Chapter 1 - Early Civilizations

Thursday, September 19, 2013

11:10 AM

civilizations (cities) began about 13,000 years ago at the end of the first ice age Mesopotamia around
8,000 years ago
first cities began between Tigris and Euphraties rivers spread to other parts of Near East
imitation and conquest
competition of resources shaped emerging powers and independent cities empires
Before Civilization
Catalhoyuk = 9,000 years ago (south-central Turkey)
very dense
Catalhoyuk developed highly organized and advanced society
wore wool cloth, made kiln-fired pottery, painted elaborate hunting scenes on plastered covered
walls, weapons and tools from razor-sharp obsidian
buried ancestors under house
agriculture
Societies of the Stone Age
primates with human characteristics originated in Africa 4-5 million years ago
Paleolithic = "Old Stone Age", Neolithic = "New Stone Age"
break is 11,000 BC
Homoinids from Africa made tools with fire 160,000 years ago
Neanderthals flourished 200,000 years ago
made jewelry, painted walls of caves, buried dead with meaningful objects, flowers
pace if development speeded up dramatically around 40,000 BC
population in Africa expanded better nourished and better technologies
Lascaux (France) discovered in 1940
evidence of development of language
no domestic animals couldn't transport goods no material possessions no rank or status
hierarchical structures uncommon
The Building Blocks of Civilization
11,000 BC showed changes in climate managed food production
settlements could trade with one another and could accumulate and store wealth on large scale
stable
specialization, status, and rank
The Neolithic Revolution
climate began to warm and cold loving animals receded northward (Scandinavia)
some humans followed game but others stayed behind
within a few thousand years most momentous transformation in human history
switch from food-gathering for subsistence to food production
warmer climate wild grains flourished food supply increased geometrically settlements
possible
domesticated animals, cultivated plants
revolution occurred over span of 1,000 years
storage pits = 11,500 BC
deliberate cultivation support larger populations compensate for disasters
supported domestic animals meat, milk, leather, wool, bone, horn, animal power to pull
The Emergence of Towns and Villages
city = center of administration and commerce with a large and diverse population, often protected by
wall
earliest city = Jericho (between Israel and Jordan)
seasonal, grain-producing settlement 6800 BC building
3 acres and 3,000 people (more dense than Catalhoyuk)
irrigation, earliest known pottery (easier to store)
stored agricultural surplus hierarchy
agriculture dependence on land, seasons, and weather spectulations about supernatural
trade = important element in development of early settlements
exotic goods and luxury items = most frequent objects (marines shells, semiprecious stones like
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 exotic goods and luxury items = most frequent objects (marines shells, semiprecious stones like
turquoise and lapis lazuli)
Urban Development In Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia = "Land Between Rivers"
The Ubaid Culture
earliest cities of Mesopotamia founded by Ubaid people
settled in fertile marshlands
early evidence of central structures that served religious, economic, and administrative functions
shrines imporessive temples
Urbanism in Uruk, 4300-2900 B.C.E
Ubaid settlements became more prosperous and more highly organized communities
most famous = Uruk
White Temple at Uruk
temples built in every Sumerian city, reflecting central role of worship
Sumerians invented writing
The Development of Writing
writing evolved as a practical recording technology to support economic pursuits
pictograms
resembled the thing it represented
became to not only symbolize physical object but to evoke idea associated with object
development of new stylus made of reed
cuneiform
symbols invented for every possible phonetic combination in the Sumerian language, reducing number
of necessary pictograms
only small amount of people able to read and write House of the Tablet (scribal school)
The Culture of Sumer
great centers of Sumerian civilization shared common culture and common language but religion did
not produce peace
each thought own god was better than others warfare
aristocracy
free persons who had land and artisans/agricultural laborers

many were war prisons (limit of 3 years)

non Sumerians could be held indefinitely
slaves weren't racist yet
The Early Dynastic Period, 2900-2500 BCE
competition for resources among city-states warfare
priestly rulers of Uruk Period king ship (Early Dynastic Period) ruled by families
did not see themselves as humble servants of the city's god (own wealth and glory)
example: Gilgamesh who rose to power through legendary reputation through military conquest
and personal heroism so powerful he ignores needs of cities (complaints of citizens)
Sumerian Religion
Uruk Period, gods were connected with natural world
Early Dynastic Period, gods were powerful lugals who ruled as kings
finest palaces, temples, costliest clothing, etc.
humans exist merely to provide for their gods and gods depended on humans for sustenance
kings thought they ruled by divine sanction and were set apart, including priests
negligence of duties brought disaster on themselves as well as people
Science, Technology, and Trade
Sumerians developed high degree of self-reliance and ingenuity (neither god nor environment
trustworthy)
no copper during Uruk Period, so imported and then mixed with arsenic (later tin) to produce bronze
Bronze Age
invention of wheel
2 and 4 wheel chariots drawn by donkeys
deadly in warfare
seed drill, map making, lunar calendar, architecture
The First Empires
competition among Sumerian cities reached new level 2500 BCE
Royal Tombs of Ur show wealth of city's ruling families
how powerful lugals had become
but still didn't try to take over all of Sumer
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 but still didn't try to take over all of Sumer

