CHAPTER 5: CELL DIVISION

BAB 5: PEMBAHAGIAN SEL

Mitosis

Mitosis is the division of the nucleus to produce two new daughter cells
containing chromosomes identical to the parents.
Mitosis adalah pembahagian nukleus untuk menghasilkan dua sel anak yang
mengandungi kromosom yang sama dengan sel induk.
The importance of mitosis includes:
Kepentingan mitosis adalah seperti berikut
o Growth; allows a zygote to produce more cell in order to grow
Pembesaran; membolehkan zigot untuk menghasilkan sel yang banyak
untuk pembesaran
o Repair and replacement; allows the multicellular organism maintain its
tissues, example skin cells and blood.
Pemulihan dan penggantian; membolehkan organisma multisel untuk
mengekalkan tisunya, contohnya sel kulit dan darah.
o Asexual reproduction.
Pembiakan aseksual.

Cell Cycle
Kitar sel
The cell cycle shows the events that take place in a cell from the
moment it was formed until it divides.
Kitar sel menunjukkan kitar hidup suatu sel daripada waktu ia dibentuk
sehingga ia membahagi.

The cycle is divided into two major phases;

Kitar sel dibahagi kepada dua fasa utama;
a) Interphase/interfasa
b) Mitosis
1. Interphase is the period between division, divided into 3 sub-phases ( G1, S &
G2 )
Interfasa adalah tempoh antara pembahagian sel, ia dibahagikan kepada 3
fasa (G1, S & G2)
G1- cells grow rapidly and new organelle are synthesized/sel membesar
dengan pantas dan organel baru dihasilkan
S- synthesis of DNA and chromosomes are replicated/sintesis DNA dan
kromosom
G2- cells prepares for mitosis, synthesises protein and mitotic spindle
begin to form/sel bersedia untuk mitosis,mula mensintesis protein dan
gelendong mitosis mula terbentuk.
2.

M phase (cell division)/ Fasa M (pembahagian sel)

Mitosis: nucleus divides/pembahagian nukleus
o prophase metaphase anaphase telophase / profasa
metafasa anafasa telofasa
cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm/sitokinesis; pembahagian sitoplasma

Mitosis
Prophase/profasa
Early prophase/ awal profasa
Chromatids condense and
become visible in a light
microscope/kromatid mengecut
dan kelihatan dengan jelas
dibawah mikroskop cahaya.
Nucleolus disappears/nukleolus
mula hilang.
Paired centrioles move to
opposite ends of the cell/sentriol
bergerak ke kutub sel.

Late prophase/ akhir profasa

Nuclear membrane
disappears/membrane nukleus
hilang.
Spindles form/gentian gelendong
terbentuk.

Metaphase/metafasa
Spindle fibres are fully
formed/gentian gelendong
terbentuk sepenuhnya.
Sister chromatids line up at the
spindle equator/kromosom
berbaris pada satah khatulistiwa.
At the end of metaphase, the
centromeres divide/pada akhir
metafasa, sentromer membahagi
dua.
Anaphase/anafasa
Anaphase begins with the
separation of the
centromeres/anafasa bermula
dengan pemisahan sentromer.
The sister chromatids are drawn
to opposite poles of the cell by
contraction of spindle
fibres/kromatid beradik ditarik ke
kutub bertentangan oleh
pengecutan gentian gelendong.
Telophase/telofasa
Telophase begins when the two
sets of daughter chromosomes
have reached the two poles of the
cell/telofasa bermula apabila dua
set kromosom sampai ke kutub
sel.
Spindle fibres disintegrate, the
nuclear membrane forms around
each set of daughter
chromosomes and the nucleoli
reappear/gentian gelendong
hilang, mambran nuclear
terbentuk disekeliling kromosom
dan nukleolus mula terbentuk.
The chromosomes uncoil and
become less visible under the
light microscope/kromosom mula
mengendur dan tidak kelihatan
dengan jelas dibawah mikroskop.

