ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782

Flow and creep compliance properties of reduced-fat yoghurts

containing protein-based fat replacers
C. Lobato-Callerosa, O. Mart!nez-Torrijosa, O. Sandoval-Castillaa,
J.P. Pe! rez-Orozcob,c, E.J. Vernon-Carterb,*
b

a
!
Departamento de Preparatoria Agr!cola, Universidad Autonoma
Chapingo, Km 38.5 Carretera M!exico-Texcoco, Texcoco 56230, Mexico
!
Area de Ingenier!a Qu!mica, Universidad Autonoma
Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, San Rafael Atlixco 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, D.F. Mexico
c
!
Departamento de Ingenier!a Qu!mica y Bioqu!mica, Instituto Tecnologico
de Zacatepec, CP. 62780, Zacatepec, Mor., Mexico

Received 12 September 2003; accepted 27 February 2004

Abstract
The ow and creep compliance properties of reduced-fat yoghurts containing whey protein concentrate (WPC), microparticulated
whey protein, or a blend of both fat replacers were determined and compared to those exhibited by a full-fat yoghurt (FFY). The
ow behaviour of all the yoghurts was described by the Ellis equation. Rheological parameters such as instantaneous compliance
(J0), mean compliance (Jm), mean retardation time (tm), and Newtonian viscosity (ZN) were useful to explain structural
characteristics and changes in the protein network of the reduced-fat yoghurts. The yoghurt made with WPC showed ow and
viscoelastic properties that resembled more closely those of the FFY.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Protein based fat replacers; Reduced-fat yoghurts; Flow properties; Creep compliance properties

1. Introduction
Health concerns have led consumers worldwide to
reduce consumption of foods perceived as high in fat,
which has opened way to a growing market of foods
considered as healthy, with good mouthfeel and
incorporating natural products only. Thus, yoghurt
producers are motivated to market low-fat products
with natural ingredients. Changes in the fat content of
yoghurts modify their rheological behaviour. Wilkinson,
Guinee, and Fenelon (1999) developed a laboratory
fermented milk model system and studied the effects of
milk components on the rheology of yoghurt. Increasing
the fat content within the range of 0.374%, while
maintaining the protein constant, resulted in increases in
the storage modulus and apparent viscosity. Keogh and
OKennedy (1998) reported that yoghurts obtained by
varying the level of protein, fat and hydrocolloids,
provided a large range of consistencies and brittleness
levels. Protein was the most effective component at
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-55-8044648; fax: +52-558044900.
E-mail address: jvc@xanum.uam.mx (E.J. Vernon-Carter).
0958-6946/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2004.02.012

increasing consistency and fat was next in effectiveness.

Sandoval-Castilla, Lobato-Calleros, Aguirre-Mandujano, and Vernon-Carter (2004) reported that reduced-fat
yoghurt exhibited lower tension and rmness than fullfat yoghurt, as a result of lower number of fat globules
acting as structure promoters of the protein network.
Heating of skim milk to 7590
C before inoculation is
essential for the proper development of yoghurt
structure. It results in rmer yoghurts than those made
from unheated milk (Aguilera & Stanley, 1999). Heat
treatment of milk at X80
C greatly increased the
storage modulus (G0 ) of acid milk gels compared with
gels made from unheated milk (Lucey, Munro, & Singh,
1998), and there were no major differences in the
microstructure of acid milk gels formed in the range 80
90
C (Lucey, Teo, Munro, & Singh, 1998). Homogenised fat globules directly participate in the acid
coagulation process and nally become an integral part
of the network structure (Buchheim & Dejmek, 1997).
When formulating reduced-fat yoghurt one must seek
the reinforcement of the protein network to build up the
structure. A potential good solution is to use pure milk
ingredients such as whey proteins. Mistry and Hassan
(1992) reported that good quality non-fat yoghurts

