can arise, depending
on the application:
I. What is the void fraction?
2. What is the pressure drop?
3 . What is the liquid level?
4. What is the flow at a break?
5. How can one separate the phases?
6. Where will corrosion occur?
7 . What is the wear rate caused by droplet
impingement?
8. What is the vibration of the pipes as a result of
two-phase flow?
I shall begin by listing available books, then
recommend flow-regime maps and correlations for
void, pressure drop, and critical flow, and finally
touch on the problems of separation, corrosion, wear,
and vibration.
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MARCH 1984
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Void Correlations
One of the most basic quantities in two-phase flow is
void fraction or its complement, liquid fraction,
Various methods exists for calculating this quantity;
each has its advantages and faults.
The simplest is the homogeneous model, which
assumes that both phases move at the same velocity.
However, they rarely do. Void is usually
overestimated in horizontal and upflow and
underestimated in downflow when this model is used.
If pressure drop, rather than void, is the primary
concern and the gravity contribution to the pressure
drop is small (say 20% of the total), this model is
often satisfactory,
The next most complicated expression for void
assumes that the liquid moves more slowly than the
vapor. These are called "slip correlations." The wellknown Martinelli, Thom, or Baroczy correlations
mentioned in all the handbooks on two-phase flow 1-3,8
fit into this category, Where pressure drop as such is
the issue. these methods can be satisfactory. Martinelli
and Baroczy have a data base that includes a wide
variety of fluid properties in the correlations, At low
velocity, however, they can give poor answers because
the gravity contribution to the vapor velocity is
practically ignored in both of these correlations,
The most precise method for calculating the void
fraction relies on the drift-flux model. The most
convenient description of this model is provided in
Refs. 1 through 3, A recent compilation of the driftJOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
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Pressure-Drop Correlations
Pressure drop is probably the quantity that one deals
with most often in two-phase flow. In spite of this,
our ability to predict it in truly new situations is not
very good. Differences are primarily a result of the
variety of flow regimes that one tries to bridge with a
single correlation scheme. Another problem is the
large number of dimensionless variables that are
MARCH 1984
363
Critical Flow
Two-phase critical flow is an important problem in
several areas. Overpressure relief valves for devices
such as boilers and cryogenic storage tanks need to be
sized so the tank is protected from bursting against all
transients. Subsurface safety valves contain choked
flow and also must be sized. Break flows must be
calculated for pipelines that contain two phases.
Over the past decade much work has been done on
break flow since this is an important factor in how a
nuclear reactor system behaves after a break occurs.
This section explains the results of nuclear work to
other parts of the technical community.
In this context, what we call a critical flow is
defined by the following experiment. A pipe
connecting a fluid reservoir close to saturation
conditions is allowed to discharge into a reservoir at a
lower pressure. As the pressure in the lower-pressure
reservoir is dropped, the flow continues to increase to
a certain point and then holds constant even though the
discharge pressure is decreased. This asymptotic flow
is the critical flow and its velocity is called the critical
velocity. Unlike gases, there is no simple relationship
between this velocity and the velocity of a pressure
wave in the mixture. Both the frequency of the
pressure wave and the flow regime change the
measured pressure-wave velocity.
The homogeneous model and separated flow models
both can be used to calculate choked flow for twophase mixtures. At low quality and pressure the
homogeneous-equilibrium model has been shown to
underestimate the break flow greatly. Slip models for
choked flow were developed to remedy some of these
defects, but other factors, primarily the departure from
thermal equilibrium, also apply. Because of these
complications, the most successful critical flow models
have an extensive data base and rely only minimally
on theory.
The most convenient source of information on
choked flow of steam/water mixtures is contained in
Ref. 5. The results of calculations using the
homogeneous equilibrium model and the best slip
model are included in a form that is uncommonly
convenient for calculation. Both models (as presented
in this reference) are only for water, but the analytical
details included allow calculations for fluids other than
steam and water to be performed.
Recently several useful reviews have been published
in this area. Ref. 16 discusses what goes out the break
when there is a hole in a pipe with a stratified flow.
This is important because proportions of the two
phases that go out the break are not necessarily the
same as those in the pipe or those flowing. The break
quality and flow rate depend on the location of the
break and its size, among other factors. Ref. 17 is a
thoughtful review of the current theories on choked
flow and compares data with a variety of theories.
Ref. 18 examines data from a variety of sources and
recommends calculations for the large pipes found in
reactor systems.
Though break flow is still not entirely understood,
we know enough to make serviceable estimates of the
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
Other Topics
The items touched on so far might be described as
conventional two-phase flow topics. Many areas are
affected by what we have learned about two-phase
flow that are not usually regarded as two-phase flow
concerns, even though two-phase flow is an important
factor. It is worthwhile to spend some time on these
topics because it is unlikely that the more conventional
fields will be the real problems in the future. The first
of these topics is gas/liquid separation.
Separators. Most separators are built and tested by
manufacturers with very little information provided to
the purchasers about their operation or design.
Scattered throughout the literature are papers and
chapters in books that allow one to design separators
and estimate their performance. This section attempts
to draw this information together.
Both gravity and centrifugal separators are described
in Ref. 9. Gravity separators, in essence, are tanks in
which the velocity level is low enough to allow phase
separation. They usually have demisters at the top to
remove additional small drops that might be carried
over. Ref. 9 gives a design procedure for separators of
this kind. Properties like gas and liquid density are
considered explicitly. Cyclone separators are also mentioned, though less information is given about their
design.
Ref. 7 describes demisters of various kinds such as
screens, knitted wire mesh, and corrugated plate
separators. Information on separator efficiency is
presented for all these kinds of separators in a form
that is useful for design. Flooding limits also are
presented so that one can predict at what vapor
velocity level the separated liquid will have difficulty
flowing back against the wind.
