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Chapter 5: Line Model and Performance

This chapter deals with the representation and performance of

transmission lines under normal operating conditions.
Transmission lines can be represented by an equivalent circuit with
appropriate circuit parameters on a per-phase basis.
The terminal voltages are represented as line-to-neutral
The currents are represented as phase current
The three-phase system is reduced to an equivalent single-phase
system
The aim of transmission line is to transmit power from one end
to another over a distance with high efficiency and low voltage
regulation

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The transmission lines are categorized into three types

1) Short transmission line the line length is up to 80 km.
2) Medium transmission line the line length is between 80km to 160 km.
3) Long transmission line the line length is more than 160 km.

Short Line Model

The short line model is suitable for the lines up to 80 km.

The short line model is suitable for the voltage level up to 69 kV.
The line is modeled using resistance R and inductive reactance X.
Due to smaller length and lower voltage the capacitance of the line
can be ignored.

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Short Line Model

Z: per-phase impedance of the short line

r: per-phase resistance per unit length
L: per-phase inductance per unit length
l: length of the line
R: per-phase resistance of the line
X: per-phase inductive reactance of the line

Receiving-end current

Sending-end current

Sending-end voltage
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Two-port network model of short transmission line

The ABCD parameters are given as in matrix form:

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Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation of the line may be defined as the percentage change in

voltage at the receiving-end of the line (expresed as percent of full-load
voltage) in going from no-load to full-load.

Voltage regulation is a measure of voltage drop of the line and depends on the power factor of
the load.

Total Line Loss and Efficiency:

The total line loss is
receiving-end side
complex power

total line loss

Total real power at the

receiving-end

sending-end
side complex
power

Total real power at the

sending-end
Transmission line
efficiency

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f=60 Hz

Medium Line Model

The medium line model is suitable for the lines between 80-250 km.
The transmission voltage level is generally bigger than 69 kV.
Since the distance and voltage are increased, shunt capacitance
should be taken into account.
Series resistance R and inductive reactance X of the line are still
used.

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Nominal -Model:
Half of the shunt capacitance may be considered to be lumped at each end of the line.
g represents the leakage current over the insulators and corona effects

Nominal -model for medium length line

Y: total shunt admittance of the line

g: shunt conductance per-unit length, generally
taken as zero under normal operating conditions
C: Line-to-neutral capacitance per unit length
l: length of the line
Z: Total series impedance of the line

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

Receiving-end side voltage and current can be found

in terms of sending-end side voltage and current:
Since

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Long Line Model

For short and medium length lines, the models are obtained using lumped
parameters.
For lines longer than 250 km, the distributed parameters should be
considered for accurate solutions.
Expressions for voltage and current at any point on the line are derived.
Based on these equations an equivalent -model is obtained.

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Long line with distributed parameters

z = r + jwL
y = g + jwC
x = small segment
z: series impedance per phase per unit length
y: shunt admittance per phase per unit length

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

KVL
2
Combining 1 and 2 with differentiating
Let
1

KCL
2nd order DE is obtained

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

The solution of the differential equation is

From (1)

3
Propagation constant
(complex number)
or
Imaginary Part
(phase constant)

Real Part
(attenuation constant)

Characteristic impedance
of the line

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

To find constant A1 and A2 we need boundary conditions

By rearranging (3) and (4)

V(x) = VR and I(x) = IR at x=0

From (3) and (4)

5
The general expressions for voltage and
current along a long transmission line

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Derivations of equations to obtain ABCD parameters:

At x = l we reach sending-end side:
By rearranging (5)
V(x=l) = VS and I(x=l) = IS

By recognizing the hyperbolic functions

sinh and cosh

Rewriting the equations in ABCD form

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Equivalent model for long line

The parameters of the equivalent model

Note that:

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When line losses are neglected (g=r=0), the characteristic impedance becomes purely resistive:

Also known as surge impedance

For a lossles line the following equations can be derived:

299,795,637.7m / s

Velocity of propagation

Speed of light (3x108 m/s)

5000km

Wavelength

When the internal flux

of the conductor is neglected
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Surge Impedance Loading

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) is the case when the line is terminated with an
impedance equal to the characteristic impedance at the receiving-end side.

since

For a lossless line ZC is a real number so there is no reactive power in the line.
The reactive power consumption in the line by series inductive reactance (reactive
losses) are exactly offset by reactive power supplied by shunt capacitance.
SIL for typical transmission lines varies from approximately 150 MW for 230-kV lines
to about 2000 MW for 765-kV lines.
Shunt capacitive compensation may be required to increase voltage at certain
buses for the cases where line loading is bigger than SIL.
Shunt inductive compensation may be required to decrease voltgae at certain buses
for the cases where line loading is smaller than SIL.
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Thermal Limit of Transmission Lines

Thermal limit of a transmission line is defined in terms of the maximum current carrying
capacity (ampacity).