Cytokinesis/sitokinesis
The division of
cytoplasm/pembahagian
sitoplasma
Animal cell = actin filaments in
the cytoplasm contracts to pull a
ring of the plasma membrane
inwards to form a cleavage furrow
> the cell is separated into 2
daughter cells.
Sel haiwan = filament aktin
dalam sitoplasma mengecut dan
menarik membrane plasma ke
dalam > sel tersebut akan
dipisahkan menjadi dua sel.
Plant cell = starts with the
formation of the cell plate at the
equator of the cell > cell plate
enlarge > new cell wall is formed
> 2 daughter cells are produced.
Sel tumbuhan = bermula dengan
pembentukan plat sel pada satah
khatulistiwa sel > plat sel
membesar > dinding sel baru
terbentuk > 2 sel anak terhasil

The effects of uncontrolled mitosis in living things / kesan mitosis

tidak terkawal dalam benda hidup

Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the cell.

Mutasi adalah perubahan dalam struktur DNA.
This change in DNA corrupts the coded genetic instruction for the mitosis
control.
Perubahan pada DNA merosakkan kod genetik yang mengawal mitosis.
This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-stop division of cells,
producing a mass of new daughter cells, called tumour.
Ini menyebabkan mitosis tidak terkawal, dimana pembahagian sel berlaku
secara tidak terkawal, menghasilkan anak sel baru yang banyak dikenali
sebagai tumor.
Causes of cancer/punca kanser
o Genetic some forms of cancer like prostate, colon, breast, skin, ovary
are suspected to be inherited from the parents
Genetik sesetengah kanser seperti kanser prostat, kolon, buah dada,
kulit dan ovari mungkin boleh didapati melalui keturunan.

Carcinogens these are chemicals which affect genetic activity and

cause cancer, e.g of carcinogen are diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke,
hair dyes, soot, arsenic, benzene and formaldehyde
Karsinogen bahan kimia yang boleh mengubah aktiviti genetik dan
menyebabkan kanser, contohnya gas ekzos diesel, asap rokok,
pewarna rambut, jelaga, arsenik, benzene, dan formaldehid
Radiation excess exposure to x-ray, gamma-rays, and ultra violet rays
lead to increase cancer risk
Radiasi pendedahan berlebihan kepada sinar-x, sinar gamma, sinar
ultraungu boleh meningkatkan risiko kanser
Age some cancers are found primarily in young people e.g leukemia,
while some cancers e.g colon cancers are found mostly on older adults
Umur sesetengah kanser wujud pada orang muda seperti leukemia
manakala sesetengah kanser wujud pada orang yang lebih tua seperti
kanser kolon.
Viruses some viruses such as the EB and HPV cause cancer
Virus sesetengah virus seperti EB dan HPV menyebabkan kanser

Cloning/pengklonan
1. Cloning is a process of the making clones which are genetically identical cells
produced from a single parent by mitotic division, or through asexual
reproduction.
Pengklonan adalah proses penghasilan klon yang mempunyai genetik yang
sama dengan sel induk melalui pembahagian mitosis atau melalui pembiakan
aseksual.
2. We shall study the application of knowledge on mitosis in the cloning of:
Pengetahuan mengenai mitosis boleh diaplikasikan dalam pengklonan:
a) Microbes/mikrob
b) Plants/tumbuhan
c) Animals/haiwan

The main principles of tissue culture (cloning of plants)/prinsip utama

dalam pengkulturan tisu (pengklonan tumbuhan):
a) A pieces of tissues, called explants, is taken from a plant ( e.g carrot root or
stem tissue ).
Secebis tisu, dipanggil eksplan diambil dari tumbuhan (akar lobak atau tisu
stem)
b) The pieces of tissues are sterilized with dilute sodium hypochlorite solution to
prevent the growth of pathogens (such as bacteria and fungus).
Tisu tersebut disterilkan dengan larutan natrium hipoklorit untuk menghalang
pembiakan pathogen (bakteria dan kulat)
c) Each sterile tissue piece is placed onto a growth medium (gel containing
nutrients and growth regulators)
Tisu yang steril diletakkan pada medium pertumbuhan (agar yang
mengandungi nutrient dan hormon pertumbuhan)
d) The tissues cells divided by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely arranged
undifferentiated cells called callus.
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Sel tisu membahagi secara mitosis untuk menghasilkan tisu yang

mengandungi sel yang belum mengalami pembezaan yang dipanggil sebagai
kalus.
e) Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormone to form multiple shoots.
Kalus dirangsang dengan hormoneperangsang pucuk untuk menghasilkan
pucuk.
f) The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium with rootstimulating hormone to encourage rooting.
Pucuk-pucuk tersebut akan dipisahkan dan diletakkan dalam medium
nutrient tang mengandungi hormon perangsang akar untuk merangsang
penghasilan akar.
g) Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are planted in sterile compost
to grow.
Apabila akar mula tumbuh, tumbuhan tersebut akan ditanam dalm kompos
yang steril.

