JOINING PROCESSES

An all-inclusive term covering processes

such as:
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding
Mechanical fastening

Overview on Joining Processes

Why Joining Processes

Some (even simple) products are too large to be made

by individual processes ( 3-D Hollow structural member, 5 m
diameter)

Easier, more economical to manufacture & join

individual components (Cooking pot with handle)
Products to be disassembled for maintenance
(Appliances; engines)

Varying functionality of product (Carbide inserts in tool

steels; Brake shoes)

Transportation + assembly is less costly (Shelving units;

Machinery)

Product Example

Figure 8.1 Various parts in a typical automobile that are

assembled by the joining processes.

Product Example (Cont.)

Figure 8.2: Examples of parts utilizing joining processes. (a) A tubular part
fabricated by joining individual components. This product cannot be manufactured
in one piece by any of the methods described in the previous chapters if it consists
of thin-walled, large-diameter, tubular-shaped long arms. (b) A drill bit with a
carbide cutting insert brazed to a steel shankan example of a part in which two
materials need to be joined for performance reasons. (c) Spot welding of
automobile bodies.

WELDING PROCESSES
BS 499 part 1 Welding terms
A union between pieces of metal at
faces rendered plastic or liquid by
heat,pressure or both.

Overview on Joining Processes

Figure 8.3: Joining Method (AWS A3.0:2001)

Fusion Welding

Fusion Welding

Fusion Welding

Fusion Welding

Any welding process that uses fusion

of the base metal to make the weld
(AWS A3.0: 2001)

Fusion Welding Arc Welding

Arc Welding

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
Most AW processes add filler metal to increase volume
and strength of weld joint
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a
gap in a circuit
It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma)
through which the current flows
To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated from it by a
short distance

Fusion Welding Arc Welding (Cont.)

A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Fusion Welding Arc Welding (Cont.)

Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

Consumable consumed during welding process

Source of filler metal in arc welding
Nonconsumable not consumed during welding process
Filler metal must be added separately

Fusion Welding Arc Welding (Cont.)

Arc Shielding

At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously
degraded by these reactions

To protect operation, arc must be shielded from

surrounding air in AW processes
Arc shielding is accomplished by:
Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
Flux

Fusion Welding Arc Welding (Cont.)

Power Source in Arc Welding

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

AC machines less expensive to purchase and

operate, but generally restricted to ferrous
metals
DC equipment can be used on all metals and
is generally noted for better arc control

Fusion Welding Resistance Welding

(Cont.)

Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a

combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at
junction to be welded
Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)

Fusion Welding Resistance

Welding (Cont.)

Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.

Fusion Welding Resistance Welding

(Cont.)

Components in Resistance Spot Welding

Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

Two opposing electrodes
Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between
electrodes
Power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied for a specified time duration

Fusion Welding Resistance Welding

(Cont.)
Advantages:
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
High initial equipment cost
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
Skilled operators are required
Bigger job thickness cannot be welded

Fusion Welding Resistance

Welding (Cont.)

Applications of resistance welding

Joining sheets, bars and tubes.

Making tubes and metal furniture.
Welding aircraft and automobile parts.
Making cutting tools.
Making fuel tanks of cars, tractors etc.
Making wire fabrics, grids, grills, mesh
weld, containers etc.

Fusion Welding - Resistance Spot

Welding (RSW)

Resistance Spot Welding

Process in which fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is

achieved at one location by opposing electrodes
Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of spot welds
Widely used in mass production of automobiles,
appliances, metal furniture, and other products made of
sheet metal
Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds

Annual production of automobiles in the world is

measured in tens of millions of units

Fusion Welding - Resistance Spot

Welding (RSW) (Cont.)

Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current
in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close,
force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.

