Chapter 09 Frequency Response Method

9/17/2001
EEE 352 Automatic Control Systems

Chapter 09: Frequency Response Analysis
R(j)
E (j)
G(j)
Y(j)
H(j)
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Uar

Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
Frequency Response Analysis

r(t) = Xsint
R(s)
y(t)
G(s)
y (t )
the transient
response
(t0 t tf).
Y(s)
y (t ) yt (t ) y ss (t )
y ss (t )
yt (t )
0 t0
the steady state

response
(tf < t ).
ts=tf
By the term frequency response, we mean the steady-state response of a system to a

sinusoidal input r(t)=Xsint where is measured in rad/sec.
Y ( j )
Y ( s)
G ( s), s j,
G ( j )
R ( j )
R ( s)
To obtain and study frequency-response of the system G(j), the input signal
frequency is varied over a certain range.
The information obtained from such analysis is different from root-locus analysis.
In fact, the frequency response and root-locus approaches complement each other.
The frequency-response methods are most powerful in conventional (classical)
control theory.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
9/17/2001
R(s)

y (t ) yt (t ) y ss (t )
Y(s)
E(s)
G(s)
Y ( s)
T ( s), s j,
R ( s)
0 t0
G ( j )
Y ( j )
T ( j )
R ( j )
1 G ( j ) H ( j )
y ss (t )
yt (t )
y (t )
H(s)
the transient
response
(t0 t tf).
the steady state

response
(tf < t ).
ts=tf
Frequency-response methods were developed in 1930s and 1940s by Nyquist,

Bode, Nichols, and many others.
The Nyquist stability criterion enables us to investigate both the absolute and
relative stabilities of linear closed-loop systems from a knowledge of their openloop frequency response characteristics, G(j)H(j).
The introduction of logarithmic plots, often called Bode plots, simplifies the
determination of the graphical portrayal of the frequency response.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9

R(s)
Y(s)
E(s)
y (t ) yt (t ) y ss (t )
G(s)
H(s)
y ss (t )
yt (t )
y(t )
the transient
response
(t0 t tf).
Y ( s)
0 t0
T ( s), s j,
R ( s)
G ( j )
Y ( j )
T ( j )
1 G ( j ) H ( j )
R ( j )
the steady state

response
(tf < t ).
ts=tf
The logarithmic plots are called Bode plots in honor of H. W. Bode, who used
them extensively in his studies of feedback amplifiers.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
9/17/2001

The steady state outputs to sinusoidal input:
The steady-state response of system G(s) can be obtained directly from the
sinusoidal input (r(t)=Xsint) transfer function G(j ), that is, the transfer
function in which s=j is replaced by j, where is frequency.
R(s)
Y(s)
jImG(j)=jX( )
G(s)
Y ( s)
G ( s)
G ( j )
R ( s)
s j
G ( j1 )
G ( j1 )
s=j
1
0
ReG(j)=jR()
=0
G ( j ) G ( j ) G ( j )
G ( j )
s=+j plane
Dr. Ahmet Uar
G(j) plane
Polar Plane
EEE 352 Chapter 9

The steady state outputs to sinusoidal Input:
Suppose that the transfer function G(s)
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
Y ( s)
Z ( s)
Z (s)
G(s)
R ( s)
P( s ) ( s s1 )( s s2 )...(s sn )
The steady-state response of a stable, linear, time-invariant system to a sinusoidal

input does not depend on the initial conditions.
Y ( s ) G ( s ) R (s ) G (s )
X
a
a
b
b
b
1 2 n
s 2 2 s j s j s s1 s s2
s sn

Input
system poles
where a and the b, (where i = 1,2, . . . , n) are constants and is the complex
conjugate of a. The inverse Laplace transform of system output Y(s) gives
j
y (t ) ae
a
e j b1e s1t b2 e s2t bn e s nt
Input
system poles
For a stable system, the terms contain e-st approach zero as t approaches infinity.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
9/17/2001

For sinusoidal input, r(t)=Xsint, the output of transfer function G(j ) is yss(t)
R(s)
G(s)
j
y (t )
ae
a
e j b1e s1t b2e s2t bn e snt

Y(s)
yss ( t ); input
yt ( t ) 0; system poles
Thus, regardless of whether the system is of the distinct-pole type, the steady state
response becomes
yss (t ) ae j a e j
where the constant a and are
X
X
XG ( j )
XG ( j )
a G (s ) 2
(s j )
, a G( s) 2
( s j )
2
2
s
2j
s
2j
s j
s j
Since G(j) is a complex quantity, it
j
can be written in the following form: G ( j ) G ( j ) e
where |G(j)| represents the magnitude and represents the angle of G(j); that is,
Im G ( j )
The angle may be negative, positive, or zero.
Re G ( j )
G ( j ) tan 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9

Similarly, we obtain the following expression for G(-j): G ( j ) G ( j ) e j
X | G ( j ) | e j
X | G ( j ) | e j
G ( j ) e j
, a
2j
2j
e j (t ) e j (t )
j
j
The steady state response is y ss (t ) ae a e X | G ( j ) |
2j
X | G ( j ) | sin(t ) Y sin(t )
Then,
r(t) = Xsint
R(s)
y(t)
G(s)
Y(s)
x(t)
yss(t)
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R ( j )
ts
t
The steady state response
The function G(j) is called the sinusoidal transfer function.

Results: A stable, linear, time-invariant system subjected to a sinusoidal input will,
at steady state, have a sinusoidal output of the same frequency as the input. But the
amplitude and phase of the output will, in general, be different from those of the
input.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
9/17/2001

Example 9.1: Consider the following RC system where the transfer function G(s)
is
R
Y ( s)
1
G ( s)
, RC
R( s)
s 1
r(t)
vc=y(t)
For sinusoidal input, r(t)=Xsint, the steady state response of the system yss(t) is
obtained by letting s= j;
jImG(j)=jX( )
r(t) = Xsint
y(t)
j
G(s)
R(s)
Y(s)
ReG(j)=jR()
1
Y ( j )
s=j
0
s=+j plane
R ( j )
G ( j )
j 1
1
( ) 2 1
y ss (t ) X | G ( j ) | sin(t )
Dr. Ahmet Uar
| G ( j ) |
G ( j1 )
G ( j1 )
tan 1 ( )
=0
1
G(j) plane
Polar Plane
X
( ) 2 1
sin(t tan 1 ( ))
EEE 352 Chapter 9

Example 9.1: The steady state response of an RC circuits, r(t)=Xsint:
1
RC
X, Mag.
0.01
-0.5729
0.1
0.995
-5.7106
0.707
-45.0000
0.4472
-63.4349
0.3162
-71.5651
0.2425
-75.9638
0.1961
-78.6901
0.1644
-80.5377
0.1414
-81.8699
0.124
-82.8750
0.11
-83.6598
10
0.099
-84.2894
100
0.01
-89.4271
y ss (t ) X | G ( j1 ) | sin(1t )
Dr. Ahmet Uar
Y ( j )
R( j ) 1
(0)
1
RC
| G ( j1 ) | , 1
1
RC
1
tan 1 (1)
2
1
450
2
jImG(j)
1
45
G ( j1 )
s=+j plane
ReG(j)
1
2
=0
1=1/RC
G(j) plane
Polar Plane
X
2
sin(1t 450 )
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
9/17/2001

Example 9.1: The steady state response of an RC circuits, r(t)=Xsint:
j
Y ( j )
R( j )
1
1
RC
1
RC
s=+j plane
jImG(j)
1
tan 1 (1)
2
1
450
2
| G ( j1 ) | , 1
ReG(j)
45
1 =0
G ( j1 )
2
1=1/RC
G(j) plane
Polar Plane
X
y ss (t ) X | G ( j1 ) | sin(1t )
sin(1t 450 )
2
From yss(t), it can be seen that for 0, the amplitude of the steady-state
output yss(t) is almost equal to X. The phase shift of the output is small for small
.
The magnitude of output is X|G(j1)|=X/2 and phase (1)=450 at
=1=1/=1/RC.
For , the amplitude of the output is small and almost inversely
proportional to . The phase shift approaches -900 and yss(t)=0 as . This
is a phase-lag network.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
11

Example 9.1: The steady state response of an RC circuits:
r(t) = Xsint
R
r(t)
y(t)
G(s)
R(s)
vc=y(t)
Y(s)
jImG(j)
Y ( j )
R( j ) 1
| G ( j1 ) | , 1
1
RC
1
RC
1
tan 1 (1)
2
1
450
2
s=+j plane
1
45
ReG(j)
1
G ( j1 )
2
=0
1=1/RC
G(j) plane
Polar Plane
Results: The magnitude of the transfer function |G(j)| is almost equal to one
for the range of frequency of 0 1=1/. However it rapidly degreased to
zero for 1=1/ < . Thus the frequency 1=1/ is called corner frequency
fort the simple poles/zeros.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
12
9/17/2001

Presenting Frequency-Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms:
The transfer function G(j) is characterized by its magnitude and phase angle,
with frequency as the parameter.
j
R(j)
Y(j)
Y ( j )
G ( j ) G ( j ) G ( j )
R ( j )
G(j)
G ( j )
s=+j plane
There are three common methods are used study the frequency response of the
systems:
1. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot
2. Nyquist diagram or polar plot
3. Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)
In this lecture Bode diagram of feedback systems will be subject t be studied.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
13
Bode Diagram: Logarithmic Plot

Bode Diagrams or Logarithmic Plots:
Y(j)
Y ( j )
G ( j ) G( j ) G ( j ) G ( j )
R( j )
the other is a plot of the

phase angle in degrees
(deg);
G(j) (deg)
A Bode diagram consists of

two graphs:
One is a plot of the logarithm
of the magnitude in decibels
(dB);
(dB)
G(j)
|G(j)
R(j)
a) 20 log 10 G ( j ) , dB
0
10-2
10-1
100 log10 101
102
103
b) G ( j ), deg
-1800
10-2
10-1
100
log10
101
102
103
Both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale where the base of
the logarithm is 10; log10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
14
9/17/2001