vulnerable to imperialism of Sargon Akkadian
Sargon and the Akkadian Empire
Akkadians = predominant people of central Mesopotamia
adopted cuneiform and other Sumerian culture
by 2350 BCE, Sargon conquered cities of Sumer and then all of Mesopotamia
Akkadian governors to rule cities (collect taxes, impose his will)
first known empire
politically, only Mesopotamia; economically, Ethiopia to India
56 years
tried to lessen rivalry of Sumerian cities by appointing a single Akkadian high priest or priestess
(member of own family)
Ishtar (Akkadian) = Inanna (Sumerian)
Sargon named daughter, Enheduanna as high priestess and the kings of Sumer after fall of Sargon
continued to do the same
Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin extended conquests
The Dynasty of Ur and the Amorites, 2100-1800 BCE
after Naram-Sin, Akkadian rule fell briefly Iranian invaders gained control dissolved to collection
of rival city-states
2100 BCE, Ur-Nammu and son Shulgi from Ur became new dynasty
great ziggurat at Ur (70 ft)
Shulgi had extensive laws (protection of widows and orphans), limitations on death penalty on crimes
pursued military conquests, centralized government, commercial expansion and consolidation,
patronage of art and literature
Shulgi's grandson was deposed by own general (Amorite descent)
Semitic people
used land as bases for war
The Empire of Hammurabi
Hammurabi became ruler of Babylon
first ruler in history to understand that power need not be based on force
recognized military intelligence, diplomacy, strategic planning (used writing as weapon)
portrayed himself as a friend to all as they all fought amongst each other
when they were tired out, he would attack and turned his small state into what historians call the
Old Babylonian Empire
empire stretched from Persian Gulf to Assyria
to help unify territories, he made everyone worship Marduk
issued collection of laws, copies of which were inscribed on stone and set up in public places
throughout his realm
"shepherd of the people, capable king" instead of ruling through fear and caprice
Law and Society under Hammurabi
most laws appear to be aimed at free commoners
above is aristocratic class, tied to king's court and active in bureaucracy (controlled community's
wealth)
bottom of society were slaves
far more numerous than in older civilizations of Sumer or Akkad
slaves didnt come from war, but through trade
either sold as payment for debts or profit of a family with too many children
also treated more harshly (shaved and branded)
crimes committed against higher man had more severe penalty
marriage arrangements reflected class differences (bride-prices, dowries)
women allowed right to divorce abusive or indigent husbands
men who divorces wife without cause has to provide financial support for her and children
Hammurabi's Legacy
empire went on for two more centuries until invaders from north sacked the capital and occupied it
legacy shaped conceptions of kingship in ancient Near East
unifying state religions
diplomacy (effectiveness of writing)
The Development Of Civilization In Egypt
Egyptians did not have to wrest survival from a hostile and unpredictable environment
land was renewed every year by flooding of the Nile River
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 land was renewed every year by flooding of the Nile River

