KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE LEARNING

(BSc. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING, 4)

EE 463: SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

[Credit: 3.]

(FOR TOP-UP STUDENTS)

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

E. K. ANTO
.1

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Course Author
Mr. E. K. Anto completed his Bsc (Hons) Degree at the Department of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering at the then University of Science and Technology (UST), Kumasi,
Ghana in June 1985, and was selected as a Teaching Assistant to do his mandatory
National Service at the same Department. He later pursued his postgraduate studies at the
Technical University of Berlin, Germany, where he obtained the Dipl.-Ing. Degree, (the
equivalent of MSc Degree) in 1997.

He returned to Ghana as the Reintegration Counsellor in charge of the German Office for
Germany-trained Returning Experts (Rueckkehrerbuero), an office dedicated to ensuring
the smooth and comfortable reintegration back into Ghana of Germany-trained Ghanaian
experts.

He later joined the Ghana Standards Board (GSB) as Senior Scientific Officer attached to
the Metrology Division and worked on the Electricity Meter Testing, Calibration and
Verification Project. He has finally settled as Lecturer at the Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana, since October 2001.

He has been an External Moderator for the National Board for Board for Professional And
Technician Examinations (NABPTEX) since 2005, and was a Visiting Lecturer for the
National University of Rwanda during the period of 2004 to 2006. He was a member of the
team of consultants that conducted survey for the Private Enterprise Foundation (PEF) on
the Impact of Power Outages on Some Selected Manufacturing Industries in Ghana.

His research interests are on electrical energy management systems, prepayment metering
system, rural electrification, power system quality and application of local material as
backfills for improving earthing. He has been the University Electrical Services Consultant
since 2004. He has also served as Faculty Exams Officer and is a former Head of the
Electrical Engineering Department.

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Course Introduction

Introduction

Depending on the type of current, AC motors may be classified as single-phase or threephase. Whilst three-phase motors are inherently self-starting, single-phase motors are non
self-starting, and require special means of starting. The course will generally look at singlephase motors for domestic applications and the different starting methods employed, as
well as control motors as special purpose motors.

Learning objectives
After going through this course, you should:

understand why three-phase motors are self-starting, but singlephase motors are not self-starting
know the different starting methods employed to make singlephase motors self-starting
be able to distinguish between the various categories of singlephase motors depending upon their mode of starting, their
constructional features and principles of operation, as well as their
applications or uses.
know the types, constructional features, principles of operation and
applications of control motors
be able to solve simple exercises on capacitor motors and control
motors.

Course Outline
To cover these broad topics, the course is divided into five units. Each unit is broken down
into sessions, each of which will address one or more of the course objectives.
Unit 1: General Classification of AC Motors and Single-Phase Motor Types
Unit 2: Single-Phase Induction Motors
Unit 3: Single-Phase Commutator Motors
Unit 4: Single-Phase Synchronous Motors
Unit 5: Control Motors as Special Purpose Motors

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EE 463:

SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES (3 0 3)

COURSE CONTENT
Single-Phase Induction Motors. Single-Phase Series Motors. Hysteresis Motor, SinglePhase Reluctance Motor. Synchros. Two-Phase Servo Motors. DC Servo Motors
(Conventional and Brushless). AC and DC Tachogenerators. Stepper Motors. Resolvers.

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Unit 1
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF AC MOTORS AND
SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR TYPES
Introduction Electric Machines
In all electric machines used in practice, the basic principle of action is the movement of
conductors relative to magnetic fluxes, the fluxes being usually produced by currents
flowing in other conductors. Permanent magnets are also used to some extent in providing
magnetic fields, particularly in small machines. In most cases, therefore, an electric
machine can be considered to be an arrangement of mutual inductors whose coefficients of
mutual inductance vary as the machine rotates.
Motors are the commonest and best known of electrical machines. They are classified into
two groups, depending on whether they are suitable for use on direct-current or alternating
current systems. There is a third motor known as Universal Motor which can be used on
DC or AC., and these are used to drive small appliances such as vacuum cleaners, food
mixers, etc. Each of the two main groups is subdivided, giving several types of motors,
each having its own particular application.
More AC motors are in use than DC motors, and this is due to two factors. Firstly, the
majority of our supply systems are AC. Secondly, the AC. motor is simpler and cheaper
than its DC counterpart. Where variable speed over a wide range is required such as lift
cranes, locomotives, etc, use is made of the direct-current motor, since the basic AC motor
120 f
is essentially a constant speed machine ( N
), where f is the supply frequency in
P
Hz, P the number of poles and N the speed in revs/min). This means that where the supply
is alternating, it is necessary to install a rectifying equipment which adds to the cost of the
installation. The speed of some industrial AC motors is changed by pole-changing, in
which the motor windings are switched to give different number of poles. It should be noted,
however, that this system only gives different values of fixed speed. Variable-speed
commutator AC motors are available.