Example 9.2: Bode diagram of an RC circuits:
Y ( j )
1
G ( j )
R( j )
j 1
1
, dB
a) 20 log10 G( j ) 20 log10
( )2 1
1
b) G( j ) tan ( ), deg
1/
b) Angle (0)
-0.5729
0.1
-0.0432
-5.7106
-3.0103
-45.0000
-6.9897
-63.4349
-12.3045
-75.9638
-14.1497
-78.6901
-15.6820
-80.5377
-18.1291
-82.8750
10
-20.0432
-84.2894
100
-40.0004
-89.4271
Dr. Ahmet Uar
|G(j)
a) Mag. (dB)
-0.0004
G(j) (deg)
0.01
(dB)
r(t)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
vc=y(t)
10 1
10 0
10
10 2
10 1
10
00
300
600
900
1200
1500
180 0
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10 2
15

Example 9.2:
1
, dB
Y ( j )
1 a ) 20 log10 G ( j ) 20 log10
G ( j )
( )2 1
R( j )
j 1
b) G( j ) tan 1 ( ), deg
For small frequencies - that is, <<1/ - the logarithmic gain is

20 log10
1
( )2 1
20 log10 1 20 log10 ( ) 2 1 0 20 log10 ( )2 1 0, dB, 1 /
For large frequencies - that is, >>1/ - the logarithmic gain is
20 log10 G ( j ) 20 log10 2 3.01 dB, 1 /
|G(j)
and at =1/ , the logarithmic gain is
(dB)
20 log10 G ( j ) 0 20 log10 ( ) 2 1 20 log10 ( ), dB, 1 /

20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
10 1
10
10 2
The frequency =1/ is often called the break frequency or corner frequency.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
16
9/17/2001

Example 9.2:
|G(j)
(dB)
a decade
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec
10 1
10
10 2
break frequency or corner frequency
Results: An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 10 is called a decade,

so that the range of frequencies from 1 to 2, where 2 = 101, is called a decade.
The magnitude curve has two asymptotes one has 0 dB/decade gain for <<1/ the
other has -20 dB/decade gain for >> 1/.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
17
Bode Diagram of Feedback Control Systems

Bode diagram of feedback systems is obtained from the knowledge of their loop
transfer (open-loop) function frequency response characteristics, G(j)H(j ) to
enables us to investigate both their stability and frequency performances.
R(s)
G(s)
Y (s )
G(s )
, P(s) 1 G (s )H (s)
R(s) 1 G (s) H ( s)
Y(s)
H(s)
Frequency response characteristics of the characteristic equation;

s j , P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
P( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
a ) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
A Bode diagram gives the frequency performance of the closed loop system by
studying the loop transfer function G(j)H(j) only.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
18
9/17/2001

R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
H(s)
G( j ) H ( j ) 1
P ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
a ) 20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800
20 log10 1 0 dB
deg
A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

a) Magnitudes graph; A plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal
loop transfer function G(j)H(j) in the decibel, usually abbreviated dB;
20log10|G(j)H(j)| = 0 (dB)
b) Angle graph; A plot of the phase angle; G(j)H(j) = -1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
19

R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
|G(j )H(j)| (dB)
H(s)
Y ( j )
G( j )
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
a) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
0
P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
10 -2
10-1
100
10 1
102
103
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
a ) 20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
0
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 deg
G(j )H(j ) (deg)
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0 deg
-1800
10-2
10-1
100
10 1
102
103
The magnitude and the phase diagram are plotted against the frequency on a
logarithmic scale where the base of the logarithm is 10; log10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
20
10
9/17/2001
Plotting Bode Diagram

R(s)
P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
Y(s)
G(s)
P ( j ) 0
H(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
a) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
Y ( j )
G( j )
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
Basic Factors of G(j)H(j). The basic factors that very frequently occur in an
arbitrary loop transfer function G(j)H(j) are:
1. Gain K
2. Integral and derivative factors (j) 1
3. First-order factors (1+jT) 1
4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 ) 1
Once the logarithmic plots of these basic factors are well understood, it is
possible to utilize them in constructing a composite logarithmic plot for any
general form of loop transfer function G(j)H(j ) by sketching the curves for
each factor and adding individual curves graphically, because adding the
logarithms of the gains corresponds to multiplying them together.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
21

R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
a ) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
H(s)
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800
1) Gain G(j)H(j) = K, where K > 0

Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 | G( j )G( j ) | 20 log 10 K dB

G ( j ) H ( j ) K 10
20 log10 ( K 10 n ) 20 log 10 K 20n dB

Angle graph;
G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
deg
Mag. (dB)
0.01
-40
0.1
-20
6.02
12.04
13.97
15.56
18.06
10
20
100
40
22
11
9/17/2001

R(s)
1) Gain G(j)H(j) = K, where K > 0

G ( j ) H ( j ) K00
G( s ) H ( s ) K
Y(s)
G(s)
H(s)
Magnitudes graph; G ( j ) H ( j ) K
40
Mag. (dB)
0.01
-40
0.1
-20
6.02
12.04
13.97
15.56
18.06
10
20
100
40
K=10
Magnitude (dB)
octave
20
K=0
0
-20
decade
K=0.1
K=0.01
-40
10-1
101 (rad/sec) 102
100
Angle graph; G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
Phase(deg)
0
octave
-45
-90
decade
-135
-180 -1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
100
101 (rad/sec) 102
EEE 352 Chapter 9
23

R(s)
G(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
Y(s)
a ) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
H(s)
2. Integral factors G(j)H(j) = (j) -1

G( s ) H ( s )
1
s
G ( j ) H ( j )
b) G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800
deg
1
j 1
2 900
Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10
1
1
20 log10 20 log10 1 20 log10 ,
j
20 log 10 1 0 dB
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10
The slope of the line is
( 20 log10 ) 20 dB / decade
log10
Angle graph;
G ( j ) H ( j ) 90 0
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
24
12
9/17/2001

2. Integral factors G(j)H(j) = (j) -1
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10
Mag. (dB)
Angle
(deg)
0.01
40
-900
0.1
20
-6.02
-12.04
-13.97
-15.56
-18.06
10
-20
100
-40
( 20 log10 ) 20 dB / decade
log10
20
0
-20 dB/dec
octave
-20
decade
-40 -2
10
10
-1
10
10
G ( j ) H ( j ) 90
Angle graph;
(rad/sec) 10
Phase(deg)
Magnitude (dB)
40
-45
-90
octave
-135
decade
-180 -2
10
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-1
10
10
(rad/sec) 10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
25

2. n Integral factors (j)-n
1
G( s ) H ( s ) n
s
R(s)
G ( j ) H ( j )
90
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
20
log
G
(
j
)
H
(
j
20
log
1
n
20
log
n 20 log10 dB
Magnitudes graph;
10
10
10
60

(| G ( j ) H ( j ) |)
n 20 dB / decade
log 10
40
The magnitude curves will

pass through the point
(0 dB, = 1).
20
Angle graph;
n=3
Magnitude(dB)
n=2
-60 dB/dec
-40 dB/dec
decade
n=1
0
octave
-20 dB/dec
-20
G ( j ) H ( j ) n900
-40
The phase angle of (j)-n is

equal to -n900 over the
entire frequency range.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-60
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
26
13
9/17/2001

2. Derivative factors (j)n
n 1; G ( s ) H ( s) s
G ( j ) H ( j ) 900
Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 j 20 log10
Mag (dB)
-40
0.1
-20
6.02
12.04
13.97
15.56
18.06
10
20
100
40
Y(s)
G(s)
H(s)
(20 log10 ) 20 dB / decade

log10
40
Magnitude(dB)
0.01
R(s)
20 dB/dec
20
octave
0
-20
decade
-40 -2
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
Angle graph; n 1; G ( j ) H ( j ) 900

The phase angle of (j) is equal to 900 over the
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
27

2. Derivative factors (j)n
n; G ( s ) H ( s) s
R(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) nn90
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) n 20 log10 dB

60
The magnitude curves will

pass through the point
(0 dB, = 1).
Angle graph;
G ( j ) H ( j ) n900
The phase angle of (j)n is

equal to n900 over the
Dr. Ahmet Uar
decade
40
20
Magnitude(dB)
(| G ( j ) H ( j ) |)
n20 dB / decade
log10
n=1
-20
n=2
octave
-40
n=3
-60 -1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
28
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9/17/2001

3. First-order factors (1+j)-n , Simple pole with negative real axes. (Phase Lag)
R(s)
Y(s)
1
G(s)
n 1, 1, G( s ) H ( s )
s 1
Figure 1:
H(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) G ( j ) H ( j ) G ( j ) H ( j
( ) 2 1
tan ( )
Magnitudes graph; 20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 1 20 log 10 1 2 dB

For low frequencies, such that << 1/ (corner frequency), the log magnitude may
be approximated by
G( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 ( )2 dB 20 log1 0 dB The slope is 0 dB/decade
For high frequencies, such that >> 1/ (corner frequency),
G( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 ( ) 2 dB 20 log( ) dB
The slope is -20 dB/decade
Results: At = 1/ , the log magnitude equals 0 dB; at = 10/, the log

magnitude is -20 dB. Thus, the value of -20 log dB decreases by 20 dB for
every decade of . For >>1/, the log-magnitude curve is thus a straight line
with a slope of -20 dB/decade (or -6 dB/octave).
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
29

n 1, 1, G ( j ) H ( j )
3. First-order factors (1+j)-1
1
j 1
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 20 log10 1 2 dB
1/
Mag. (dB)
The maximum error occurs at the

corner frequency 1/ and is
approximately equal to -3 dB.
Angle (0)
0.01
-0.0004
-0.5729
0.1
-0.0432
-5.7106
-3.0103
-45.0000
-6.9897
-63.4349
-12.3045
-75.9638
-14.1497
-78.6901
-15.6820
-80.5377
-18.1291
-82.8750
10
-20.0432
-84.2894
100
-40.0004
-89.4271
Magnitude(dB)
G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 ( )
0
-5
0 dB/dacade
<<1/
-10
1/
>>1/
-20 dB/decade
-15
-20 -1
10
0
Phase(deg)
Angle graph;
10
10
-20
-40
-60
-80
-1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
30
15
9/17/2001

n 1, G ( j ) H ( j )
3. First-order factors (1+j)-1
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j) H ( j) 20 log10 1 20 log10
1
j 1
1 ( )2 dB
G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 ( )
Angle graph;
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
31