Animal cloning/pengklonan haiwan

These are two types of animal cloning according to purpose/terdapat dua

jenis pengklonan haiwan:
o Reproductive cloning/pengklonan pembiakan
Producing an entire animal that is genetically identical to the
parent animal
Penghasilan organisma baru yang serupa kandungan genetiknya
dengan haiwan induk.
The entire animal is produced form a single cell by asexual
reproduction through mitosis
Organisma baru itu terbentuk daripada sel tunggal melalui
pembiakan aseksual .
o Therapeutic cloning/pengklonan terapeutik
Is a branch of medicine concerned with the treatment diseases
Bidang perubatan yang terlibat dalam rawatan penyakit
Parts of a person skin, heart, liver or even just a few cells are
duplicated to produce a clone
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Bahagian badan tertentu seperti kulit, jantung, hati ataupun

sekumpulan sel diklonkan.
The clone tissue is used to replace a damaged/diseases tissue
without risk of tissue rejection
Tisu klon ini digunakan untuk menggantikan tisu yang rosak
atau berpenyakit tanpa risiko penolakan.

Clone microbes using cell culture and fermenters/pengklonan mikrob

menggunakan kultur sel dan penapaian industri
1. Cell culture/kultur sel
a) You can easily clone microbes (bacteria and some fungi) in you science
laboratory through natural asexual reproduction.
Mikrob seperti bakteria dan kulat boleh diklon dengan mudah dalam
makmal melalui pembiakan aseksual.
b) First, grow a sample of microbial cells on a solid nutrient medium in an
agar plate and later grow it in liquid medium in a culture flask.
Suatu sampel sel mirob dibiakkan pada medium agar pejal dan
kemudiannya dibiakkan dalam medium cecair dalam kelalang kultur.
2. Fermenters/penapaian industri
a) Fermenters are vessels used in biotechnology to grow microbes on a large
scale.
Penapaian industry adalah bekas yang digunakan dalam industry
bioteknologi untuk membiak mikrob pada skala yang besar.
b) Microbes, like yeast are mixed with a culture medium and left in a
fermenters to grow by mitosis.
Mikrob, seperti yis dicampur dengan medium kultur dan dibiarkan dalam
bekas untuk membiak melalui mitosis.
c) The fermenter is constantly stirred and aerated.
Bekas tersebut sentiasa diudarakan dan dikacau.
d) The environment conditions (such as pH, oxygen, pressured and
temperature) are constantly monitored using probes to ensure the
maximum growth of the microbes.
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Keadaan persekitaran seperti pH, oksigen, tekanan dan suhu dikawal

supaya pertumbuhan mikrob adalah maksimum.

Advantages of cloning/kebaikan pengklonan

1. Produced in a short time (increase quantity) / dihasilkan dalam masa yang
singkat
2. The good qualities of the plants/animals can be selected & maintained in the
clones / kualiti yang baik dalam tumbuhan/haiwan boleh dipilih dan
dikekalkan dalam klon.
3. Increase the rates of production & the quality of the product / meningkatkan
kadar penghasilan dan kualiti produk.
4. Ensure the continuity of hereditary traits from parent to the clones /
memastikan sifat baik daripada induk diturunkan kepada klon.
5. Can be carried out any time of the year / boleh dilakukan pada bila-bila masa.
Disadvantage of cloning/keburukan pengklonan
1. The resistance of the clones towards diseases & pests is the same. If one
organism is infected, the infection can easily spread to other organisms.
Leads to the extinction of the species.
Rintangan klon terhadap penyakit dan serangga perosak adalah sama. Jika
satu organisma dijangkiti, kesemua klon akan dijangkiti. Boleh menyebabkan
kepupusan spesies.
2. Carried out under controlled environment. External environment changes, the
clones will be destroyed.
Diwujudkan dalam persekitaran terkawal. Perubahan persekitaran luaran
boleh menyebabkan kematian klon.
3. Prevents natural selection / mengelakkan proses pilihan semula jadi.
4. No variation / tiada variasi.