Nile made Ancient Egypt a narrow, elongated kingdom
Ancient Civilization enjoyed remarkable continuity thriving as independent and distinctive entity even
after it was conquered by Alexander the Great until its assimilation into the Roman Empire
bureaucratic state headed by pharaohs who were regarded as living gods
Intermediate Periods = when central authority broke down
Predynastic Egypt, c. 10,000-3100 BCE
"Predynastic Egypt" = period before emergence of pharaohs and their royal dynasties
first known permanent settlement in Egypt at southwestern edge of Nile Delta (Merimde Beni Salama)
farming community
towns in Lower Egypt were more numerous, but first Egyptian cities developed in Upper Egypt
Sophisticated fortifications and built elaborate shrines to honor their gods
Nile bound cities together
The Power Of The Pharaoh
Archaic Period = system for numbering the ruling dynasties
developed by Manetho
Zero Dynasty = early kings instrumental in bringing about unification of Egypt
pharaoh = "great household"
refers to not only individual king but whole apparatus that sustains his rule
stability and longevity of Egyptian civilization
kingship in Mesopotamia tended to be personal rule, dependent on charisma of particular individuals
lasted only a couple generations
Egyptians had efficient palace bureaucracy
tough to legitimize rule all over Egypt
Language and Writing
hieroglyph = "sacred carvings" was Egyptian system of pictographic writing
development dates back to 3200 BCE = pictograms begin to appear in Mesopotamia
hieratic = cursive script
not much writing left after development of writing on papyrus
some think Egyptian is survival of root language of Fro-Asiatic groups
became to be known as Coptic
The Old Kingdom, c. 2686-2160 BCE
rely on funerary texts from tombs of elite to reconstruct achievements of particular individuals
Egyptians obsessed with death
know little about ordinary people
papyri and art of Third Dynasty tell us about "great household"
pharaoh was intermediary between land, people, and their gods
nomarchs = provincial governors installed by pharaoh to impose tax and recruit labor
mostly members of own family
Imhohtep and the Step Pyramid
Imhotep rose through ranks of pharaoh's administration to become prime minister (right-hand man of
Djoser)
designed Step Pyramid
earlier pharaohs buried at Abydos
mastaba = low rectangular structure build entirely of brick with a flat top and sloping sides
step pyramid is layers of mastabas
Great Pyramid built for Khufu
once thought to be work of slaves, pyramids were actually built by tens of thousands of peasant
workers
labored when fields were underwater during Nile's annual flood
The Society of the Old and Middle Kingdoms
social pyramid of Old Kingdom Egypt was extremely steep
pharaoh and extended family class of nobles (priests and officials) scribes were chosen from
sons of these families everyone else
small minority of upper-class
commoners' belief in the pharaoh's divinity made them willing subjects
Women in the Old Kingdom
female commoners recognized as person in their own right and were allowed to initiate complaints to
defend themselves and act as witnesses, to possess property of their own, and to dispose of it (all
without sanction of a male guardian or representative, as was typically required in other ancient
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without sanction of a male guardian or representative, as was typically required in other ancient
societies - and in most modern ones until 20th century)
barred from holding high office (besides priestess and queen)
queens ruled beside pharaoh
gender divisions were less clearly defined among peasantry
women did not enjoy sexual equality
men had many wives
Science and Technology
lagged far behind Sumerians and Akkadians in science and mathematics as well as application of new
technology
developed solar calendar after observing sun for religion
also developed effective irrigation and water-control systems
did not adopt labor-saving devices until later because manpower was virtually inexhaustible
also did not need written laws due to customs and proclamations of pharaoh
Egyptian Religion and Worldview
Egyptians saw themselves as superior to all other civilizations
nurtured by Nile and guarded by deserts and seas, they thought they were the center of the
universe
heart of Egyptian religion = Osiris and Isis (brother and sister as well as husband and wife)
Osiris was first pharaoh betrayed by brother Seth Isis revived him long enough to conceiver
son, Horus
Seth, angry, cut up Osiris' body and scattered it all over Egypt (all of Egypt is a part of Osiris)
Isis, with help of Anubis (god of afterlife), found, reassembled, and preserved pieces of Osiris
start of mummification
Osiris avenged by Horus and became god of underworld
Life and Death in Ancient Egypt
death = right of passage; journey to be endured on the way to an afterlife that was more or less like
one's earthly existence, only better
full of dangers
body's ka (life force) would have to roam Duat (underworld), searching for House of Judgment
judged by Osiris and 42 other judges
if judged worthy, enjoy immortality
vital organs were removed and then treated with chemicals (except for heart, which played key role in
ka's final judgment)
"coffin texts" (books of dead), accompany body to speed ka's journey
ma'at = truth, order, justice
special rituals were only for royals until Middle Kingdom when most Egyptians could have it as well
The End of the Old Kingdom
Fifth and Sixth Dynasties of Old Kingdom (2494-2181 BCE) showed slow erosion of pharaonic power
monuments less impressive
pharaoh not incarnation of Horus or Ra, but merely god's earthly son
hurt heart of Egyptian political theology
growing power of pharaoh's nomarchs
loss of power
extraordinary costs of building efforts in Fourth Dynasty (economy) resentment in provinces
change in climatic conditions disrupted regular inundations of Nile famine in countryside
Nubians built up, restricted Egyptians access to precious metal deposits around First Cataract
pharaoh's claims to be in peace with ma'at wasn't credible anymore
power diminished
First Intermediate Period = Egypt ceased to exist as a united entity
central authority of pharaoh in Memphis collapsed
families from Herakleopolis and Thebes both claimed to be legitimate pharaohs of all Egypt
wealth became more widely and evenly diffused
access to education
opportunities for creation of art
possibilities for personal advancement
Life in the Middle Kingdom
warfare continued between two for over a century
Theban king Mentuhotep II conquered northerners and declared himself ruler of united Egypt
reign marks beginning of Egypt's Middle Kingdom & reestablishment of unified government
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reign marks beginning of Egypt's Middle Kingdom & reestablishment of unified government
centered at Thebes, not Memphis
architect Amenemhet seized power after pharaoh's death and established himself and
descendants Egypt's Twelfth Dynasty
Amenemhet's descendants stayed for 200 years, exploited trade with South
Nubia firmly under Egypt's control
Amenemhet constructed Walls of the Prince in Sinai to guard against Near East
demonstrate great resourcefulness of Twelfth Dynasty
good shepherds tend flock
literature written by and for kings
detailing duties and perils of high office advice
trust no one: not a brother, not a friend, not intimate companions, crush local ambitious
nobles
Egyptian's sense of own superiority shattered

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