3. First-order factors (1+j)n , Simple pole with negative real axes. (Phase Lead)
n 1, 1, G ( j ) H ( j ) j 1
G ( j ) H ( j ) G ( j ) H ( j ) G ( j ) H ( j )
2
R(s)
Figure 1:
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
( ) 1 tan ( )
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 2

For low frequencies, such that << 1/ (corner frequency), the log magnitude may
be approximated by
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 ( ) 2 dB 20 log 1 0 dB The slope is 0 dB/decade
For high frequencies, such that >> 1/ (corner frequency),
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 ( ) 2 dB 20 log( ) dB The slope is 20 dB/decade
Results: At = 1/ , the log magnitude equals 0 dB; at = 10/ , the log

magnitude is 20 dB. Thus, the value of 20 log dB increases by 20 dB for
every decade of . For >>1/, the log-magnitude curve is thus a straight line
with a slope of 20 dB/decade (or 6 dB/octave).
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
32
16
9/17/2001

3. First-order factors (1+j)n
1/
Mag. (dB)
G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 ( )
Angle (0)
0.01
0.0004
0.5729
0.1
0.0432
5.7106
3.0103
45.0000
6.9897
63.4349
12.3045
75.9638
14.1497
78.6901
15.6820
80.5377
18.1291
82.8750
10
20.0432
84.2894
100
40.0004
89.4271
G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 1 3 dB
Magnitude(dB)
Angle graph;
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 20 log10 1 2 dB
20
20 dB/dacade
10
>>1/
0
10
0 dB/dacade
10
10
80
60
40
20
0 -1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
1/
<<1/
-1
Phase(deg)
Magnitudes graph;
n 1, 1, G( j ) H ( j ) j 1
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
33

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/ n) + (j/ n)2 ) -1, Complex conjugate poles with
negative real axes. (Phase Lag)
R(s)
n2
G (s ) H (s ) 2
s 2 n s 2 n2
G(s)
Figure 1:
Y(s)
H(s)
n
1
G ( j ) H ( j )
( j ) 2 2n ( j ) n2 ( j ) 2
( j )
2
1
n2
n
and lim G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 1800
lim G ( j ) H ( j ) 100
0
Magnitudes graph; G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 20 log10 (1
2 2
2
) (2
)
2
n
n
For low frequencies, such that << n(natural frequency), the log magnitude may
be approximated by
n G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 1 0
The slope is 0 dB/decade
For high frequencies, such that >> (corner frequency),

n G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
40 log 10
n2
n
EEE 352 Chapter 9
The slope is -40 dB/decade

34
17
9/17/2001

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 )-1, (Phase Lag)
G ( j ) H ( j )
1
( j ) 2
n2
lim G ( j ) H ( j ) 100
Magnitudes graph;
R(s)
( j )
G(s)
Figure 1:
Y(s)
H(s)
and lim G( j ) H ( j) 0 1800

G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 1 20 log10 (1
2 2
2
) ( 2
)
2
n
n
For << n(natural frequency), the low-frequency asymptote is thus a horizontal

line at 0 dB.
n G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 1 0
For >> n(natural frequency), asymptote is a straight line having the slop -40
2
dB/decade
n G( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 2 40 log10
n
n
The high-frequency asymptote intersects the low-frequency one at = n (natural
frequency), since at this frequency
n G ( j ) H ( j ) 40 log 10
40 log 10 1 0 dB
n
Angle graph; G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 2 /(1 )

2

n
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
35

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 ) -1, (Phase Lag)
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 (1
2 2
2
) (2
)
2
n
n
2
/(1 2 )
G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 2
n
n
Angle graph;
Natural
(rad/s) |G(j)| (dB)
frequency
0.01
0.0004
n=1
0.1
0.0432
1
2
4
5
6
8
10
100
1.1094
-11.14
-23.82
-27.78
-31.01
-36.06
-39.95
-79.99
G(j)
-0.57
-5.76
-33.69
-146.30
-165.06
-168.23
-170.27
-172.76
-174.23
-179.42
0 dB/d
-30
-40 dB/d
>> n
-40
-1
10
10
10
0
-50
-100
-150
-1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
= n
<< n
-20
Phase(deg)
(=0.5) (n=1)
Magnitude(dB)
0
-10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
36
18
9/17/2001

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 ) -1, (Phase Lag) for a range of 0 < < 1.
Note that the optimum value of = 0.707.
10
Magnitude(dB)
G ( j ) H ( j )
2
20 log10 (1
2
2
) ( 2
)
n
n2
( = 0.1)
( = 0.2)
( = 1)
-10
-20
G( j ) H ( j )
n
tan 1
2
(1 2 )
n
Phase(deg)
(n= 1)
-30
-40 -1
10
10
10
-50
-100
-150
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
37

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 ) -1, (Phase Lag)
2
Magnitudes graph; 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 (1 ) 2 (2 ) 2
2

/(1 2 )
G( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 2
Angle graph;
At the natural frequency = n
G ( jn ) H ( jn ) 1 /( j 2 )
and | G( j n ) H ( jn ) | 1 /( j 2 )
The two asymptotes just derived are independent of the value of damping ratio .
Near the frequency =n, a resonant peak occurs. The damping ratio
determines the magnitude of this resonant peak.
Errors obviously exist in the approximation by straight-line asymptotes. The
magnitude of the error depends on the value of . It is large for small values of .
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
38
19
9/17/2001

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 )-1, (Phase Lag) for a range of 0 < < 1.
Note that the optimum value of = 0.707.
(n= 1)
10
( = 0.1)
( = 0.2)
Magnitude (dB)
( = 1)
-10
-20
G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 (1
-30
2 2
2
) ( 2
)
n2
n
-40
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
Figure shows exact log-magnitude curves, together with the straight-line

asymptotes and the exact phase-angle curves for the quadratic factor with
several values of .
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
39

4. Quadratic factors (1+ j 2 (j/n) + (j/n)2 ) -1, (Phase Lag) for a range of 0 < < 1.
0
( = 0.1)
Phase(deg)
(n= 1)
( = 0.2)
-50
( = 1)
-100
2
n
G( j ) H ( j ) tan
2
(1 2 )
n
-150
10
-1
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
The phase angle is a function of both o and . At = 0, the phase angle equals 00.
At the corner frequency = n, the phase angle is -90" regardless of , since
2
1
0
G( j ) H ( j ) tan 1
tan 90
0
At = , the phase angle becomes -1800. The phase-angle curve is skew symmetric
about the inflection point-the point where = -90. There are no simple ways to
sketch such phase curves. We need to refer to the phase-angle curves shown in
above Figure.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
40
20
9/17/2001
General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

R(s)
Characteristic equation;
E(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
Plant
P( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
Magnitudes graph;
(1) 20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
Angle graph;
(2) G( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
Sensors
H(s)
1) First rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(j)H(j) as a product of basic

factors discussed above.
2) Then identify the corner frequencies for first order factors of zeros/poles and
natural frequencies for quadratic factors of zeros/poles.
3) Finally, draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves, |G(j)H(j)| with proper
slopes between the corner frequencies and natural frequencies with the damping
demping ratio. The exact curve, which lies close to the asymptotic curve, can be
obtained by adding proper corrections.
4) The phase-angle curve of G(j)H(j) can be drawn by adding the phase-angle
curves of individual factors.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
41
General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

R(s)
E(s)
P ( j ) 0
G(s)
Y(s)
Plant
1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
H(s)
Sensors
Magnitudes graph; (1) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB

Angle graph;
(2) G( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
The use of Bode diagrams employing asymptotic approximations requires much

less time than other methods that may be used for computing the frequency
response of a transfer function.
The ease of plotting the frequency-response curves for a given transfer function
and the ease of modification of the frequency-response curve as compensation is
added are the main reasons why Bode diagrams are very frequently used in
practice.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
42
21
9/17/2001

Example 9.3: Plot the Bode diagram of following system.
R(s)
U(s)
Gc(s)
G(s)
Controller
E(s)
Y(s)
Gc ( s) 5, H ( s) 1
G (s )
H(s)
Y (s )
Gc ( s)G ( s)
R( s ) 1 Gc ( s )G ( s ) H ( s)
Solution 9.3: The system transfer function;

The characteristic equation;
The loop transfer function;
2
s 3 3s 2 2 s
P( s ) 1 Gc ( s)G( s) H ( s )
Gc ( s) H ( s)G( s)
10
s( s 1)(s 2)
There is no zeros of Gc(j)G(j)H(j)

The corner frequency of the simple poles of Gc(j)G(j)H(j) are; = 1 ve = 2 rad/sec
Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 Gc ( j )G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 10
(20 log10 20 log10 2 12 20 log10 ( ) 2 22 )
Angle graph;Gc ( j )G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 (900 tan 1 tan 1 ( ))

2
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
43

Solution 9.3:
Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 Gc ( j )G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 10 (20 log10 20 log10 2 12 20 log10 ( ) 2 22 )
Angle graph;
Bode Diagram
G1 ( j ) H ( j )
100
Mag. (dB)
Angle (0)
10-3
10-2
10-1
10-0
2
101
102
73
53
33.5
10
-2.04
-40.2
-100
-90
-90.8
-98.57
-161.56
-198.4
-252.9
-268.28
53
50
10
0
-2
-20 dB/dec
-40 dB/dec
=1 =2
-60 dB/dec
-50
-100
-150
-90
-90.8
Phase (deg)
Magnitude (dB)
0 (900 tan 1 tan 1 ( ))

2
-135
-161.5
-180
-198.4
-225
-270
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-2
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
-1
10
(rad/sec)
10
10
44
22
9/17/2001

Example 9.4: Plot the Bode diagram of the following system.
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
G ( s)
10( s 20)
s (s 2)( s 2 s 200)
Solution 9.4; The loop transfer function;

G ( j )
10( j 20)
10( j 20)
j ( j 2)(( j )2 j 200) j ( j 2)(200 2 j )
The zero of G(j) is =20 rad/sec

The corner frequency of the simple pole of G(s) is = 2 rad/sec and
the natural frequency of the second order pole is n 13 rad/sec
s-dz.
d 14.13
n13
cos 87
Magnitudes graph;
0.038
2
20 log10 G( j ) 20 log10 10 20 log10 20
= 87
n 0.5
[20 log10 20 log10 2 2 2 20 log10 (200 2 ) 2 2 ] dB
Angle graph;
G ( j ) 0 tan 1
20
(900 tan 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
tan 1
200 2
EEE 352 Chapter 9
45