The excess amount of current flowing on the line produces heat leading to undesirable
results such as
annealing loss
gradual loss of mechanical strength of the conductor caused by temperature extremes
increase sag and decreased clearance to ground due to conductor expansion at higher
temperatures
So the transmission line can be utilized best only if it is loaded up to its thermal limit
which cannot be done normally without line compensation.
Thermal loading limit
of a line

Obtained from manufacturers data

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Maximum Power Transfer and Angle Stability

For a lossless line three-phase real power transfer

from sending-end to receiving-end side

Stable region

unstable region

practice

Power-angle curve of a transmission line

pu

pu

SIL
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Voltage Stability
Voltage stability is defined as the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable
voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating conditions and after being subjected
to a disturbance (Kundur, 1994).

A typical voltage-power characteristics (Kundur, 1994)

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A typical reactive power voltage curves (Kundur, 1994)

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Transmission Line Loadability Curve

Transmission Line Loadability Curve (Kundur, 1994)

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Transmission Line Loadability Characteristics

Loadability characteristics of transmission lines (Zhang et al., 2006)

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pu

pu

SIL

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Transmission Line Compensation

Normally transmission lines are not loaded at their surge impedance, the ideal
case in which neither reactive power is produced nor consumed in the line.
On long transmission lines, light loads less than SIL result in a voltage rise at
the receiving-end.
On long transmission lines, heavy loads greater than SIL result in a voltage dip
at the receiving-end.
Shunt reactors are widely used to reduce high voltages under light load or
open line conditions.
Shunt capacitors, static var compensators, and synchronous condensers
(very old technique) are used to boost voltage, increase power transfer and
improve system stability.
Today transmission line compensation is done using modern power electronic
based high power converters called Flexible AC Transmission Systems

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Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactors are conventional solutions to compensate for the undesirable voltage
effects associated with line capacitance.
Shunt reactors are used to control voltage during low-load period.
Shunt reactors are usually unswitched.

Shunt reactor banks

Photo: http://kiran111.hubpages.com/hub/electrical-substation

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The amount of shunt reactive power required on a transmission line to maintain the receiving-end
voltage at a specified value can be obtained as follow:

Reactance of shunt reactor

connected at the receiving-end

Since

If VS=VR is required

Solving for XLsh

The amount of shunt reactive power
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Shunt Capacitive Compensation

Shunt capacitors are used for
compensating reactive power of lagging power factor load
improving power factor
voltage control during heavy lagging power factor loads

Shunt capacitor banks

Photo: http://kiran111.hubpages.com/hub/electrical-substation

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Single-Line Diagram of the Thyristor controlled SVC (Static Var Compensator)

Operate
as a variable
shunt reactor
Figure: http://www.mathworks.com/help/releases/R2013b/physmod/sps/powersys/ug/pe_applications6a.gif

Operate
as a variable
shunt capacitor
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Single-Line Diagram of the STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM configuration:(a) single-line diagram (b) operating modes

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Series Capacitive Compensation

Series capacitors are connected in series with the line (at sending/receiving-end or mid-point)
To reduce the series reactance between the load and the supply point
To increase power transfer
To improve transient and steady-state stability of the power system
Series capacitors are provided with bypass circuit breaker and protective sparkgaps
Studies show that the addition of series capacitors on EHV lines can more than double
the transient stability load limit of long lines at a fraction of the cost of a new transmission line

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Series Capacitors

Photo:http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VuW2DoFs420/Tg3ocZTd0yI/AAAAAAAAAMY/pZyF63u7JJY/s1600/Series-Capacitors.jpg

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Series and shunt compensation

With the series capacitor switched, the power transfer over the line for a lossless line becomes:

XCser
XCser / X

Series capacitor reactance

Percentage compensation (25-70 % in practice)
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There are two drawbacks of series capactive compensation:

Protection devices are required to protect capacitors and bypass the high current produced
when a short circuits occurs in the power system.

Series capacitors can lead to subsynchronous resonance due to the resonant circuit that
can oscillate at a frequency below the normal synchronous frequency (50/60 Hz) when stilmulated
by a disturbance. Subsynchronous resonance can damage turbine-generator.

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End of Chapter 5

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