Fusion Welding - Resistance Seam

Welding (RSEW)

Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint
Can produce air-tight joints
Applications:
Gasoline tanks

Automobile mufflers
Various other sheet metal containers

Fusion Welding - Resistance Seam

Welding (RSEW)

Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

Fusion Welding - Oxyfuel Gas Welding

(OFW)

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

General term for welding operations that burn various fuels

mixed with oxygen
OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary
distinction among the members of this group
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and
separate metal plates and other parts

Fusion Welding - Oxyfuel Gas Welding

(OFW)

Alternatives Fuel Gases for OFW

Acetylene
Gasoline
Hydrogen
MPS and MAPP gas
Propylene and Fuel Gas
Butane, propane and butane/propane
mixes

Fusion Welding - Oxy-acetylene gas welding

(OAW)

Oxy-acetylene gas welding (OAW)

Oxy-acetylene gas welding is a group OFW process that

used acetylene gas as a fuel gas
Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is capable of
higher temperatures than any other - up to 3480C
(6300F)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from
combustion of acetylene and oxygen
Flame is directed by a welding torch
Filler metal is sometimes added
Composition must be similar to base metal
Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent
oxidation

Fusion Welding - Oxy-acetylene

gas welding (OAW)

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

Fusion Welding - Oxy-acetylene gas

welding (OAW)

Chemical reaction during burning

Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
First stage reaction:
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat
Second stage reaction:
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat

Fusion Welding - Oxy-acetylene

gas welding (OAW)

Oxyacetylene Torch

Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone,

while outer envelope spreads out and shields work
surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.

Fusion Welding - Other Processes

FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,

resistance, or oxyfuel welding
Use unique technologies to develop heat for
melting
Applications are typically unique
Processes include:
Electron beam welding
Laser beam welding
Electroslag welding
Thermit welding

Fusion Welding - Thermit Welding (TW)

Thermit Welding (TW)

FW process in which heat for coalescence is produced

by superheated molten metal from the chemical reaction
of thermite
Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders that
produce an exothermic reaction when ignited
Also used for incendiary bombs
Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
Process used for joining, but has more in common with
casting than welding

Fusion Welding - Thermit

Welding (TW)

Figure 31.25 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible

tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to
produce weld joint.

Fusion Welding - Thermit Welding (TW)

Applications

Joining of railroad rails

Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
Weld surface is often smooth enough that no finishing is
required

Solid State Welding (SSW)

Solid State Welding (SSW)

Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not enough to melt
work surfaces

Pressure alone, or
Heat and pressure

For some SSW processes, time is also a factor

No filler metal is added

Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond at the
faying surfaces
Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the
two faying surfaces must be:

Very clean
In very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic bonding

Solid State Welding (Cont)

SSW Advantages over FW Processes

If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal

around joint retains original properties
Many SSW processes produce welded joints that bond
the entire contact interface between two parts rather
than at distinct spots or seams
Some SSW processes can be used to bond dissimilar
metals, without concerns about relative melting points,
thermal expansions, and other problems that arise in FW

Solid State Welding (Cont.)

Processes under SSW group

Forge welding
Cold welding
Roll welding
Hot pressure welding
Diffusion welding
Explosion welding
Friction welding
Ultrasonic welding

Solid State Welding - Forge Welding

Forge Welding

SSW process in which

components to be joined are
heated to hot working temperature
range and then forged together by
hammering or similar means
Historic significance in
development of manufacturing
technology
Process dates from about
1000 B.C., when blacksmiths
learned to weld two pieces of
metal

Solid State Welding - Cold Welding

(CW)

Cold Welding (CW)

SSW process done by applying high

pressure between clean contacting
surfaces at room temperature
Cleaning usually done by degreasing
and wire brushing immediately before
joining
No heat is applied, but deformation
raises work temperature
At least one of the metals, preferably
both, must be very ductile
Soft aluminum and copper suited
to CW
Applications: making electrical
connections

Dies

Workpiece Workpiece

Before welding

After welding

Solid State Welding - Roll Welding

(ROW)

SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause

coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with or
without external heat
Variation of either forge welding or cold welding, depending
on whether heating of workparts is done prior to process