Solution 9.4:
G ( s)
10( s 20)
s (s 2)( s 2 s 200)
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
Magnitudes graph;
20 log10 G ( j ) 20 log10 10 20 log10 20 2 2
[20 log10 20 log10 2 2 2 20 log10 (200 2 ) 2 2 ] dB
Angle graph;
G ( j ) 0 tan 1
20
(90 0 tan 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
Mag. (dB)
tan 1
200 2
Angle (0)
0.1
13.96
-92.60
-14.83
-129.87
13
-27.6
-161
20
-49.11
-123.57
200
-117.97
-274.84
EEE 352 Chapter 9
46
23
9/17/2001

Solution 9.4:
50
-20 dB/dec
Magnitude(dB)
-40 dB/dec
=13
=20
-100
R(s)
G(s)
-150
-200 -1
10
10( s 20)
s (s 2)( s 2 s 200)
-80 dB/dec
=2
-50
G ( s)
-60 dB/dec
Y(s)
10
10
10
10
Phase(deg)
-100
-180
-200
-300
-400 -1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
47
Plotting Bode Diagram: Homework

Homework 9.1: Consider the system shown in Figure where system blocks
transfer function are;
G ( s)
K
, H ( s) 1
s( s 1)( s 20)
R(s)
E(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
a) Plot Bode diagram for K=5.

b) Plot Bode diagram for K=50.
c) Compare the results of (a) and (b).
G (s )
K ( s 5)
, H ( s) 1
s (s 1)( s 20)
a) Plot Bode diagram for K=5.

b) Plot Bode diagram for K=50.
c) Compare the results of (a) and (b).
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
R(s)
E(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
48
24
9/17/2001
Plotting Bode Diagram: MATLAB

R(s)
P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
0
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
E(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
Plant
Sensors
H(s)
Magnitudes graph; (1) 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
(2) G( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
Angle graph;
bode(sys) draws the Bode plot of the LTI model SYS (created with either TF, ZPK, SS, or
FRD).
G ( j ) H ( j )
x Ax Bu
y Cx Du
Dr. Ahmet Uar
bode(sys )
Transfer function model

sys = tf(num,den)
State-space model
sys = ss(A,B,C,D)
bode(sys )
EEE 352 Chapter 9
49

G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
E(s)
(2) G( j ) H ( j ) 1800 deg
Y(s)
Plant
Magnitudes graph; (1) 20 log G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB

10
Angle graph;
G(s)
Sensors
H(s)
bode(sys,{wmin,wmax}) draws the Bode plot for frequencies between WMIN and
WMAX (in radians/second).
bode(sys1,sys2,...,w) graphs the Bode response of multiple LTI models SYS1,SYS2,... on
a single plot.
bode(sys1,'r',sys2,'y--',sys3,'gx')
[mag,phase] = bode(sys,w) and [mag,phase,w] = bode(sys) return the response
magnitudes and phases in degrees (along with the frequency vector W if unspecified). No
plot is drawn on the screen. mag(:,:,k) and phase(:,:,k) determine the response at the
frequency w(k).
To get the magnitudes in dB,
type magdb = 20*log10(mag).
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
50
25
9/17/2001

Example 9.5: The block diagram of a disk drive head position control, including
effect of flexure head mount where the blocks dynamics are given in equations
(1). Use Matlab to plot Bode diagram of the system for the control gain K=400.
R(s)
E(s)
PD Control
U(s)
Motor coil
Arm
Flexure and head
G1(s)
G2(s)
G3(s)
Gc(s)
Y(s)
Sensor
H(s)
G c ( s ) K ( s 1),
5
5000
(10 3 s 1) ( s 1000 )
0 . 05
1
G2 ( s )
s ( 0 . 05 s 1) s ( s 20 )
G1 ( s )
G3 ( s )
(1)
n2
18850 2
2
2
( s 2 n s n ) ( s 11310 s 18850 2 )
2
H ( s) 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
51

Solution 9.5: R(s)
E(s)
PD Control
Gc(s)
U(s)
Motor coil
Arm
Flexure and head
G1(s)
G2(s)
G3(s)
Y(s)
Sensor
H(s)
The characteristic equation of the feedback system and the loop transfer function
for the control gain K=400 are;
P( j ) 1 Gc ( j )G1 ( j )G2 ( j )G3 ( j )

0
(1) 20 log10 Gc ( j )G1 ( j )G2 ( j )G3 ( j ) 0 dB

(2) Gc ( j )G1 ( j )G2 ( j )G3 ( j ) 1800 deg
G c ( s ) G1 ( s ) G 2 ( s ) G 3 ( s ) H ( s )
Dr. Ahmet Uar
400 * 5000 * 18850 2 * ( s 1)

s ( s 20 )( s 1000 )( s 2 11310 s 18850 2 )
EEE 352 Chapter 9
52
26
9/17/2001

Solution 9.5:
R(s)
E(s)
PD Control
U(s)
Gc(s)
Motor coil
Arm
Flexure and head
G1(s)
G2(s)
G3(s)
Y(s)
Sensor
H(s)
G c ( s )G1 ( s )G 2 ( s )G 3 ( s ) H ( s )
400 * 5000 * 18850 2 * ( s 1)

s ( s 20 )( s 1000 )( s 2 11310 s 18850 2 )
M-file to plot Bode diagram

clear all
num=400*5000*18850^2*[1 1];
den=conv(conv([1 0],[1 20]),conv([1 1000],[1
11310 18850^2]));
sys=tf(num,den);
bode(sys)
grid
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
53

Example 9.5: R(s)
E(s)
PD Control
U(s)
Motor coil
Arm
Flexure and head
G1(s)
G2(s)
G3(s)
Gc(s)
Y(s)
G c ( s ) K ( s 1),
1
5000
( s 1000 )
1 3
G2 ( s )
s ( s 20 )
50
G1 ( s )
18850 2
2
( s 11310 s 18850 2 )
4
H ( s) 1
Magnitude (dB)
-20 dB/d
-20 dB/d
0 dB/d
1 = 1
2 = 20
-40 dB/d
3 = 1000
-50
G3 ( s )
-80 dB/d
n = 18850
Phase (deg)
-100
0
-90
-180
-270
-360
-1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
54
27
9/17/2001

Example 9.5:
Disk drive head position control, including effect of flexure head mount, K=400.
G c ( s ) G1 ( s ) G 2 ( s ) G 3 ( s )
400 * 500 * ( s 1) * 18850 2

s ( s 100 )( s 20 )( s 2 11310 s 18850 2 )
2001 by Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
55
-20 dB/decade
0 dB/decade
Phase(deg)
Magnitude(dB)
Example 9.6: Use Matlab to plot Bode diagram of the following system.
R(s)
E(s)
Y(s)
( s 20)
G(s)
G ( s) H ( s )
Plant
( s 1)(s 200)
num=[1 20];
H(s)
Sensors
den=conv([1 1],[1 200]);
-20
sys=tf(num,den);
w=logspace(-1,2);
-40
[mag,phase]=bode(sys,w);
0 dB/decade
-60
magd=20*log10(mag);
-20 dB/decade
-80 -1
subplot(2,1,1),
0
1
2
3
10
10
10
10
10
semilogx(w,magd(1,:)),
0
grid
-20
ylabel('Magnitude(dB)')
-40
subplot(2,1,2),
-60
semilogx(w,phase(1,:)),
-80 -1
grid
0
1
2
3
10
10
10
10
10
ylabel('Phase(deg)'),
Frequency (rad/sec)
xlabel('Frequency (rad/sec)')
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
56
28
9/17/2001
Advantages of Using Bode Diagram

R(s)
G(s)
H(s)
Y(s)
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
a ) 20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 dB
b ) G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0 deg
The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication factors in
numerator of G(j)H(j ) are converted to addition and in denominator of
G(j)H(j) are converted to subtraction factors.
5( s 5)
5( j 5)
, s j , G ( j ) H ( j )
j ( j 1)( j 10)
s ( s 1)(s 10)
Magnitudes graph;
G ( s ) H ( s)
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | 20 log10 5 20 log10 2 52

20 log10 20 log10 2 1 20 log10 2 10 2
Angle graph;
G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 tan 1 ( / 5) 900 tan 1 ( ) tan 1 ( / 10)

Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
57
Advantages of Using Bode Diagram

A simple method based on asymptotic approximations for sketching an
approximate magnitudes graph (log-magnitude) curve is available. Such
approximation by straight line asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on
the frequency-response characteristics is needed. Should the exact curve be desired,
corrections can be made easily to these basic asymptotic plots.
Expanding the low frequency range by use of a logarithmic scale for the
frequency is highly advantageous since characteristics at low frequencies are most
important in practical systems. Although it is not possible to plot the curves right
down to zero frequency because of the logarithmic frequency (log 0 = -), this
does not create a serious problem.
The experimental determination of a transfer function can be made simple if
frequency response data are presented in the form of a Bode diagram.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
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Bode Diagram of Minimum and Nonminimum Phase Systems

Minimum-Phase Systems and Nonminimum-Phase Systems.
Transfer functions having neither poles nor zeros in the right-half s= j
complex plane are minimum-phase transfer functions, whereas those having poles
and/or zeros in the right-half s plane are nonminimum-phase transfer functions.
Systems with minimum-phase transfer functions are called minimum-phase systems,
whereas those with nonminimum-phase transfer functions are called nonminirnumphase systems.
For systems with the same magnitude characteristic, the range in phase angle of the
minimum-phase transfer function is minimum among all such systems, while the
range in phase angle of any nonminimum-phase transfer function is greater than this
minimum.
It is noted that for a minimum-phase system, the transfer function can be uniquely
determined from the magnitude curve alone. For a nonminimum-phase system, this
is not the case.
Multiplying any transfer function by all-pass filters does not alter the magnitude
curve, but the phase curve is changed.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
59
Bode Diagram of Minimum and Nonminimum Phase