ARTICLE IN PRESS
778

C. Lobato-Calleros et al. / International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782

could be produced by supplementing skim milk with

high milk protein powder up to 5.6%. Modler and
Kalab (1983) found that yoghurts prepared with whey
protein concentrates (WPC) were generally softer than
yoghurt prepared from casein-based ingredients.
Sandoval-Castilla et al. (2004) reported that reducedfat yoghurts showing similar instrumental texture
characteristics to full-fat yoghurt (FFY) could be
obtained when supplementing low-fat milk with WPC.
When the low-fat milk was added with microparticulated whey protein (MWP) the tension and rmness
textural characteristics of the yoghurt were slightly
lower than those of the full-fat yoghurt.
The gel-like effects that proteins and stabilisers
impart to liquids, which can be used by food scientists to
improve texture and stability, can be best investigated
by employing proper rheological measurements (Schenz,
1997). Measurement of the ow curves of these uids on
a log viscosity versus log shear stress (shear rate) plot,
over a wide range of shear stress (shear rate), allows the
determination of the structure point, i.e. the stress
(shear rate) below which structure builds. Viscoelastic
properties of yoghurt can be measured by creep
compliance test, in which the sample deformation due
to an imposed constant stress is recorded as a function
of time. Afterwards, the deformation is converted to
creep compliance (deformation/unit of constant stress)
and the rheological parameters: compliances, retardation times and viscosities are calculated from creep
curves (Rao, Kash, Cooley, & Barnard, 1987). The creep
experiment results, when taken together with the ow
curve results, provide the basis for understanding the
nature of the weak gel structure-building process that
occurs due to chain entanglement or association
processes in uid foods (Schenz, 1997). Furthermore,
creep compliance-time studies carried out within the
linear-viscoelastic region, have the advantage of avoiding destruction in the sample. This permits the
determination of rheological parameters under conditions which approach its conditions at undisturbed state
and, as a consequence, allows a relationship between the
results obtained and the actual structure of the material
to be drawn (Munoz & Sherman, 1990).
The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of
MWP and WPC upon the ow and the creep
compliance properties of reduced-fat yoghurts, in
comparison to FFY.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Milk and fat replacers
Homogenised and spray-dried whole milk (Nidos)
was obtained from Nestle S.A. de C.V. (Mexico), and
skim milk powder (Lactomixs) was purchased from

Dilac, S.A. de C.V. (Mexico). The commercial fat

replacers used were: Dairy-los (Cultor Food Science,
Mexico), containing 35% of partially denatured WPC
and Simplesses 100 (NutraSweet, Mexico), made up of
50.5% MWP. Whey protein in Dairy-los is subjected to
controlled thermal denaturation causing protein unfolding and exposure of the hydrophobic regions on the
polypeptide chains, and controlled self aggregation of
macromolecules through non covalent (i.e. van der
Waals) and covalent (i.e. intermolecular disulde
exchange reactions) interactions (Morr & Josephson,
1968; Pzer Food Science Group, 1995). In Simplesses
100 whey protein is heat coagulated forming large
particles of gel, which are then microparticulated by
applying shear to reduce the coagulating proteins to
very small spheroidal particles (1.02.0 mm in diameter)
(Lucca & Tepper, 1994). Unlike the WPCs, the role of
MWP is to simulate fat globules and impart a creamy
mouthfeel rather than to interact with other milk
proteins (Tamime, Kalab, Muir, & Barrantes, 1995).
2.2. Yoghurt premixes
A FFY was made from reconstituted whole milk
powder with 3070.3 g of fat L1 and 12071 g of total
solids L1. Three reduced-fat yoghurt treatments were
elaborated using reconstituted low-fat milk (prepared by
blending skim and whole milk powders to obtain
1570.1 g of fat L1 and 12071 g of total solids L1)
added with WPC and MWP on their own and blended.
The quantity of fat replacers individually used in
making yoghurt was based on usage levels recommended by the manufacturer: 10 g WPC L1milk, 10.5 g
MWP L1milk, and for the blend of both fat replacers
(5 g WPC+5.3 g MWP)L1 milk was used. All yoghurts
produced were set-style.
2.3. Yoghurt preparation
Whole milk and low-fat milk powders were reconstituted at 30
C with moderate mixing. The dispersions
were refrigerated at 4
C for 24 h, to allow full hydration
of the powders, before usage. Ten litre batches of the
reconstituted milk (whole-fat or low-fat) were used for
preparing the yoghurts. Initially, the reconstituted milks
were heated to 30
C, (60 g L1) sugar was added, and in
the case of the treatments containing fat replacers these
were added to reconstituted low-fat milk with moderate
mixing. Each mixture was then heated to 70
C, stirred
vigorously (2200 rpm, 3 min) with a mechanical stirrer,
vat-pasteurised at 80
C for 10 min (Wacher-Rodarte
et al., 1993), and cooled down to 45
C. At this point, all
the mixes were inoculated with 0.03 g L1 lactic culture
(MY800, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Industrias Cuamex, S.A.
de C.V., Mexico) (Sandoval-Castilla et al., 2004), and