If no external heat, called cold roll welding

If heat is supplied, hot roll welding

Solid State Welding - Roll Welding

(ROW)

Applications

Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy steel for

corrosion resistance
Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
"Sandwich" coins for U.S mint

Solid State Welding - Diffusion Welding

(DFW)

Diffusion Welding

SSW process that uses heat

and pressure, usually in a
controlled atmosphere, with
sufficient time for diffusion and
coalescence to occur
Temperatures 0.5 Tm
Plastic deformation at surfaces
is minimal
Primary coalescence
mechanism is solid state
diffusion
Limitation: time required for
diffusion can range from
seconds to hours

Work pieces
Force
A
B

Schematic representation of
diffusion welding using
electrical resistance for heating

Solid State Welding - Diffusion Welding

(DFW)

DFW Applications

Joining of high-strength and refractory metals in

aerospace and nuclear industries
Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar metals
For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of different
metal is often sandwiched between base metals to
promote diffusion

Solid State Welding - Explosion

Welding (EXW)

Explosion Welding (EXW)

SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two metallic

surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated
explosive
No filler metal used
No external heat applied
No diffusion occurs - time is too short
Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical
interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy interface
between the metals
Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in
particular to clad one metal on top of a base metal over
large areas

Solid State Welding Explosion Welding (EXW)

Figure 31.27 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the

parallel configuration, and (2) during detonation of the
explosive charge.

Solid State Welding - Friction Welding

(FRW)

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved

by frictional heat combined with pressure
When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
Process yields a narrow HAZ
Can be used to join dissimilar metals
Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production

Solid State Welding Friction Welding (FRW)

Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.

Solid State Welding - Friction Welding

(FRW)

1.

2.

Two Types of Friction Welding

Continuous-drive friction welding

One part is driven at constant rpm against

stationary part to cause friction heat at
interface

At proper temperature, rotation is stopped

and parts are forced together
Inertia friction welding

Rotating part is connected to flywheel,

which is brought up to required speed

Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and

parts are forced together

Solid State Welding - Friction Welding

(FRW)
Applications:
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be
taken into consideration in product design)

Solid State Welding - Ultrasonic

Welding (USW)

Two components are held together, oscillatory

shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are applied
to interface to cause coalescence
Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films
to allow intimate contact and strong metallurgical
bonding between surfaces
Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
such as aluminum and copper

Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for

a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.

Solid State Welding - Ultrasonic

Welding

Applications

Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry
Eliminates need for soldering
Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
Assembly of small parts in automotive industry

Weld Quality

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable

weld joint that is strong and absent of
defects, and the methods of inspecting and
testing the joint to assure its quality
Topics:
Residual stresses and distortion
Welding defects
Inspection and testing methods

Weld Quality

Residual Stresses and Distortion

Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during

FW result in thermal expansion and contraction that
cause residual stresses
These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
Situation in welding is complicated because:
Heating is very localized

Melting of base metals in these regions

Location of heating and melting is in motion (at
least in AW)

Weld Quality

Techniques to Minimize Warpage

Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
Tack welding at multiple points along joint to create a
rigid structure prior to seam welding
Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of filler
metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
Preheating base parts
Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
Proper design of weldment

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection

Imperfection is any deviation from the ideal weld.

Defect is an unacceptable imperfection
A perfect weld joint, when subjected to an external force,
provide a distribution of stress throughout its volume which is
not significantly greater than parent metal.

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection

Cracks

Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base metal

adjacent to weld
Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal that
significantly reduces strength
Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or base
metal combined with high restraint during contraction
In general, this defect must be repaired

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection

Cavities
1.

2.

Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped

during solidification. Caused by inclusion of atmospheric
gases, sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during
solidification. Cause by terminated arc at the end of a weld run

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection

Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in

weld metal

Most common form is slag inclusions generated during AW

processes that use flux

Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag become

encased during solidification

Metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals such

as aluminum, which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection

Incomplete Fusion

Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld bead in which

fusion has not occurred throughout entire cross section of joint

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection
o Lack of Smoothly Blended Surfaces

Weld Quality - Welding

Defect/Imperfection
o Miscellaneous defect

Misalignment

Spatter

Arc strikes

Burn Through

Inspection and Testing Methods

Visual inspection
Nondestructive evaluation
Destructive testing

Inspection and Testing Methods

Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection

Most widely used welding inspection method

Human inspector visually examines for:
Conformance to dimensions

Warpage
Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and
other surface defects
Limitations:
Only surface defects are detectable
Welding inspector must also determine if
additional tests are warranted

Inspection and Testing Methods

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests

Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves

directed through specimen - cracks, inclusions are
detected by loss in sound transmission
Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation
provide photograph of internal flaws
Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests methods for detecting small cracks and cavities that
are open at surface
Magnetic particle testing iron filings sprinkled on
surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting
magnetic field in part

Inspection and Testing Methods

Destructive Testing

Destructive Testing

Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or

to prepare test specimen
Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional
testing methods such as tensile tests, shear tests, etc
Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent and condition
of heat affected zone, and similar phenomena

Weldability Factors - Welding Process

Welding Process
Some metals or metal combinations can be readily
welded by one process but are difficult to weld by
others
Example: stainless steel readily welded by most AW
and RW processes, but difficult to weld by OFW

Weldability Factors Base Metal

Base Metal

Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum

Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer heat
away from weld, which causes problems; e.g., copper
High thermal expansion and contraction in metal
causes distortion problems
Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when
their physical and/or mechanical properties are
substantially different

Weldability Factors - Other Factors

Filler metal
Must be compatible with base metal(s)
In general, elements mixed in liquid state that
form a solid solution upon solidification will
not cause a problem
Surface conditions
Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can
prevent adequate contact and fusion

Design Considerations in Welding

Design for welding - product should be designed

from the start as a welded assembly, and not as a
casting or forging or other formed shape
Minimum parts - welded assemblies should
consist of fewest number of parts possible
Example: usually more cost efficient to perform
simple bending operations on a part than to
weld an assembly from flat plates and sheets

Arc Welding Design Guidelines

Good fit-up of parts - to maintain dimensional

control and minimize distortion
Machining is sometimes required to achieve
satisfactory fit-up
Assembly must allow access for welding gun to
reach welding area
Design of assembly should allow flat welding to
be performed as much as possible, since this
is fastest and most convenient welding position

Arc Welding Positions

Flat welding is best position
Overhead welding is most difficult

Figure 31.35 Welding positions (defined here for groove

welds): (a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead.

BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND

ADHESIVE BONDING
1.

2.
3.

Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive Bonding

Overview of Brazing and Soldering

Both use filler metals to permanently join metal

parts, but there is no melting of base metals
When to use brazing or soldering instead of
fusion welding:
Metals have poor weldability
Dissimilar metals are to be joined
Intense heat of welding may damage
components being joined
Geometry of joint not suitable for welding
High strength is not required

Overview of Adhesive Bonding

Uses forces of attachment between a filler

material and two closely-spaced surfaces to bond
the parts
Filler material in adhesive bonding is not
metallic
Joining process can be carried out at room
temperature or only modestly above

Brazing

Joining process in which a filler metal is melted

and distributed by capillary action between faying
surfaces of metal parts being joined
No melting of base metals occurs
Only the filler melts
Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840F) but
less than Tm of base metal(s) to be joined

Strength of Brazed Joint

If joint is properly designed and brazing operation

is properly performed, solidified joint will be
stronger than filler metal out of which it was
formed
Why?
Small part clearances used in brazing
Metallurgical bonding that occurs between
base and filler metals
Geometric constrictions imposed on joint by
base parts

Brazing Compared to Welding

Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar

metals
Can be performed quickly and consistently,
permitting high production rates
Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
Less heat and power required than FW
Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed; capillary action draws
molten filler metal into joint