Systems
Minimum-Phase Systems and Nonminimum-Phase Systems.
Nonminimum-phase situations may arise in two different ways. One is simply
when a system includes a nonminimum-phase element or elements. The other
situation may arise in the case where a minor loop is unstable.
For a minimum-phase system, the phase angle at = becomes -90(n- m), where
m and n are the degrees of the numerator and denominator polynomials of the
transfer function, respectively.
Minimum-Phase Systems
The magnitude graph satisfies 20log10G(j) = -20(n-m) dB/decade for
The angle graph satisfies G(j) =
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-900(n-m)
for
EEE 352 Chapter 9
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Bode Diagrams of Minimum-Phase Systems

Example 9.7; The following system has minimum phase loop transfer function,
G(j)H(j);
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
G ( s) H ( s)
1
1
G ( j ) H ( j )
s (s 1)
j ( j 1)
H(s)
Bode Diagram
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-90
Magnitude (dB)
G(j)H(j); has n =2 poles and no zeros

1
j ( j 1)
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20( 2 0) dB / d
G ( j ) H ( j )
40 dB / d
900 ( 2 0)
1800
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20( n m) dB / d
G ( j ) H ( j ) i j
i 1
Phase (deg)
lim G ( j ) H ( j ) 900 ( n m)
-40 dB/d
-135
-1800
-180
-1
10
j 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
EEE 352 Chapter 9
61
Bode Diagrams of Minimum-Phase Systems

G(j)H(j);
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
G (s ) H (s ) s (s 1)
G ( j ) H ( j ) j ( j 1)
H(s)
Bode Diagram
G(j)H(j); has n = 0 poles and m =2 zeros
40 dB / d
Magnitude (dB)
G( j ) H ( j ) j ( j 1)
lim 20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) 20(0 2) dB / d
100
40 dB/d
50
lim G( j ) H ( j ) 900 (n m)
900 (0 2)
1800
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20( n m) dB / d
G ( j ) H ( j ) i j
i 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
j 1
Phase (deg)
180
1800
135
90
-1
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
62
31
9/17/2001
Bode Diagram of Minimum Phase Systems

G(j)H(j);
R(s)
G(s)
50( s 2)
s ( s 1)( s 5)( s 10)
( j 2)
,
G ( j ) H ( j )
j ( j 1)( j 5)( j 10)
Y(s)
G (s)H (s)
H(s)
G(j)H(j); has n =4 poles and m = 1 a zero
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) 20( n m) 20( 4 1) dB / d
60 dB / d
lim G ( j ) 90 0 ( n m) 900 ( 4 1)
270 0
lim 20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20( n m) dB / d
G ( j ) H ( j ) i j
i 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
j 1
EEE 352 Chapter 9
63

G(j)H(j);
Bode Diagram
50
Y(s)
H(s)
G ( s ) H ( s)
50( s 2)
s ( s 1)( s 5)( s 10)
lim 20 log10 G( j ) 20(n m) dB / d
60 dB / d
0
lim G( j ) 90 ( n m)
270
Magnitude (dB)
G(s)
-50
-100
-90
Phase (deg)
R(s)
-135
-180
-225
-270
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
64
32
9/17/2001

Nonminimum Phase Systems: Nonminimum-phase situations may arise in two
different ways. One is simply when a system includes a nonminimum-phase
element or elements. The other situation may arise in the case where a minor loop
is unstable.
For a nonminimum-phase system, the slope of the log-magnitude curve at = is
equal to -20(nm) dB/d.
But the phase angle at = differs from -90(n-m).
Nonminimum Phase Systems
The magnitude graph satisfies 20log10G(j) = -20(n-m) dB/decade for
The angle graph does not satisfy G(j) =
-900(n-m)
for
Results: To detect whether the system is minimum phase is necessary to examine

both the slope of the high-frequency asymptote of the log-magnitude curve and the
phase angle at = .
If the slope of the log-magnitude curve as approaches infinity is -20(n - m) dB/d
and the phase angle at = is equal to -90(n - m), then the system is minimum
phase.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
65
Bode Diagram of Nonminimum Phase Systems

Example 9.10; Consider the feedback system given in the Figure. The loop transfer
R(s)
Y(s)
function is given in (1) where 0<T<T1.
G(s)
( Ts 1)
(1)
(T1s 1)
H(s)
0
1
T1
Magnitude(dB)
1
T
s-plane
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20(n m) dB / d
0 dB/d
-30
j 1
-50
Results: The system is nonminimum

phase system.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-20 dB/d
-20
10
1
1
T1
10
10
G ( j ) H ( j ) i j 1 1
i 1
0 dB/d
-10
-40
-1
10
Phase(deg)
G( s ) H ( s )
10
1
50
T
-100
-150
-200
-1
EEE 352 Chapter 9 10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
66 10
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9/17/2001

Example 9.11; Consider the feedback system given in the Figure. The loop transfer
R(s)
Y(s)
function is given in (1) where 0<T<T1.
G(s)
(Ts 1)
(T1s 1)
H(s)
(1)
0
Magnitude(dB)
G( s) H ( s)
1
1
1
T
1
T1
0 dB/d
-30
s-plane
lim G ( j ) H ( j ) 90(n m) 0
Phase(deg)
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1 1 ,
10
1
1
T1
10
1
50
T
10
-20
-40
-60
-80
-1
10
10
Results: The system is minimum phase system.

Dr. Ahmet Uar
10
-20 dB/d
-20
-40
-1
10
lim 20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) 20(n m) dB / d
0 dB/d
-10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
67

Example 9.11; Consider the feedback system given in the Figure. The loop
Y(s)
transfer function is given in (1). R(s)
G(s)
G( s) H ( s)
20
s( s 2)
H(s)
j
Magnitude (dB)
s-dzlemi
0
-20
-40
lim 20 log10 G ( j ) 20( 2 0) dB / d
-60
0
40 dB / d
Phase (deg)
lim G( j ) 90 (2 0)
180 0
Results: The system is nonminimum

phase system.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
20
1
1
Bode Diagram
40
-45
-90
EEE 352 Chapter 9
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
68
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Bode Diagrams: Relative Stability

In designing a control system, we require that the system be stable. Furthermore, it
is necessary that the system have adequate relative stability.
One of the important problems in analyzing a control system is to find all closedloop poles or at least those closest to the j axis (or the dominant pair of closedloop poles).
If the open-loop frequency-response characteristics of a system are known, it may
be possible to estimate the closed-loop poles closest to j axis.
Although the stability of closed loop systems are usually studied with Nyquist
stability criterion, however, Bode diagram can effectively be used.
Y (s )
G (s )
,
R ( s ) 1 G ( s) H ( s )
P ( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s) 0
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
H(s)
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1
(2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1800
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 0 dB
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
69

R(s)
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Y (s)
G( s)
, P ( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s )
R ( s ) 1 G (s ) H ( s )
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1
G(s)
H(s)
gc
GM
| G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | gc 180 0
Y(s)
log
PM
-1800
pc
log
Phase and Gain Margins.

In general, the closer the Magnitude and angle graphs of the loop transfer function
G(j)H(j ) to 1 (0 dB) and -1800 respectively, the more oscillatory is the system
response. The closeness of the Magnitude graph of the loop transfer function,
|G(j)H(j )| to the reference point 1 (0 dB) and the angle graph =G(j)H(j ) to
the reference point -1800 can be used as a measure of the margin of the stability.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
70
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P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
(1) | G( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1800
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
H(s)
gc
GM
log
PM
-1800
pc
log
The gain crossover frequency, gc, is the frequency at which |G(j)H(j )|, the
magnitude of the open loop transfer function, is unity.
The phase margin PM is 1800 plus the phase angle = G(j)H(j ) of the openloop transfer function at the gain crossover frequency, gc, or
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
71

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
(1) | G( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | 1800
Y(s)
H(s)
gc
PM 180 G ( j gc ) H ( j gc )
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Phase Margin: The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift
required to make a closed loop system unstable.
The phase margin is that amount of additional phase lag at the gain crossover
frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability.
The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg
at the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain
cross over frequency, gc).
0
gc
GM
log
PM
-1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
pc
log
72
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9/17/2001

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
(1) | G( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | 1800
Y(s)
H(s)
gc
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Phase Margin:
Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB
at the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the
phase cross over frequency, gc).
gc
GM
PM 180 G ( j gc ) H ( j gc )
log
PM
-1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
pc
log
EEE 352 Chapter 9
73

Figures illustrate the phase margin of both a stable system and an unstable system
in Bode diagrams.
The phase margin is positive for PM >0 and negative for PM<0. For a minimum
phase system to be stable, the phase margin must be positive.
In the Bode diagram, the critical point, j axis, in the complex plane corresponds
to the 0 dB and -180" lines.
gc
GM
log
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
PM 180 G( j gc ) H ( j gc )
PM
-1800
pc
log
Figure 1: The stable system

Dr. Ahmet Uar
-1800
-GM
gc
log
pc
PM
log
Figure 2: The unstable system

EEE 352 Chapter 9
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9/17/2001

R(s)
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Y (s)
G( s)
, P ( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s )
R ( s ) 1 G (s ) H ( s )
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1
| G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
Y(s)
G(s)
H(s)
gc
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | gc 180 0
log
GM
PM
-1800
pc
log
Gain Margin: The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain
required to make the system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can
withstand greater changes in system parameters before becoming unstable in
closed loop.
Keep in mind that unity gain in magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in dB.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
75