Meiosis

In a diploid cell, chromosomes occur as pairs (homologous chromosomes).

Dalam sel diploid, kromosom wujud secara berpasangan (kromosom
homolog)
Meiosis is a process to convert a diploid cell to a haploid gamete and
cause a change in the genetic information to increase diversity in the
offspring.
Meiosis adalah proses pembahagian sel yang menukarkan sel diploid ke
sel haploid (gamet) dan ia juga menyebabkan perubahan kandungan
genetic yang meningkatkan kepelbagaian dalam zuriat.
Meiosis involve two successive nuclear division (meiosis I) is the reduction
division; the second division (meiosis II) separates the chromatids.
Meiosis mempunyai dua peringkat pembahagian nukleus (meiosis I) iaitu
pembahagian reduksi dan pembahagian kedua (meiosis II) yang
memisahkan kromatid.

Prophase I/profasa I
Chromosome condense; they
become shorter, thicker and visible.
Kromosom mengecut; ia menjdi
pendek, menebal dan kelihatan
dengan lebih jelas.
Homologous chromosome forms a
pair of bivalents through synapsis.
Kromosom homolog membentuk
bivalen melalui proses sinapsis.
Each bivalent consists of tetrad (4
sister chromatids)
Setiap bivaen terdiri daripada
tetrad (4 kromatid beradik)
Crossing over occurs.
Pindah silang berlaku
Crossing over is the exchange of
genetic material between two nonsister chromatids.
Pindah silang adalah pertukaran
kandungan genetik antara dua
kromatid bukan beradik.
At the end of prophase, nucleus
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and nucleolus disappears.

Pada akhir profasa, nukleus dan
nukleolus mula hilang.
Centrioles move to the opposite
poles and spindle fiber begins to
form.
Sentriol bergerak ke kutub
bertentangan dan gentian
gelendong mula terbentuk.

Metaphase I/metafasa I
Homologous chromosomes line up
at the equator.
Kromosom homolog berbaris di
satah khatulistiwa.
Spindle fiber is attached to the
centromere of each chromosome.
Gentian gelendong bercantum
pada sentromer setiap kromosom.
Anaphase I/anafasa I
The spindle fibers contract pulling
the homologous chromosomes to
the opposite poles.
Gentian gelendong mengecut,
menarik kromosome homolog ke
kutub bertentangan.
Each of the homologous
chromosomes move to the opposite
poles.
Setiap kromosom homolog
bergerak ke kutub bertentangan.
Telophase I/Telofasa I
The chromosomes arrives at the
poles.
Kromosom tiba di kutub
bertentangan.
The spindle fiber disappears.
Gentian gelendong mula hilang.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappears.
Membran nukleus dan nukleolus
mula terbentuk
Cytokinesis happens at the end of
telophase I and immediately
proceeds with prophase II.
Sitokinesis berlaku pada ahujung
telofasa I dan bersambung dengan
profasa II.
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Prophase II/profasa II
Nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Membran nuklear mula hilang.
Spindle fiber re-forms in each cell.
Gentian gelendong terbentuk
semula dalam setiap sel.

Metaphase II/metafasa II
The chromosomes line up at the
equator.
Kromosom berbaris pada satah
khatulistiwa.
Spindle fiber attaches at the
centromere of each chromosome.
Gentian gelendong bercantum
pada sentromer setiap kromosom.

Anaphase II/anafasa II
Spindle fiber contracts separating
the sister chromatids at the
centromere.
Gentian gelendong mengecut,
memisahkan kromatid beradik
pada sentromer.
Each sister chromatids move to the
opposite pole.
Setiap kromatid beradik bergerak
ke kutub bertentangan.
Telophase II/telofasa II
Chromosome reaches the pole.
Kromosom tiba ke kutub
bertentangan.
Nuclear membrane and nucleoli
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reappears.
Membran nukleus dan nukleoli
terbentuk.
Spindle fiber breaks down.
Gentian gelendong mula hilang.
Cytokinesis follows and four haploid
cell is formed.
Sitokinesis berlaku dan empat sel
haploid terbentuk.