ARTICLE IN PRESS
C. Lobato-Calleros et al. / International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782
Table 1
Chemical composition of yoghurts
Yoghurt

Total solids
(7SD) (%)

Protein
(7SD) (%)

FFY
WPCY
MWPY
WPCMWPY

16.47 70.2a
16.90 7 0.1ab
17.57 7 0.3c
17.20 7 0.4bc

3.42
4.37
4.52
4.37

7
7
7
7

0.3a
0.2b
0.2b
0.2b

Fat (7SD)
(%)
2.99
1.45
1.45
1.45

7
7
7
7

0.0b
0.0a
0.1a
0.0a

FFY: full-fat yoghurt; WPCY: whey protein concentrate yoghurt;

MWPY: microparticulated whey protein yoghurt;
WPCMWPY blend of whey protein concentrate and microparticulated whey protein yoghurt. Means are the result of nine measurements. Means in a column followed by different letters are signicantly
different (pp0.05).

779

recovery. Only the creep compliance region of the curves

was analised in this work. The applied stress fell within
the linear viscoelastic region of the yoghurts. Determination of the linear viscoelastic region was done by
performing stress and frequency sweep tests.
2.5. Statistical analyses
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukeys test
(ap0.05) were performed on rheological data of the
yoghurts using the Statgraphics 7 statistical analysis
system (Statistical Graphics Corp. Manugistics Inc.,
Cambridge, MA).

3. Results and discussion

incubated at 45
C until an acidity of 9095
d was
reached. Yoghurt was cooled down and stored at 4
C.
Yoghurt samples were withdrawn after 5 days of storage
for rheological evaluation. All treatments were done in
triplicate using a completely random experimental
design. Chemical composition of the yoghurts is shown
in Table 1, and has been reported elsewhere (SandovalCastilla et al., 2004).
2.4. Rheological determination
The rheological measurements were performed with a
Physica DSR 4000 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (Physica
Messtechnik, Stuttgart, Germany), with a cone-plate
geometry, in which the rotating cone was 75 mm in
diameter, and cone angle of 2
. Temperature maintenance was achieved with Physica TEK 150P temperature control and measuring system. Yoghurt samples
were carefully placed in the measuring system, and left
to rest for 1 h for structure recovery and temperature
equilibration. All the measurements were carried out at
5
C.
Flow curves of the yoghurts were obtained by varying
the shear rate from 104 to 103 s1 in 24 steps with equal
distance in a logarithmic scale, and the corresponding
shear stress values measured. The ow curves data was
tted using the rheometer software to the Carreau,
Casson, Cross, Herschel-Bulkley, and Ellis rheological
models (Steffe, 1996) that describe the behaviour of
time-independent uids.
In the creep compliance test the undeformed samples
of yoghurts were suddenly subjected to a constant shear
stress of 9 Pa (constant torque of 1 mN m). The
deformation of the viscoelastic materials increases with
time and approaches a steady state where the deformation rate remains constant, in this point the stress can be
suddenly removed and can be analysed for recoverable
shear (Rao et al., 1987). All the yoghurt treatments
reached a constant deformation rate within 300 s, and at
this time the applied stress was released to allow sample