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
(1) | G( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
( 2) G( j ) H ( j ) | 1800
Y(s)
H(s)
gc
Gain margin: The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude |G(j)H(j)| at the
frequency, pc, at which the phase angle is -1800.
Defining the phase crossover frequency pc, to be the frequency at which the phase
angle of the open-loop transfer function equals -1800 gives the gain margin Kg:
1
| G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) |
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Kg
In terms of decibels,
gc
GM
log
GM 20 log K g
20 | G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) |
Dr. Ahmet Uar
PM
-1800
EEE 352 Chapter 9
pc
log
76
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9/17/2001
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
The gain margin expressed in decibels is positive if Kg is greater than unity and
negative if Kg is smaller than unity. Thus, a positive gain margin (in decibels)
PM>0 means that the system is stable, and a negative gain margin (in decibels)
PM<0 means that the system is unstable. The gain margin is shown in Figures
illustrate the phase margin of both a stable system and an unstable system in Bode
diagrams.
GM 20 log K g 20 | G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) |
gc
-180 0
pc
log
Figure 1: The stable system,

gc < pc
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-GM
gc
log
log
GM
PM
-1800
pc
PM
log
Figure 1: The unstable system

gc > pc
EEE 352 Chapter 9
77

For a stable minimum-phase system, the gain margin indicates how much the gain
can be increased before the system becomes unstable.
For an unstable system, the gain margin is indicative of how much the gain must
be decreased to make the system stable.
The gain margin of a first or second order system is infinite since the Bode
diagrams for such systems do not cross the reference points 0 dB and -1800
degrees.
Thus, theoretically, first- or second order systems cannot be unstable.
Comments:
The phase and gain margins of a control system are a measure of the closeness of
the Bode diagrams to the reference point 0 dB and -1800.
Therefore, these margins may be used as design criteria. It should be noted that
either the gain margin alone or the phase margin alone does not give a sufficient
indication of the relative stability. Both should be given in the determination of
relative stability.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
78
39
9/17/2001

Comments:
For a minimum-phase system, both the phase and gain margins must be positive
for the system to be stable. Negative margins indicate instability.
Proper phase and gain margins ensure us against variations in the system
components and are specified for definite positive values. The two values bound
the behavior of the closed-loop system near the resonant frequency.
For satisfactory performance, the phase margin should be between 300 and 60,
300<PM< 60, and the gain margin should be greater than 6 dB, GM>6 dB.
With these values, a minimum-phase system has guaranteed stability, even if the
open loop gain and time constants of the components vary to a certain extent.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
79

Transient response performance:
Although the phase and gain margins give only rough estimates of the effective
damping ratio of the closed-loop system, they do offer a convenient means for
designing control systems or adjusting the gain constants of systems.
For minimum-phase systems, the magnitude and phase characteristics of the open
loop transfer function are definitely related.
The requirement that the phase margin be 300<PM< 60 means that in a Bode
diagram the slope of the log magnitude curve at the gain crossover frequency, gc
should be more gradual than -40 dB/decade.
In most practical cases, a slope of -20 dB/decade is desirable at the gain crossover
frequency, gc, for stability. If it is -40 dB/decade the systems could be either
stable or unstable. (Even if the system is stable, however, the phase margin is
small.) If the slope at the gain crossover frequency is -60 or steeper, the system is
most likely unstable.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
80
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9/17/2001

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
Y(s)
H(s)
(2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1800
GM 0 20 log10 | G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) | [dB]
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
0
gc
log
GM
PM 180 G ( j gc ) H ( j gc ) deg
G(j)H(j)
PM
-1800
pc
The system is stable

Dr. Ahmet Uar
UAR
log
gc pc
EEE 352 Chapter 9
81

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
(2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1800
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
0
gc
log
G(j)H(j)
-1800
pc
log
PM 180 G( jgc ) H ( j gc ) deg
The system is critical
gc pc
PM GM 0
Dr. Ahmet Uar

UAR
EEE 352 Chapter 9
82
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9/17/2001

P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
G ( j ) H ( j ) 1
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
(2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1800
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
0
G(j)H(j)
-1800
-GM
gc
log
pc
-PM
The system is unstable

Dr. Ahmet Uar
UAR
log
gc pc
EEE 352 Chapter 9
83
Bode Diagrams
Relative Stability of Nonminimum phase system
Nonminimum phase system:
For nonminimum phase systems, the correct interpretation of stability margins
requires careful study. The best way to determine the stability of nonminimum
phase systems is to use the Nyquist diagram approach rather than Bode
diagram approach.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
84
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Example 9.12; a) Obtain phase crossover frequency pc and gain margin GM of
the given system given in (1).
G (s) H (s)
R(s)
2500
(1)
s ( s 5)( s 50)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
b) Obtain gain crossover frequency gc and phase margin PM of the given system.
c) Draw the Bode diagram of the system and show pc, GM, gc, and PM on the
Bode diagram.
Solution 9.12; The system transfer function and characteristic equation are;
Y (s)
G( s)
, P(s ) 1 G( s) H (s) 0
R(s) 1 G (s ) H ( s)
P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 0 dB
(2) G( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
85

Solution 9.12; a) The system characteristic equation is
P ( j ) 1
1
2500
2500
2500
1
1
j ( j 5)( j 50)
j 3 55 2 250 j
55 2 j (250 3 )
2500(55 2 )
2500(250 3 )
j
2 2
3 2
(55 ) (250 )
(55 2 ) 2 (250 3 ) 2
Phase crossover frequency pc:
2500(250 3 )
0
(55 2 ) 2 ( 250 3 ) 2
1 0
2500(250 3 ) 0 (250 2 ) 0 2
2 250 2 pc 15.82 rad / s
Im[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] Im[G ( j ) H ( j )] 0
-1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
pc
log
EEE 352 Chapter 9
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Solution 9.12; a) The system characteristic equation is
P ( j ) 1
2500(55 2 )
2500(250 3 )
j
3 2
(55 ) (250 )
(55 2 ) 2 ( 250 3 ) 2
2 2
The gain margin GM is the margin at the phase crossover frequency pc at which
the phase angle is -1800.
20 log10 G ( j ) H ( j )
pc
2
20 log10 2500 (20 log10 pc 20 log10 52 pc
20 log10 (50) 2 2pc )
14.81 dB
GM 0 20 log10 | G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) | [dB]
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
67.95 (23.98 24.39 34.39)
log
GM = 14.82
G(j)H(j)
GM 0 (14.8167) 14.81 dB
-1800
log
pc =15.82
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
87

Solution 9.12; b) The gain crossover frequency gc and phase margin PM:
The gain crossover frequency gc can be obtained approximately from method1,
based on slope of the log magnitude at the gain crossover frequency gc, or from
method 2, based on analytically solution of the log magnitude equation;
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 0 dB
Method 1: i) The gain crossover frequency gc can approximately be readfrom

the Bode diagram directly.
ii) The gain crossover frequency gc can approximately be obtained from the
slope log magnitude graph of Bode diagram.
First, the slope between two corner frequencies f, and l is determined, where
the positive sign of log magnitude equation at f, changes to negative at l.
20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 2500 (20 log 10 20 log 10 5 2 2 20 log 10 (50) 2 2 )
As seen from the table that the positive log magnitude

equation at f = 5 rad/s changed to negative at l = 50
rad/s and;
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
Mag .(dB)
0.1
39.99
-91.26
-140.71
50
-37.03
-219.28
Phase
88
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9/17/2001

Method 1: ii) gc can approximately be obtained as follows;
20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 2500 (20 log 10 20 log 10 5 2 2 20 log 10 (50) 2 2 )
The log magnitude equation is positive at f = 5 rad/s

and changed to negative at l = 50 rad/s.
dB1 3, 1 f 5
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
3 dB
dB2 0, 2 gc
-40 dB/decade
Approximated
gain
Actual gain
0 dB
log
1 = 5
2 =gc
Genlik
(dB)
0.1
39.99
-91.26
-140.71
50
-37.03
-219.28
dB
40 dB / dec
log
dB2 dB1
03
log gc log 5 log gc log 5
gc
3
40
3
log
gc
40
3
40
10 gc 5 10 5.95 rad / s
5
Comment: The correctness of the gain crossover frequency gc depends on the
distance of the both frequencies.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
89

Method 2:The analytical solution of the log magnitude equation is;
20log10|G(jpc)H(jpc)| = 0 dB or |G(jpc)H(jpc)| =1
2500
2
52 2 50 2
1 2500 2 2 ( 2 52 )( 2 50 2 )
2 ( 2 52 )( 2 502 ) 2500 2 0
6 2525 4 62500 2 2500 2 0, u 2
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
| G ( j ) H ( j ) | 1
u 3 2525u 2 62500u 2500 2 0 u 38.7
gc
log
38.7 6.22 rad / sec

Comment: Although this gives the correct result for the gain crossover frequency
gc but it may need high order polynomial to be solved.

Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
90
45
9/17/2001

Solution 9.12; b) Fore gain crossover frequency gc =5.96 rad/s (Method 1) and
phase margin PM is;
G ( j ) H ( j )
Angle equation;
gc 5.96
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
The phase margin PM:
146.80
PM = 180-146.8 = 33.20
GM 0 20 log10 | G ( j pc ) H ( j pc ) | [ dB]
G(j)H(j)
log
gc=5.96
GM = 14.82
PM=33.20
-1800
pc =15.82
log
1
The system is stable
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
91

Solution 9.12; c) Draw the Bode diagram and pc, GM, gc, and PM of the system;
G ( j ) H ( j )
2500
j ( j 5)( j 50)
Gm = 14.8 dB (at 15.8 rad/sec) , Pm = 31.7 deg (at 6.22 rad/sec)

50
Log magnitude graph;,

G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 2500
[ 20 log10 20 log 10 5 2 2
2
20 log 10 50 ]
Magnitude (dB)
gc= 6.22
G ( j ) H ( j )
tan
-50
50
-150
-90
Obtained from Method 1;

gc 5.95 rad / s
PM = 180-146.8 = 33.20
Phase (deg)
0 [90 tan
GM
-100
Angle graph;
0
-135
PM
pc=15.8
-180
-225
pc 15.82 rad / s
GM 14.8167 dB
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-270
10-1
100
EEE 352 Chapter 9
101
Frequency (rad/sec)
102
103
92
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9/17/2001

Example 9.13; Consider the system given in (1)
G (s) H (s)
R(s)
K
(1)
s ( s 1)( s 5)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
a) Draw the Bode diagram of the system for K=10 and determine its stability.
b) Draw the Bode diagram of the system for K=100 and determine its stability.
Solution 8.13; a) For K=10 phase crossover frequency, pc and gain margin GM;
Y (s)
G( s)
, P (s) 1 G( s) H (s) 0
R(s) 1 G( s) H (s)
P( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
P ( j ) 1 G( j ) H ( j ) 1
1
10
10
1
j ( j 1)( j 5)
j 3 6 2 5 j
10( 6 2 )
10(5 3 )
j
3 2
(6 ) (5 )
(6 2 ) 2 (5 3 ) 2
2 2
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
93