Disadvantages and Limitations of

Brazing

Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

Joint strength is likely to be less than the base
metals
High service temperatures may weaken a brazed
joint
Color of brazing metal may not match color of
base metal parts, a possible aesthetic
disadvantage

Brazing Applications

Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)

Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and
cables)
Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide
inserts to shanks)
Jewelry
Chemical process industry
Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes
and tubes by brazing
Repair and maintenance work

Brazed Joints

Butt and lap joints common

Geometry of butt joints is usually adapted for
brazing
Lap joints are more widely used, since they
provide larger interface area between parts
Filler metal in a brazed lap joint is bonded to base
parts throughout entire interface area, rather than
only at edges

Butt Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.1 (a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of

the butt joint for brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt
joint, (d) increased cross-section of the part at the joint.

Lap Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.2 (a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap
joint for brazing: (b) cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and
(d) use of sleeve to convert butt joint into lap joint.

Some Filler Metals for Brazing

Base metal(s)
Aluminum
Nickel-copper alloy
Copper
Steel, cast iron
Stainless steel

Filler metal(s)
Aluminum and silicon
Copper
Copper and phosphorous
Copper and zinc
Gold and silver

Desirable Brazing Metal Characteristics

Melting temperature of filler metal is compatible

with base metal
Low surface tension in liquid phase for good
wettability
High fluidity for penetration into interface
Capable of being brazed into a joint of adequate
strength for application
Avoid chemical and physical interactions with
base metal (e.g., galvanic reaction)

Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(a) torch and filler rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.

Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(b) ring of filler metal at entrance of gap. Sequence: (1) before,
and (2) after.

Brazing Fluxes

Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve,

combine with, and otherwise inhibit formation of
oxides and other unwanted byproducts in brazing
process
Characteristics of a good flux include:
Low melting temperature
Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler
metal
Facilitates wetting
Protects joint until solidification of filler metal

Heating Methods in Brazing

Torch Brazing - torch directs flame against work in

vicinity of joint
Furnace Brazing - furnace supplies heat
Induction Brazing heating by electrical
resistance to high-frequency current in work
Resistance Brazing - heating by electrical
resistance in parts
Dip Brazing - molten salt or molten metal bath
Infrared Brazing - uses high-intensity infrared
lamp

Soldering

Joining process in which a filler metal with

Tm less than or equal to 450C (840F) is
melted and distributed by capillary action
between faying surfaces of metal parts being
joined
No melting of base metals, but filler metal
wets and combines with base metal to form
metallurgical bond
Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the
same heating methods are used
Filler metal called solder
Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)

Soldering Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
Variety of heating methods available
Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
Easy repair and rework
Disadvantages:
Low joint strength unless reinforced by
mechanically means
Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated
temperature service

Filler metal / Solder

Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both

metals have low Tm
Lead is poisonous and its percentage is
minimized in most solders
Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes wetting action
for successful joining
In soldering copper, copper and tin form
intermetallic compounds that strengthen
bond
Silver and antimony also used in soldering
alloys

Mechanical Means to Secure Joint

Figure 32.8 Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means prior
to soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on PC
board; (b) plated through-hole on PC board to maximize solder
contact surface; (c) hooked wire on flat terminal; and (d) twisted
wires.

Functions of Soldering Fluxes

Be molten at soldering temperatures

Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
surfaces
Prevent oxidation during heating
Promote wetting of faying surfaces
Be readily displaced by molten solder during
process
Leave residue that is non-corrosive and
nonconductive

Soldering Methods

Many soldering methods same as for brazing,

except less heat and lower temperatures are
required
Additional methods:
Hand soldering manually operated soldering

gun

Wave soldering soldering of multiple lead

wires in printed circuit cards
Reflow soldering used for surface mount
components on printed circuit cards

Wave Soldering

Figure 32.9 Wave soldering, in which molten solder is

delivered up through a narrow slot onto the underside of a
printed circuit board to connect the component lead wires.