3.1. Flow properties

The model that best tted the log viscosity versus log
shear rate data of all the yoghurts was the Ellis equation
(R2>0.99) (Darby, 1996):
Z0
1
Z

p
1 lg2
where Z is the apparent viscosity, Z0 is a low shear
limiting viscosity, l is a time constant associated to the
relaxation time of polymers in solution, and p is a shear
thinning index. The values of the Ellis equation
rheological parameters for the yoghurts are given in
Table 2. Foods described by Ellis model possess a
structural viscosity, characterised by Newtonian ow
at very low shear rates (Z0), attributed to the formation
of a reversible structure or network in the rest state
(Darby, 1996), and displayed by foods containing
macromolecules, which under the inuence of shear,
commence to stretch-out and deform exhibiting a
characteristic relaxation time (Steffe, 1996). When the
biopolymer molecules become aligned with the eld of
shear and weak physical interactions responsible for
biopolymerbiopolymer interactions are disrupted their

Table 2
Flow rheological parameters of yoghurts
Yoghurt
FFY
WPCY
MWPY
WPCMWPY

p (7SD)

Z0 (7SD) (kPa s) l (7SD) (s)

76.2
58.7
35.1
42.1

7
7
7
7

6.7
0.6b
1.0a
0.3a

2435.8
1880.4
2379.6
2682.2

7
7
7
7

bc

189.9
19.1a
73.6b
20.6c

0.946
0.945
0.913
0.889

7
7
7
7

0.004c
0.004c
0.013b
0.003a

FFY: full-fat yoghurt; WPCY: whey protein concentrate yoghurt;

MWPY: microparticulated whey protein yoghurt;
WPCMWPY blend of whey protein concentrate and microparticulated whey protein yoghurt. Means are the result of nine measurements. Means in a column followed by different letters are signicantly
different (pp0.05). Z0: low shear limiting viscosity; l: time constant
associated to relaxation time; p: shear thinning index.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
C. Lobato-Calleros et al. / International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782

780
Table 3
Viscoelastic parameters of yoghurts

J0 (7SD) (m Pa1)

Yoghurt
FFY
WPCY
MWPY
WPCMWPY

2.14
1.84
4.13
3.71

7
7
7
7

0.3
0.1a
0.3b
0.2b

Jm (7SD) (m Pa1)
2.11
2.08
5.22
4.57

7
7
7
7

0.4
0.1a
0.5b
0.1b

im (7SD) (s)
36.62
28.55
33.17
33.30

7
7
7
7

4.4
0.2a
2.2bc
1.4bc

ZN (7SD) (kPa s)
133.02
120.19
54.77
60.79

7
7
7
7

13.2b
7.1b
8.2a
3.2a

FFY: full-fat yoghurt; WPCY: whey protein concentrate yoghurt;

MWPY: microparticulated whey protein yoghurt;
WPCMWPY blend of whey protein concentrate and microparticulated whey protein yoghurt. Means are the result of nine measurements. Means in
a column followed by different letters are signicantly different (pp0.05). J0: instantaneous compliance; Jm: mean compliance; im: mean retardation
time; ZN: Newtonian viscosity.

apparent viscosity decreases, with the food often

exhibiting strong shear-thinning behaviour at intermediate shear rates (McClements, 1999). l provides an order
of the critical shear rate marking the end of the zero
shear rate Newtonian region and the onset of the shear
thinning region, and p tends to a value of (1n), where n
is the power-law ow behaviour index (Rao, 1999). As
the value of l was signicantly different (pp0.5) for the
yoghurts made with WPC, MWP and the blend of
WPC-MWP, it can be inferred that these fat replacers
contributed differently to yoghurt casein network
structure. However, the WPCY showed non-signicant
difference with the FFY (p>0.05), but both showed
signicantly higher p values (lower n values) than the
MWPY and the WPC-MWPY (pp0.05). Shear thinning
behaviour is closely associated to mouthfeel. Liquid
foods not exhibiting extensive shear thinning behaviour
at the shear stresses experienced within the mouth are
perceived as being slimy, but a certain amount of
viscosity is needed to contribute to the creaminess of a
product (McClements, 1999). In this regard, we assume
that the WPC fat replacer was the one that provided
reduced-fat yoghurt with a mouthfeel resembling more
closely that of the FFY, and the WPCY was the one
showing the closest Z0 value to that of the FFY.
3.2. Creep compliance properties
All of the yoghurts exhibited typical creep compliance
(J)-time (t) curves (Curves not shown), from which the
viscoelastic parameters were calculated in accordance
with the relationship (Sherman, 1970):
X
Jt J0
Jm 1  expt=tm t=ZN ;
2
i