Comparison between Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Perbandingan antara Meiosis I dan Meiosis II
MEIOSIS

SIMILARITIES/PERSAM
MEIOSIS II
AAN
Consist of 4 stages/terdiri daripada 4 peringkat
Involve division of nucleus & cytokinesis/melibatkan pembahagian
nukleus & sitokinesis.
DIFFERENCES/PERBEZAAN
Occur/berlaku
Synapsis/sinapsis
Do not occur/tidak
berlaku
Yes/ya
Cross over/pindah
No/tidak
silang
M I- paired homologues
Metaphase/metafasa
M II- each chromosomes
chromosomes line up at
with sister chromatids
the equator/kromosom
line up at the
homolog bersusun pada
equator/setiap
satah khatulistiwa.
kromosom dengan
kromatid beradik
bersusun pada satah
khatulistiwa.
A I- paired homologues
Anaphase/anafasa
A II- the sister
chromosomes separated
chromatids separated &
& move to opposite
move to opposite
poles/kromosom
poles/kromatid beradik
homolog berpisah dan
berpisah dan bergerak
bergerak ke kutub
ke kutub bertentangan.
bertentangan.
2 haploid cells are
At the end/pada
4 haploid cells are
formed/2 sel haploid
peringkat akhir
formed/4 sel haploid
terbentuk
terbentuk.

The Comparison between Mitosis & Meiosis

Perbandingan antara Mitosis & Meiosis

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MEIOSIS

SIMILARITIES/PERSAM
MITOSIS
AAN
Division of cells/pembahagian sel
The chromosomes replicates only once/replikasi kromosom berlaku hanya sekali.
DIFFERENCE/PERBEZAAN
In reproduction
Place occur/lokasi
In somatic cell/dalam sel
organ/dalam organ
somatik
pembiakkan
Parent cell divides
Number of
Parent cell divides
twice/sel induk
divisions/bilangan
once/sel induk
membahagi sebanyak
pembahagian
membahagi hanya sekali
dua kali
4 haploid daughter cell/4
Number of daughter
2 diploid daughter
sel anak haploid
cells/bilangan sel anak
cells/2 sel anak diploid
Occurs at prophase
Synapsis of
Do not occurs/tidak
I/berlaku pada profasa I
homologous
berlaku
chromosomes/sinapsis
kromosom homolog
Occurs twice/berlaku
Number of
Occurs once/berlaku
sebanyak dua kali
cytokinesis/bilangan
sekali
sitokinesis
Occurs at prophase
Crossing over of nonDo not occurs/tidak
I/berlaku pada profasa I
sister chromatids of
berlaku
homologous
chromosomes/pindah
silang kromatid bukan
beradik kromsosom
homolog
Half of the number of
Number of
Genetically identical to
chromosomes of the
chromosomes in
the parent
parent cell
daughter
cell/kandungan genetic
(haploid)/separuh
cells/bilangan
yang serupa dengan sel
bilangan kromosome
kromosom dalam sel
induk
daripada sel
anak
induk(haploid)
Genetically non-identical Genetic composition of
Genetically identical to
to the parent cell & each
daughter
the parent
other/kandungan genetic
cells/kandungan
cell/kandungan genetic
tidak serupa dengan sel
genetic sel anak
yang serupa dengan sel
induk dan satu sama lain
induk
Occurs once during
DNA
Occurs during interphase
interphase before
replication/replikasi
before mitosis
meiosis I/berlaku sekali
DNA
begins/berlaku semasa
semasa interfasa
interfasa sebelum
sebelum meiosis I
mitosis berlaku

Importance of meiosis/kepentingan meiosis

13

Ensures that diploid number of chromosomes are maintained in each

generation.
Memastikan bilangan kromosom diploid wujud dalam setiap generasi.
Meiosis provides genetic variation in gametes:
Meiosis mewujudkan variasi genetik dalam gamet:
o The process of crossing over during prophase allows for genetic
materials to be exchanged between non-sister chromatids. This results
in new sets of chromosomes.
Pindah silang memastikan penukaran kandungan genetik antara
kromatid bukan beradik. Ia mewujudkan set kromosom yang berlainan
dengan induk.
o During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes arranged
independently and randomly (independent assortment). This also
allows for formation of different types of gametes.
Semasa metafasa I, kromosom homolog bersusun secara rawak dan
bebas. Ini menghasilkan gamet yang berbeza antara satu sama lain.

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Crossing over/pindah silang

Independent assortment

15