Solution 9.13; a) For K=10 phase crossover frequency, pc and gain margin GM;
10( 6 2 )
10(5 3 )
P ( j ) 1 G( j ) H ( j ) 1
j
2 2
3 2
(6 ) (5 )
(6 2 ) 2 (5 3 ) 2
Phase crossover frequency, pc;
Im[ P ( j )]
(5 2 ) 0
10(5 3 )
0 10(5 3 ) 0
2 2
3 2
2
(6 ) (5 )
1 0, 2 5 pg 2.23 rad / s
The gain at pc= 2.23 rad/sec

pc 2.23
20 log10 10 ( 20 log10 2.23 20 log 10 12 2.232 20 log 10 (5)2 2.232 )

-9.49 dB
Gain margin GM;
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j )
0
G(j)H(j)
GM 0 (9.49) 9.49 dB
log
GM = 9.49.82
-1800
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
pc =2.23
log
94
47
9/17/2001

Solution 9.13; a) For K=10 gain crossover frequency, gc and phase margin PM;
Method 1: ii) gc can approximately be obtained from log magnitude as follows;
20 log10 G( j ) H ( j ) 20 log10 10 (20 log10 20 log10 12 2 20 log10 (52 2 )
Gain crossover frequency, gc;
Gain (dB)
Phase
0.1
25.97
-96.8
2.84
-146.3
-25.1
-213.6
dB1 284, 1 1
2.84
dB2 0, 2 gc
dB
Actual gain
-40 dB/decade
Approximated
gain
dB
40 dB / dec
log
dB2 dB1
2.84
40
log gc log 1 log gc
Dr. Ahmet Uar
0 dB
gc
1=1
log
gc 10 40 gc 1.1 rad / s
EEE 352 Chapter 9
95

Solution 9.13; a) The gain crossover frequency gc and phase margin PM:
Method 2:The analytical solution of the log magnitude equation is;
20log10|G(jpc)H(jpc)| = 0 dB or |G(jpc)H(jpc)| =1
P ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) 0
10
2
1 10
1 10 2 2 ( 2 1)( 2 10 2 )
2 ( 2 1)( 2 10 2 ) 10 2 0
6 101 4 100 2 10 2 0, u 2
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
| G ( j ) H ( j ) | 1
u 3 101u 2 100u 102 0

u 0.6153
gc=0.78
log
gc u 0.6153 0.7844 rad / sec

Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
96
48
9/17/2001

Solution 9.13; a) For K=10 gain crossover frequency, gc and phase margin PM;
The angle at gc =1.1 rad/s
gc 1.1
gc
150 0
1. 1
1.1
tan 1 )
1
5
|G(j )H(j )|
[dB]
G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 (900 tan 1
The phase margin PM;
gc=1.1
GM=9.49
log
PM = 180-150 =30 0
PM=300
-1800
pc =2.23
log
gc pc
Since gc =1.1 < pc =2.23, the system is stable.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
97

Solution 9.13; b) For K=100, By using the same methods
The gain crossover frequency, gc, phase margin PM,
gc 4.5 rad / s
PM = 180-210
= -300
The phase crossover frequency, pc and gain margin GM:
pc 2.1 rad / s
GM 12 dB
Since
gc 4.5 pc 2.1
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
0
G(j)H(j)
-1800
the system is unstable.

Dr. Ahmet Uar
-GM
gc
log
pc
-PM
log
gc pc
EEE 352 Chapter 9
98
49
9/17/2001
Dr. Ahmet Uar
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
Solution 9.13:
EEE 352 Chapter 9
99
Bode Diagrams: Homework

E(s)
Y(s)
R(s)
Gp(s)
Gc(s)
1
Gc ( s ) K c , G p ( s )
, H (s) 1
s ( s 2) 2
H(s)
a) Plot the frequency response for this system when Kc = 4.

b) Calculate the phase and magnitude at = 0.5,1,2, 4, and .
Gc ( s) K c
E(s)
Y(s)
R(s)
Gc(s)
Gp(s)
1
G p (s )
, H (s ) 1
H(s)
( s 1)( s 10)( s 50)
a) Draw the Bode diagram of the loop transfer function,
b) Determine the gain Kc such that the phase margin is PM=50.What is the
gain margin PM in this case?
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
100
50
9/17/2001

Homework 9.5: Consider the system represented in state space form
1 x1 0
x1 0
x 2 3 x 5u
2
2
x
y 1 1 1 [0]u
x2
a) Determine the transfer function representation of the system,
b) Sketch the Bode plot.,
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
101
Closed Loop Frequency Performances:

Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth
In addition to the phase margin PM, gain margin GM, resonant peak Mr, and resonant
frequency r, there are other frequency-domain quantities commonly used in performance
specifications. They are the cutoff frequency, bandwidth BW, and the cutoff rate.
Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth: Both cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth are related to
the closed loop system Bode diagram such that the frequency b, at which the magnitude
of the closed-loop frequency response is 3 dB below its zero-frequency value is called
the cutoff frequency. Thus
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
Y ( j )
G ( j )
Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) R ( j 0)
H(s)
For systems in which |Y(j0)/R(j0)|= 0 dB,
Y ( j )
G ( j )
3 dB, for b
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
The closed-loop system filters out the signal components whose frequencies are greater
than the cutoff frequency and transmits those signal components with frequencies lower
than the cutoff frequency.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
102
51
9/17/2001

Bandwidth
Bandwidth: The frequency range 0 b in which the magnitude of the closed loop does
not drop -3 dB is called the bandwidth of the system. The bandwidth indicates the frequency
where the gain starts to fall off from its low-frequency value. Thus, the bandwidth indicates
how well the system will track an input sinusoid. Note that for a given natural fequency n
the rise time increases with increasing damping ratio . On the other hand, the bandwidth
decreases with the increase in . Therefore, the rise time and the bandwidth are inversely
proportional to each other.
R(s)
G(s)
dB
Y(s)
-3
H(s)
Bandwidth
Y ( j )
G ( j )
Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) R ( j 0)
For systems in which |Y(j0)/R(j0)|= 0 dB,

Y ( j )
G( j )
3 dB, for b
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
in log scale b
dB
0
-3
Bandwidth
in log scale b
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
103

Bandwidth
Bandwidth: The specification of the bandwidth may be determined by the following
factors:
1. The ability to reproduce the input signal. A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise
time, or fast response. Roughly speaking, we can say that the bandwidth is proportional to
the speed of response.
2. The necessary filtering characteristics for high-frequency noise.
For the system to follow arbitrary inputs accurately, it must have a large bandwidth. From
the viewpoint of noise, however, the bandwidth should not be too 1arge.Thus there are
conflicting requirements on the bandwidth, and a compromise is usually necessary for good
design. Note that a system with large bandwidth requires high-performance components, so
the cost of components usually increases with the bandwidth.
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
dB
-3
H(s)
Bandwidth
Y ( j )
G ( j )
Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) R ( j 0)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
in log scale b
104
52
9/17/2001

Cutoff Rate
Cutoff Rate. The cutoff rate is the slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cutoff
frequency. The cutoff rate indicates the ability of a system to distinguish the signal from
noise.
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
dB
H(s)
Cutoff Rate.
-3
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
Y ( j ) Y ( j 0)
3 dB , for b
R ( j ) R( j 0)
Bandwidth
in log scale
It is noted that a closed-loop frequency response curve with a steep cutoff characteristic
may have a large resonant peak magnitude, which implies that the system has a relatively
small stability margin.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
105

Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth
The resonant peak is the value of the maximum magnitude (in decibels) of the closed-loop
frequency response. The resonant frequency is the frequency that yields the maximum
magnitude.
R(s)
G(s)
H(s)
Y(s)
dB
Cutoff Rate.
-3
Y ( j )
G( j )
num Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j ) den R ( j 0)
Bandwidth
in log scale b
% M-File 1 for obtaining the resonant peak and resonant frequency

[mag,phase,w] = bode(num,den,w); or [mag,phase,w]= bode(sys,w);
[Mp,k]= max(mag);
resonant-peak = 20*log10(Mp);
resonant-frequency = w(k)
% M-File 2 The bandwidth can be obtained by entering the following lines in the program:
n=l;
while 20*log10(mag(n)) > = -3; n = n + 1;
end
bandwidth = w(n)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
106
53
9/17/2001
Resonant Peak, Resonant Frequency, and Bandwidth:

MATLAB
Example 9.14; Consider the system shown in Figure . Using MATLAB, obtain a Bode
diagram for the closed loop transfer function. Obtain also the resonant peak, resonant
frequency, and bandwidth.
R(s)
Y(s)
G (s )
G(s)
1
, H (s ) 1
s(0.5s 1)( s 1)
H(s)
Solution 9.14;
dB
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
Y ( j ) num
R( j ) den
Y ( j )
Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R( j )
R ( j 0)
Cutoff Rate.
-3
Bandwidth
in log scale b
The closed loop system transfer function is
Y ( s)
G( s)
1
1
3
R ( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s (0.5s 1)( s 1) 1 0.5s 1.5s 2 s 1
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
107

MATLAB
Solution 9.14; R(s)
G(s)
H(s)
Y(s)
Y ( s)
G (s )
1
R ( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) 0 .5 s 3 1 .5 s 2 s 1
M-file produces a Bode diagram for the closed-loop system as well as the resonant peak,
resonant frequency, and bandwidth.
% M-file for bandwidth.
clear all; numcl=[1]; dencl=[0.5 1.5 1 1]; syscl=tf(numcl,dencl);w = logspace(-1,1);
bode(syscl,w); grid;
[mag,phase,w] = bode(numcl,dencl,w);
[Mp,k] = max(mag);
ResonantPeak = 20*log10(Mp)
ResonantFrequency = w(k)
% M-file for bandwidth.
Restults
n = 1;
ResonantPeak = 5.2388
while 20*log10(mag(n)) > -3; n = n +1;
ResonantFrequency = 0.7906
end
Bandwidth = 1.2649
Bandwidth = w(n)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
108
54
9/17/2001

MATLAB
Solution 9.14; The resulting Bode diagram is shown in
Y ( s)
G ( s)
1
1
R( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) 0.5s 3 1.5s 2 s 1 ( s 2.5)(s 0.24 j 0.85)

Bode Diagram
20
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
Magnitude (dB)
Mr= 5.2388 dB.