Additional information on separators is provided in
Ref. 2. A wider range of separators is considered,
though some useful design information is lacking.
Perhaps the simplest separator is a vertical
downflowing pipe in which the deposited liquid is
allowed simply to run out. This kind of separator can
be designed with the information contained in Ref. 19.
Stability. Two-phase systems often behave in an
unstable manner. "Instability" in this context involves
two separate manifestations: excursive instability (first
described by Ledinegg) and oscillating instabilities.
Both kinds of instabilities are found in two-phase
piping systems. Ref. 2 is practically the only
compilation of the information available for describing
two-phase flow instabilities in general.
Unheated two-phase systems are prone to excursive
instabilities if, for any reason, there are (1) parallel
passages connecting common headers or plenums, or
(2) a negative-sloping pressure-droplflow-rate curve in
one or more of the passages connecting the two
headers. The most common cause of a negativesloping pressure-droplflow-rate curve is gravity. The
slower the flow, the more liquid is held up and the
greater the pressure drop. To determine whether a
MARCH 1984
Corrosion-Erosion. One of the more peculiar twophase flow problems concerns corrosion-erosion in wet
steam-extraction lines. Carbon-steel pipes passing wet
steam from extraction points on the turbine to the feed
water heaters have suffered from wastage rates so
large that pipes have to be replaced. 24 -26 The location
of the wastage is entirely a result of the peculiarities of
the two-phase flow passing through these lines. The
metal loss peaks at a temperature of 300F [149C]
and typically is found in pipes and fittings with
flowing steam of 80 to 95 % quality. The flow regime
is annular-dispersed.
The most peculiar facet of this wear is that it is
sometimes found on the outside of the pipe bend and
sometimes on the inside. This is because two separate
mechanisms are responsible for the removal of
material. In any case, metal removal begins by the
steel corroding to magnetite. Fe 3 0 4 , On the outside
of the bend the secondary flow and centrifugal
acceleration throw the drops out onto the magnetite,
fatiguing it and causing it to erode away. This exposes
new metal to the steam and accelerates the wastage.
On the inside, the shear stress caused by secondary
flow in the bend draws the annular film from the
bottom or sides of the pipe to the inside, where an
inward-flowing stagnation point occurs. This
stagnation point has a very high mass-transfer
coefficient and the oxide is dissolved away as a result.
To calculate the metal-removal rate, one needs to
366
Conclusion
Methods for calculating many of the quantities of
interest in two-phase flows exist but are scattered in
the literature. This article cites references where the
information can be found, stressing the handbooks,
which are the most generally available sources for this
kind of information.
References
1. Wallis. G.B.: One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. McGraw-Hill
Book Co. Inc., New York City (1969).
2. Hestroni, G.: Handbook of Multiphase Systems. Hemisphere
Publishing Corp .. Washington, DC (1982).
3. Collier, 1.G.: CO/J\'ectil'(! BoilinK and Condensation. McGrawHill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1981).
4. Hewitt, G.F. and Hall-Taylor, N.S.: Annular Two-Phase Flow,
Pergamon Press, New York City (1970).
5. Lahey, R.T. and Moody, F.J.: The Thermal-Hvdraulics ofa BoilinK Water Nuclear Reactor. American Nuclear Soc., La Grange
Park, IL (1977).
6. Govier, G.W. and Aziz, K.: The Flow of Complex Mixtures in
Pipes, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York City (1972).
7. Moore, M.J. and Sieverding, C.H.: Two-Phase Steam Flow in
Turbines and Separators, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,
Washington, DC (1976).
8. Hsu, Y.Y. and Graham, R.W.: Transport Process in BoilinK and
Two-Phase Svstellls, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington,
DC (1976).
9. Szilas, A.P.: Production and Transport (~r Oil and Gas. Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Co., New York City (1975).
10. Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A.E.: "A Model for Predicting Flow
Regime Transitions in Horizontal and Near Horizontal Gas Liquid
Flow," AIChE 1. 22 (Jan. 1976) 47-54.
11. TaiteL Y. and Dukler, A.E.: "Modeling Flow Pattern Transitions
for Steady Upward Gas-Liquid Flow in Vertical Tubes," AIChE
J. 26 (1980) 345-52.
12. Shohann, 0.: "Flow Pattern Transition and Characterization in
Gas-Liquid Two Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes," PhD dissertation,
Tel-Aviv U. (1982).
13. Weisman, 1. et al.: "Effects of Fluid Properties and Pipe
Diameter in Two-Phase Flow Patterns in Horizontal Lines," 1111.
1. Multiphase Flo II' (1979) 5, 437-62.
14. Ishii, M. "One-Dimensional Drift-Flux Model and Constitutive
Equations for Relative Motion Between Phases in Various TwoPhase Flow Regimes," ANL-77-47 (1977).
15. Beggs, H.D. and Brill, 1.P.: "A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes," J. Pet. Tech. (May 1973) 607-17.
16. Zuber, N.: "Problems in Modeling of Small Break LOCA,"
NUREG-0724 (Oct. 1980).
17. Wallis, G.B.: "Critical Two-Phase Flow," Inti. J. Multiphase
Flo\\' (Feb.! April 1980) 6, 97.
18. Abdollahiar. P. et al.: "Critical Flow Data Review and
Analysis," EPRI NP-2192 (Jan. 1982).
MARCH 1984
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JPT
Distinguished Author Series articles are general, descriptive presentations that summarize the state of the art in an area of technology by describing recent developments
for readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written by individuals
recognized as experts In the areas, these articles provide key references to more
definitive work and present specific details only to illustrate the technology. Purpose:
To Inform the general readership of recent advances in various areas of petroleum
englneenng
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