where J0 (=1/E0) is the instantaneous compliance

obtained when the bonds between the structural units
are stretched elastically, E0 is the instantaneous elastic
modulus; Jm is the mean compliance related with the
phase of the test during which the bonds break and
reform, but all of them do not break and reform at the
same rate; tm is the mean retardation time i.e. the time
taken for the delayed deformation to reach approxi-

mately 63.2% (11/e) of the nal value, and ZN is the

Newtonian viscosity associated with ow of the
structural units of the sample food as result of a
pronounced rupture of bonds (Rao et al., 1987). The
values of these parameters for the different yoghurts are
shown in Table 3.
WPC, MWP and the blend of both whey proteins
affected the creep compliance behaviour of reduced-fat
yoghurt in different ways depending of their structural
and functional properties. WPC provided to the yoghurt
similar values of J0 than those exhibited by the FFY
(p>0.05), i.e. both yoghurts had resembling elasticity.
In full-fat set yoghurt the main milk proteins, caseins,
form an uninterrupted network composed of chains and
clusters of casein micelles (Kalab, 1979), in which fat
globules can interact with the gel casein matrix as
binders providing a strong elastic structure (Lucey et al.,
1998).
Addition of small amounts of whey protein to skim
milk gels reinforces the structure, probably forming a
secondary network in the interstices left by casein chains
(Aguilera & Kinsella, 1991). Sandoval-Castilla et al.
(2004) reported that WPC incorporation to reduced-fat
yoghurt resulted in a protein network formed mainly by
casein micelle chains (protein particles linked in chains)
rather than clusters (protein particles held together to
greater extent forming relatively large aggregates) with
small spaces originally occupied by whey, which
exhibited rmness, tension and springiness comparable
with those of FFY. Puvanenthiran, Williams, and
Augustin (2002) observed that as the casein to whey
protein ratio was decreased, by blending skim milk with
WPC, the maximum gel strength of the yoghurt
increased. Whey protein induced a ner protein
structure with numerous small pores and a dense
network of crosslinks.
The addition of MWP alone or combined with WPC
yielded yoghurts with signicantly higher J0 values
(pp0.05) than that of the FFY and WPCY. Since
compliance is the strain per unit stress, a higher instant
compliance indicates a greater degree of deformation
and lower recovery ability. Sandoval-Castilla et al.
(2004) reported that the corpuscular nature of MWP

ARTICLE IN PRESS
C. Lobato-Calleros et al. / International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782

was maintained when forming part of the protein matrix

of reduced-fat yoghurt, causing a more open protein
structure in comparison with that showed by FFY, as
whey protein particles interrupted the casein micelles
clusters. These same authors stated that when using a
blend of WPCMWP the reduced-fat yoghurt protein
network was formed by predominantly casein micelles
chains, but some of them were fused into clusters, with
particles of MWP abutting from the latter. These results
indicate that the role played by the MWP particles in the
reinforcement of yoghurt gels was relatively less than
that by WPC. Partial heat denaturation of WPC
produces a majority of soluble aggregated proteins,
favouring their interaction with other proteins i.e. with
k-casein on the surface of casein micelles via disulphide
bonding (Beuschel, Culbertson, Partridge, & Smith,
1992; Pzer Food Science Group, 1995). This effectively
increases the concentration of gel-forming protein in the
yoghurt matrix (Keogh & OKennedy, 1998).
im may be considered a measure of the complexity of
the type and diversity of the bonds in the structure
(Lobato-Calleros, Aguirre-Mandujano, Vernon-Carter,
& Sa! nchez-Garc!a, 2000). The retardation time is unique
for each material, and in viscoelastic materials, the time
to achieve maximum deformation is delayed. Materials
with large retardation times reach full deformation
slowly (Steffe, 1996). The value of im was signicantly
different (pp0.05) between FFY and WPCY, but no
signicant difference existed (p>0.05) among the FFY,
MWPY and WPCMWPY. Bond rupture rate in
yoghurts is apparently affected by the relative amount
of chains or clusters of casein micelles in the protein
network. When the clusters of casein micelles predominate in the protein network bond deformation proceeds
more slowly and retardation times are longer than when
casein chains predominate. SEM micrographs reported
by Sandoval-Castilla et al. (2004) showed that the
protein network of the FFY was composed by a greater
number of clusters of casein micelles than of casein
micelles chains. MWPY showed a similar structure to
that of the FFY but more open and less dense, probably
due to the interrupted protein network caused by MWP
particles and to the lower number of fat globules acting
as linking protein agents. In contrast, in the WPCY the
protein network was mainly made-up by casein micelles
linked by particle-to-particle attachment in long chains.
The WPCMWPY showed a protein network resembling that of MWPY but with casein micelles chains
rather than clusters, and with a more compact and less
open structure.
The value of Jm was non-signicantly different
between the FFY and WPCY yoghurts (p>0.05) but
both showed signicantly lower Jm values (pp0.05)
compared to those of the MWP and WPC-MWPY. Jm is
the ratio between the mean viscosity (Zm) and the
retarded elasticity (Em), so that high Jm values indicate a