Cutoff Rate=-40 dB/d
r= 0.7906 rad/sec.
-20
-60 dB/d
b =1.2649 rad/sec.
-40
-60
-1
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
The resonant peak is obtained as 5.2388 dB.

The resonant frequency is 0.7906 rad/sec.
The bandwidth is 1.2649 rad/sec.
These values can be verified from the Bode diagram.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
109
Frequency Performances of Closed Loop Systems

Remark 1; The frequency performances such Phase Margin PM, Gain margin GM and
stability are related to the loop (oplen loop) frequency responce. That is open loop
system Bode diagram.
Y ( s)
G (s)
, P( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) 0
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
H(s)
(1) | G( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 0 dB
( 2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1800
Remark 2; Resonant Peak, Resonant Frequency, Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth are
related to the closed loop system Bode diagram.
Y ( j )
G ( j )
R( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )
Y ( j )
Y ( j 0)
3 dB, for b
R( j )
R ( j 0)
Dr. Ahmet Uar
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
EEE 352 Chapter 9
110
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9/17/2001
Bode Diagrams: The steady state performance

Consider the following feedback control system.
Y (s)
G ( s)
, P ( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s) 0
R( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s)
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
(1) | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 1
20 log10 | G ( j ) H ( j ) | pc 0 dB
(2) G ( j ) H ( j ) | gc 1800
|G(j)H(j)|[dB]
H(s)
Region II
Region III
Region I
-20 dB/d
gc
log
The static position, velocity, and acceleration error constants describe the lowfrequency behaviour of type 0, type 1, and type 2 systems, respectively.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
111
|G(j)H(j)|[dB]
Region I
Steady state
performance
Region II
Transient
performance
-20 dB/d
gc
Region III
Show
systems
complexity
log
The static position, velocity, and acceleration error constants describe the lowfrequency behaviour (region I) of type 0, type 1, and type 2 systems, respectively.
For a given system, only one of the static error constants is finite and significant.
(The larger the value of the finite static error constant, the higher the loop gain is as
approaches zero.)
The type of the system determines the slope of the log-magnitude curve at low
frequencies (region I). Thus, information concerning the existence and magnitude
of the steady state error of a control system to a given input can be determined from
the observation of the low-frequency region (region I) of the log-magnitude curve.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
112
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9/17/2001

Determination of static position error constants Kp from Bode diagram.
Consider the feedback control system shown in Figure. Assume that the loop
(open-loop) transfer function is given by
R(s)
Y(s)
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)
G(s)
G ( s ) H ( s) N a
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)...(T p s 1)
H(s)
Figure 2 shows an example of

the log-magnitude plot of a type
0 system. In such a system, the
magnitude of G(j)H(j) equals
Kp at low frequencies, or
0 dB/decade
20 log10Kp
|G(j)H(j)|
[dB]
lim G ( j ) H ( j ) K p
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-40 dB/d
gc
Figure 2:
From Bode diagram

20log10|G(j)H(j)|= 20log10Kp
The steady state error, ess;
-20 dB/d
log
lim | G ( j ) H ( j ) | K p
lim G ( s ) H ( s ) K , e ss
s 0
1
1 K
EEE 352 Chapter 9
113

Determination of static velocity error constants Kv from Bode diagram.
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)
G (s ) H (s) N a
s (T1 s 1)(T2 s 1)...(T p s 1)
H(s)
G ( j ) H ( j )
Thus
Kv
, for 1
j
20 log
Kv
20 log Kv
j
|G(j )H(j )|
[dB]
Figure 2 shows an example of the log magnitude plot of a type 1 system. The
intersection of the initial -20 dB/d segment (or its extension) with the line 1 = 1
has the magnitude 20 log Kv.
This may be seen as follows: In a type 1 system
-20 dB/d
Figure 2:
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
20 log10 K v
2 =1 gc
1 log
-40 dB/d
114
57
9/17/2001

Determination of static velocity error constants Kv from Bode diagram.
G ( s) H ( s )
R(s)
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)

s N (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)...(Tp s 1)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
The intersection of the initial -20dB/d

segment (or its extension) with the 0
dB line has a frequency numerically
equal to Kv. To see this, define the
frequency at this intersection to be 1;
then
| G ( j1 ) H ( j1 ) ||
Kv
| 1, or K v 1 .
j1

K v Lim sG (s) H ( s), ess ()
s 0
1
Kv
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
115

Determination of static acceleration error constants Ka from Bode diagram.
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)
G (s ) H (s) N a
s (T1 s 1)(T2 s 1)...(T p s 1)
H(s)
Figure 2 shows an example of the log-magnitude plot of a type 2 system. The
intersection of the initial -40-dB/decade segment (or its extension) with the = 1
line has the magnitude of 20 log Ka. Since at low frequencies
Ka
, for 1
( j) 2
it follows that
20 log |
Ka
|1 20 log K a
( j )2
-40 dB/d
|G(j )H(j )|
[dB]
G( j) H ( j)
-60 dB/d
20 log10 K a
-20 dB/d
=1 a K a
log
Figure 2:
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
116
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9/17/2001

For the given feedback control system the loop (open-loop) transfer function is;
R(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)
G (s )H ( s) N a
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)...(T p s 1)
H(s)
The frequency a at the intersection of the initial -40 dB/d segment (or its
extension) with the 0 dB line gives the square root of Ka numerically. This can be
seen from the following:
a
Ka
( j a )
Ka
2
a
Ka
0
( j a ) 2
-40 dB/d
|G(j )H(j )|
[dB]
20 log | G ( j ) H ( j ) | 20 log10
1
-60 dB/d
20 log10 K a
-20 dB/d
which yields
log
=1 a K a
Figure 2:
K a a2
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
117

For the given feedback control system the loop (open-loop) transfer function is;
G (s )H ( s)
20 log 10
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)...(Tm s 1)

s N (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)...(T p s 1)
R(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
Ka
0
( j a ) 2
Ka
K
a 1
( j a ) 2 a2
K a a2

K a Lim s 2G (s) H ( s)
s 0
ess ( )
1
Ka
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
118
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Example 9.15; Consider the system given in (1). Determine the finite and
significant static error constants for a given system. Draw the magnitude graph of
the Bode diagram of the system. Obtain the finite static error constants of the
system from the driven bode diagram.
R(s)
Y(s)
2500
G(s)
G(s)H (s)
(1)
s ( s 5)(s 50)
H(s)
20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 2500

2
(20 log 10 20 log 10 5
20 log 10 50 2 2 )
Magnitude(dB)
Solution 9.15; Since the system is type 1, it has finite static velocity error
constant, Kv. The system Bode diagram
is;
40
i) From the magnitude graph of

the Bode diagram
K v 1 10 s
20
0
-20
-60 -1
10
Dr. Ahmet Uar
-40
0
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
EEE 352 Chapter 9
119

Solution 9.15;
G(s)H (s)
R(s)
2500
(1)
s ( s 5)(s 50)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
20 log 10 G ( j ) H ( j ) 20 log 10 2500 (20 log 10 20 log 10 52 2 20 log 10 502 2 )
ii) From Magnitude equation of the Bode diagram:

40
20 log10 K v 20
Magnitude(dB)
20
log10 K v 1
K v 101
10 s
0
-20
-60 -1
10
iii) Without using the Bode diagram:
K v Lim sG ( s) H (s ) Lim s
s 0
Dr. Ahmet Uar
s 0
-40
0
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
2500
10 s 1
s (s 5)( s 50)
EEE 352 Chapter 9
120
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Homework 9.6: The space shuttle has been used to repair satellites and the
Hubble telescope. Figure 1 illustrates how a crew member, with his feet strapped
to the platform on the end of the shuttle's robotic arm, used his arms to stop the
satellite's spin.
R(s)
E(s)
Gp(s)
Gc(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
Figure 1: Satellite repair.
Figure 2: Satellite repair.
The control system of the robotic arm has a closed-loop transfer function;
Gc ( s) 60, G p ( s )
1
, H (s) 1
s( s 12)
a) Plot the Bode Diagram the system.

b) Obtain Phase Margin, PM, and Gain Margin, PM.
c) Find the finite static error constant.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
121

Gc ( s ) K c , G p ( s )
H (s)
1
s 1.4s 1
R(s)
10
s 10
E(s)
Gp(s)
Gc(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
a) Sketch the Bode plot of the loop transfer function for Kc=2.
b) Obtain Phase Margin, PM, and Gain Margin, PM.
c) Find the finite static error constant.
d) Obtain the closed loop system response y(t) to a unit step input, R(s) = 1/s.
e) Determine the bandwidth of the system.
Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
122
61
9/17/2001
Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Chapter 09: Control Systems Design by the
Root Locus Method
Remarks and Questions?

Dr. Ahmet Uar
EEE 352 Chapter 9
123
62

Chapter 09 Frequency Response Method

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Chapter 09 Frequency Response Method

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9/17/2001

EEE 352 Automatic Control Systems

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Uar

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

the steady state

By the term frequency response, we mean the steady-state response of a system to a

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

the steady state

Frequency-response methods were developed in 1930s and 1940s by Nyquist,

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

the steady state

Dr. Ahmet Uar

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

Dr. Ahmet Uar

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

The steady-state response of a stable, linear, time-invariant system to a sinusoidal

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

The function G(j) is called the sinusoidal transfer function.

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Frequency Response Analysis

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram: Logarithmic Plot

the other is a plot of the

A Bode diagram consists of

100 log10 101

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram: Logarithmic Plot

Dr. Ahmet Uar

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram: Logarithmic Plot

For small frequencies - that is, <<1/ - the logarithmic gain is

20 log10 1 20 log10 ( ) 2 1 0 20 log10 ( )2 1 0, dB, 1 /

For large frequencies - that is, >>1/ - the logarithmic gain is

20 log10 G ( j ) 20 log10 2 3.01 dB, 1 /

and at =1/ , the logarithmic gain is

20 log10 G ( j ) 0 20 log10 ( ) 2 1 20 log10 ( ), dB, 1 /

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram: Logarithmic Plot

break frequency or corner frequency

Results: An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to 10 is called a decade,

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram of Feedback Control Systems

Frequency response characteristics of the characteristic equation;

EEE 352 Chapter 9

Bode Diagram of Feedback Control Systems

A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

EEE 352 Chapter 9