Adhesive Bonding

Joining process in which a filler material is used to

hold two (or more) closely-spaced parts together
by surface attachment
Used in a wide range of bonding and sealing
applications for joining similar and dissimilar
materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics,
wood, paper, and cardboard
Considered a growth area because of
opportunities for increased applications

Adhesive Bonding - Terminology

Adhesive = filler material, nonmetallic, usually a

polymer

Adherends = parts being joined

Structural adhesives of greatest interest in

engineering, capable of forming strong,

permanent joints between strong, rigid adherends

Curing in Adhesive Bonding

Process by which physical properties of the

adhesive are changed from liquid to solid, usually
by chemical reaction, to accomplish surface
attachment of parts
Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
If heat used, temperatures are relatively low
Curing takes time - a disadvantage in production
Pressure sometimes applied between parts to
activate bonding process

Adhesive Bonding - Joint Strength

Depends on strength of:

Adhesive
Attachment between adhesive and
adherends
Attachment mechanisms:
Chemical bonding adhesive and
adherend form primary bond on curing
Physical interactions - secondary
bonding forces between surface atoms
Mechanical interlocking - roughness of
adherend causes adhesive to become
entangled in surface asperities

Adhesive Bonding - Joint Design

Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded,

brazed, or soldered joints
Joint contact area should be maximized
Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and tension
Joints should be designed so applied stresses
are of these types
Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in cleavage
or peeling
Joints should be designed to avoid these types
of stresses

Types of Stresses in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.10 Types of stresses that must be

considered in adhesive bonded joints: (a) tension,
(b) shear, (c) cleavage, and (d) peeling.

Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.11 Some joint designs for adhesive bonding: (a) through
(d) butt joints; (e) through (f) T-joints; (b) and (g) through (j)
corner joints.

Adhesive Types

Natural adhesives - derived from natural sources,

including gums, starch, dextrin, soya flour,
collagen
Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons,
furniture, bookbinding, plywood
Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate
and magnesium oxychloride
Low cost, low strength
Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers

Synthetic Adhesives

Most important category in manufacturing

Synthetic adhesives cured by various
mechanisms:
Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with
polymer prior to applying
Heating to initiate chemical reaction
Radiation curing, such as UV light
Curing by evaporation of water
Application as films or pressure-sensitive
coatings on surface of adherend

Applications of Adhesives

Automotive, aircraft, building products,

shipbuilding
Packaging industries
Footwear
Furniture
Bookbinding
Electrical and electronics

Surface Preparation

For adhesive bonding to succeed, part

surfaces must be extremely clean
Bond strength depends on degree of
adhesion between adhesive and adherend,
and this depends on cleanliness of surface
For metals, solvent wiping often used for
cleaning, and abrading surface by
sandblasting improves adhesion
For nonmetallic parts, surfaces are
sometimes mechanically abraded or
chemically etched to increase roughness

Application Methods

Manual brushing and rolling

Silk screening
Flowing, using manually operated dispensers
Spraying
Automatic applicators
Roll coating

Adhesive is dispensed
by a manually
controlled dispenser to
bond parts during
assembly (photo
courtesy of EFD Inc.).

Advantages of Adhesive Bonding

Applicable to a wide variety of materials

Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts
being joined
Sealing as well as bonding
Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat
surfaces can be joined without providing special
part features such as screw holes

Limitations of Adhesive Bonding

Joints generally not as strong as other joining

methods
Adhesive must be compatible with materials being
joined
Service temperatures are limited
Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to
application of adhesive are important
Curing times can limit production rates
Inspection of bonded joint is difficult

Mechanical Assembly Technology

Threaded Fasteners
2. Rivets and Eyelets
3. Assembly Methods Based on
Interference Fits
4. Other Mechanical Fastening
Methods
5. Molding Inserts and Integral
Fasteners
2007 John Wiley &
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1.