781

predominating viscous nature of the network rather

than an elastic nature. Renard, Robert, Faucheron, and
Sanchez (1999) reported that increasing MWP concentration in mixed gels made of MWP and b-lactoglobulin,
led to heterogeneity in the protein network (due to steric
hindrance or to segregative thermodynamic incompatibility) with a decrease in the elastic part and an increase
in the viscous part in the network.
WPCY and FFY showed non-signicantly different
(p>0.05) ZN values. Following the rupture of some of
the bonds, the time required for them to reform is longer
than the test period, so that the broken bonds release
structure units that ow past one another (Sherman,
1970). Both in FFY and in WPCY, the casein micelles
and/or whey proteins making-up the gel structure have
relatively small sizes (Puvanenthiran et al., 2002), so that
when structure rupture occurs, the number of released
units is very high, causing distortion of the ow pathway
as these chunks of structure ow past one another,
causing an increase in the Newtonian viscosity. Tamime
et al. (1995) reported that MWP molecules were not
freely dispersed into the aqueous phase maintaining
their corpuscular nature in yoghurt made from skim
milk, so that when structure rupture occurs, the number
of released units is relatively lower in the MWPY and
WPCMWPY, showing lower ZN values than the FFY
and WPCY.

4. Conclusions
The ow and creep compliance data were useful for
explaining the effect of WPC, MWP, and their blend on
the protein network of reduced-fat yoghurts. The
rheological data indicate that the different fat replacers
provided different effects in improving the protein
network of reduced-fat yoghurt. Added WPC resulted
in a protein network structure showing ow and
viscoelastic properties similar to those exhibited by the
FFY. The incorporation of MWP alone or combined
with WPC did not improve the rheological properties of
reduced-fat yoghurt.

References
Aguilera, J. M., & Kinsella, J. E. (1991). Compression strength of
dairy gels and microstructural interpretation. Journal of Food
Science, 56, 12241228.
Aguilera, J. M., & Stanley, D. W. (1999). Microstructural principles of
food processing and engineering. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Beuschel, B. C., Culbertson, J. D., Partridge, D. M., & Smith, D. M.
(1992). Gelation and emulsication properties of partially
insolubilized whey protein concentrates. Journal of Food Science,
57, 605609, 634.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
782