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Mechanical Assembly Defined

Use of various fastening methods to
mechanically attach two or more
parts together
In most cases, discrete hardware
components, called fasteners, are
added to the parts during assembly
In other cases, fastening involves
shaping or reshaping of a
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component,
and no separate
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fasteners are required
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Products of Mechanical Assembly

Many consumer products are

assembled largely by mechanical
fastening methods

Examples: automobiles, large and small

appliances, telephones

Many capital goods products are

assembled using mechanical
fastening methods

Examples: commercial airplanes, trucks,

railway locomotives and cars, machine
tools

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
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3/e

Two Major Types of Mechanical

Assembly
1.

Methods that allow for disassembly

2.

Example: threaded fasteners

Methods that create a permanent

joint

Example: rivets

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Why Use Mechanical Assembly?

Low cost
Ease of manufacturing
Easy in creating design
Ease of assembly can be
accomplished with relatively ease
by unskilled workers

Minimum of special tooling required

In a relatively short time

Ease of disassembly at least for

the methods that permit
disassembly

Threaded Fasteners
Discrete hardware components that
have external or internal threads for
assembly of parts
Most important category of
mechanical assembly
In nearly all cases, threaded
fasteners permit disassembly
Common threaded fastener types
2007 John Wiley &
are screws, bolts, and nuts
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Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
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Screws, Bolts, and Nuts

Screw - externally threaded fastener
generally assembled into a blind
threaded hole
Bolt - externally threaded fastener
inserted into through holes and
"screwed" into a nut on the opposite
side
Nut - internally threaded fastener
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&
having
standard threads that match
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Fundamentals of
those on bolts of the same
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diameter, pitch, and thread form

Screws, Bolts, and Nuts

Figure 33.1 Typical assemblies when screws and bolts

are used.

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Some Facts About Screws and

Bolts
Screws and bolts come in a variety
of sizes, threads, and shapes
Much standardization in threaded
fasteners, which promotes
interchangeability
U.S. is converting to metric, further
reducing variations
Differences between threaded
2007 John Wiley &
fasteners affect tooling
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Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing

3/e

Example: different screw head styles and

Head Styles on Screws and Bolts

Figure 33.2 Various head styles available on screws and

bolts.

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Types of Screws

Greater variety than bolts, since

functions vary more
Examples:

Machine screws - generic type, generally

designed for assembly into tapped holes
Cap screws - same geometry as machine
screws but made of higher strength
metals and to closer tolerances

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

Setscrews
Hardened and designed for
assembly functions such as
fastening collars, gears, and
pulleys to shafts

Figure 33.3 (a) Assembly of collar to shaft using a setscrew;

(b) various setscrew geometries (head types and points).

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Self-Tapping Screws
Designed to form or cut
threads in a pre-existing hole
into which it is being turned
Also called a tapping screw

Figure 33.4 Self-tapping

screws: thread-forming,
and thread-cutting.

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

Screw Thread Inserts

Internally threaded plugs or wire coils
designed to be inserted into an
unthreaded hole and accept an
externally threaded fastener
Assembled into weaker materials to
provide strong threads
Upon assembly of screw into insert,
insert barrel expands into hole to
2007 John Wiley
&
secure
the assembly
Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

Screw Thread Inserts

Figure 33.6 Screw thread inserts: (a) before insertion, and

(b) after insertion into hole and screw is turned into insert.

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Washer
Hardware component often used with
threaded fasteners to ensure
tightness of the mechanical joint
Simplest form = flat thin ring of
sheet metal
Functions:
Distribute stresses
Provide support for large clearance holes
2007 John Wiley& Protect part surfaces and seal the joint
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Fundamentals of
Increase spring tension
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Resist inadvertent unfastening

Washer Types

Figure 33.8 Types of washers: (a) plain (flat) washers; (b) spring
washers, used to dampen vibration or compensate for wear; and
(c) lock washer designed to resist loosening of the bolt or screw.
2007 John Wiley &
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Fundamentals of
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3/e

Bolt Strength
Two measures:
Tensile strength, which has the
traditional definition
Proof strength - roughly equivalent
to yield strength

Maximum tensile stress without

permanent deformation

2007 John Wiley &

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Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Stresses in a Bolted Joint

Figure 33.9 Typical stresses acting on a bolted

2007 John Wiley &
joint.
Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Over-tightening in Bolted Joints

Potential problem in assembly,

causing stresses that exceed
strength of fastener or nut
Failure can occur in one of the
following ways:
1.
2.