C. Lobato-Calleros et al. / International Dairy Journal 14 (2004) 777782

Buchheim, W., & Dejmek, P. (1997). Milk and dairy type emulsionsIn.
In S. E. Friberg, & K. Larsson (Eds.), Food emulsions (3rd ed.) (pp.
235278). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Darby, R. (1996). Chemical engineering fluid mechanics. New York:
Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Kalab, M. (1979). Microstructure of dairy foods. 1. Milk products
based on protein. Journal of Dairy Science, 62, 13521364.
Keogh, M. K., & OKennedy, B. T. (1998). Rheology of stirred yogurt
as affected by added milk fat, protein and hydrocolloids. Journal of
Food Science, 63, 108112.
Lobato-Calleros, C., Aguirre-Mandujano, E., Vernon-Carter, E. J., &
S!anchez-Garc!a, J. (2000). Viscoelastic properties of white fresh
cheese lled with sodium caseinate. Journal of Texture Studies, 31,
379390.
Lucca, P. A., & Tepper, B. J. (1994). Fat replacers and the
functionality of fat in foods. Trends in Food Science & Technology,
5, 1218.
Lucey, J. A., Munro, P. A., & Singh, H. (1998). Rheological properties
and microstructure of acid milk gels as affected by fat content and
heat treatment. Journal of Food Science, 63, 660664.
Lucey, J. A., Teo, C. T., Munro, P. A., & Singh, H. (1998).
Microstructure, permeability and appearance of acid gels made
from heated skim milk. Food Hydrocolloids, 12, 159165.
McClements, D. J. (1999). Food emulsions. Principles, practice and
techniques. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Mistry, V. V., & Hassan, H. N. (1992). Manufacture of nonfat yogurt
from high milk protein powder. Journal of Dairy Science, 75,
947957.
Modler, H. W., & Kalab, M. (1983). Microstructure of yogurt
stabilized with milk proteins. Journal of Dairy Science, 66, 430437.
Morr, C. V., & Josephson, R. V. (1968). Effect of calcium,
N-ethylmalimide and casein upon heat-induced whey protein
aggregation. Journal of Dairy Science, 51, 13491355.
Munoz, J., & Sherman, P. (1990). Dynamic viscoelastic properties of
some commercial salad dressings. Journal of Texture Studies, 21,
411426.
Pzer Food Science Group (1995). The natural ingredient for
better taste, texture and consistency. Technical Service Bulletin,
pp. 15.

Puvanenthiran, A., Williams, R. P. W., & Augustin, M. A. (2002).

Structure and viscoelastic properties of set yoghurt with altered
casein to whey protein ratios. International Dairy Journal, 12,
383391.
Rao, M. A. (1999). Rheology of fluid and semisolid foods. Gaithersburg:
Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Rao, M. A., Kash, S. F., Cooley, H. J., & Barnard, J. (1987). Desktop
computer bases collection and analysis of creep-compliance data on
uid foods. Journal of Texture Studies, 18, 405413.
Renard, D., Robert, P., Faucheron, S., & Sanchez, C. (1999).
Rheological properties of mixed gels made of microparticulated
whey proteins and b-lactoglobulin. Colloids and Surfaces B:
Biointerfaces, 12, 113121.
Sandoval-Castilla, O., Lobato-Calleros, C., Aguirre-Mandujano, E., &
Vernon-Carter, E. J. (2004). Microstructure and texture of yogurt
as inuenced by fat replacers. International Dairy Journal, 14,
151159.
Schenz, T. W. (1997). Using rheology of weak gels to improve uid
foods. Food Technology, 51(3), 8385.
Sherman, P. (1970). Industrial rheology with particular reference
to foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. London: Academic
Press.
Steffe, J. F. (1996). Rheological methods in food process engineering
(2nd Ed.). East Lansing: Freeman Press.
Tamime, A. Y., Kalab, M., Muir, D. D., & Barrantes, E. (1995). The
microstructure of set-style, natural yogurt made by substituting
microparticulated whey protein for milk fat. Journal of the Society
of Dairy Technology, 48(4), 107111.
Wacher-Rodarte, C., Galvan, M. V., Farres, A., Gallardo, F.,
Marshall, V. M. E., & Garcia-Garibay, M. (1993). Yogurt
production from reconstituted skim milk powders using different
polymer and non-polymer forming starter cultures. Journal of
Dairy Research, 60, 247254.
Wilkinson, M. G., Guinee, T. P., & Fenelon, M. A. (1999). Effect of
milk composition on the quality of fresh fermented dairy
productsIn. In M. G. Wilkinson (Ed.), Improving the quality of
yogurt (pp. 311). Ballsbridge, Dublin: The Science of Farming and
Food.