3.

Stripping of external threads

Stripping of internal threads
Bolt fails due to excessive tensile
stresses on cross-sectional area

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

Tensile failure of cross section is

most common problem

Methods to Apply Required Torque

Operator feel - not very accurate,
but adequate for most assemblies
2. Torque wrench indicates amount
of torque during tightening
3. Stall-motor - motorized wrench is
set to stall when required torque is
reached
4. Torque-turn tightening - fastener is
2007 John Wiley &
initially tightened to a low torque
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Fundamentals of
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level and then rotated a specified
3/e
1.

Rivets
Unthreaded, headed pin used to
join two or more parts by
passing pin through holes in
parts and forming a second head
in the pin on the opposite side
Widely used fasteners for
achieving a permanent
mechanically fastened joint
Clearance hole into which rivet is
2007 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. M P Groover, inserted must be close to the
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
diameter of the rivet
3/e

Types of Rivets

Figure 33.10 Five basic rivet types, also shown in assembled

configuration: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) semi-tubular, (d) bifurcated,
2007 John Wiley &
andInc.
(e)M compression.
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P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

Applications and Advantages of

Rivets

Used primarily for lap joints

A primary fastening method in
aircraft and aerospace industries
Advantages:

High production rates

Simplicity
Dependability
Low cost

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Tooling and Methods for Rivets

1.

2.

3.

Impact - pneumatic hammer

delivers a succession of blows to
upset rivet
Steady compression - riveting tool
applies a continuous squeezing
pressure to upset rivet
Combination of impact and
compression

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

Interference Fits
Assembly methods based on
mechanical interference between
two mating parts being joined
The interference, either during
assembly or after joining, holds the
parts together
Interference fit methods include:
Press fitting
2007 John Wiley& Shrink and expansion fits
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Fundamentals of
Snap fits
Modern Manufacturing
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Retaining rings

Snap Fits
Joining of two parts in which
mating elements possess a
temporary interference during
assembly, but once assembled
they interlock

Originally conceived as a method

ideally suited for industrial robots

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
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3/e

During assembly, one or both parts

elastically deform to accommodate
temporary interference
Usually designed for slight
interference after assembly

Snap Fit Assembly

Figure 33.13 Snap fit assembly, showing cross-sections of two

mating
parts:
(1) before assembly, and (2) parts snapped together.
2007
John Wiley
&
Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Retaining Ring
Fastener that snaps into a
circumferential groove on a shaft or
tube to form a shoulder
Used to locate or restrict movement
of parts on a shaft

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

Design for Assembly (DFA)

Keys to successful DFA:

1.

2.

Design product with as few parts as

possible
Design remaining parts so they are
easy to assemble

Assembly cost is determined

largely in product design, when
the number of components in
the product and how they are
assembled is decided

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Fundamentals of
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3/e

Once these decisions are made,

little can be done in manufacturing

DFA Guidelines

Use modularity in product design

Each subassembly should have a

maximum of 12 or so parts
Design the subassembly around a base
part to which other components are
added

Reduce the need for multiple

components to be handled at once

2007 John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e

More DFA Guidelines

Limit the required directions of

access

Adding all components vertically from

above is the ideal

Use high quality components

Poor quality parts jams feeding and

assembly mechanisms

Minimize threaded fasteners

Use
snap fit assembly
2007 John
Wiley
&

Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Fundamentals of
Modern Manufacturing
3/e