SESSION 1-1

AC MOTORS

Most of the motors used in industry and the home are of the alternating-current type.
Industrial motors are usually designed for three-phase operation and the domestic motors
are designed for the single-phase systems used in the home. The size of single-phase
motors used in industry seldom exceeds 7 kW. Three-phase motors are fairly simple in
construction and have the advantage of being self-starting.

The single-phase motor, however, is not self-starting and requires to be wound in a

special way and fitted with special starting arrangements. This makes single-phase motors
expensive and larger than a three-phase motor of equivalent rating.
.7

One minor disadvantage of the AC motor is that it runs at a fixed speed in standard motors.
The speed depends on the number of poles and the frequency of the supply system. The
relationship between speed N , poles P and frequency f is given by the formula
120 f
. The speed of some industrial motors is changed either by
N
P

pole-changing in which the motor stator windings are switched to give different
number of poles. This pole-changing system gives only different values of fixed
speeds.
frequency change through frequency changers. The frequency-changing system,
however, gives much finer variable speeds.

The AC motor, like DC motors, consists of a stationary part, the stator, and a rotating part,
called the rotor, on which are wound a set of current-carrying coils that are both excited.
Such motors are thus doubly-excited rotating machines.
The stator is built up of laminated steel plates. Laminations are used, rather than a solid
core, to minimize the eddy-current losses associated with AC magnetic circuits. The stator
carries the field winding that is distributed in slots around the core, and the winding is
retained in the slots by wooden or fibre wedges.
The rotating part, the rotor, is also made up of laminated plates mounted on the motor
shaft, and the rotor can be of the squirrel cage or wound-rotor design. The rotor is located
on a shaft running on bearings, and is free to rotate between magnetic poles.

SESSION 2-1

CLASSIFICATION OF AC MOTORS

AC motors may be classified as follows, according to:

1. Type of current as
(i)
single phase
(ii)
three-phase
2. Speed as
(i)
constant speed
(ii)
variable speed
(iii)
adjustable speed
3. Principle of operation as
(i)
Synchronous
(ii)
Asynchronous
(a) Induction squirrel cage or slip-ring (wound-rotor)
(b) Commutator
Synchronous: If one winding is made to carry a steady direct current (DC) and the other an
alternating current (AC) whose frequency equals the angular velocity of the rotating part,
the device is a synchronous machine.
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Induction: If one winding is energised by an AC, and the other is short-circuited, the device
is called an induction machine.
Commutator: If one winding carries a steady DC, and the other carries a current that
reverses each half revolution of the rotor, a non-zero average torque will result. The
reversal is accompanied by a commutator. Commutator machines produce exceptionally
good torque and speed control but are most costly to build and maintain.

SESSION 3-1

WHY THREE-PHASE MOTORS ARE SELF-STARTING

The basic principle of operation of three-phase motors is as follows: Three sets of stator
coils are uniformly distributed around the stator and connected in either star or delta. The
rotor can be of the squirrel-cage or wound-rotor type, and if the latter is used, the three
rotor windings are usually in star and brought out to three slip-rings to allow the rotor to be
connected to an external, variable resistance for starting purposes.
When the stator is connected to an AC supply, the field that is produced rotates around the
120 f
stator at the so-called synchronous speed N
. The machine behaves like a
P
transformer where the stator is the primary and the rotor the secondary. The AC applied to
the stator causes an alternating voltage to be induced in the rotor winding as explained
below.
3-1.1 Rotating Magnetic Field
The principle of a constant revolving field is very important in understanding the principle
of operation of polyphase synchronous and induction machines. Consider a three-phase
induction motor with stator windings placed in slots on a laminated-iron stator, surrounding
a laminated-iron circular rotor. When such a motor is connected to a three-phase power
source, currents will flow through the stator (armature) windings.
A revolving magnetic flux from the stator currents will traverse the air-gap between the
stator and rotor, the flux density at any point depending on the current in the coil and the
position of the point relative to the axis of the winding. If the winding is properly distributed,
the flux density will vary approximately sinusoidally with position around the air-gap, and in
any case, the space wave of flux produced will have a sinusoidal fundamental component,
together with harmonics. The harmonics will be neglected here.
This revolving flux in the stator windings will revolve synchronously (at the same electrical
speed) with the system frequency. If a rotor constructed in the form of a squirrel cage of
copper conductors or wound-rotor connected to external resistance, is placed in the
revolving or rotating flux, the revolving field will sweep past the conductors in the rotor,
inducing alternating voltages which will then cause currents to flow in the rotor conductors.
These currents (or their fluxes) react to produce an electromagnetic torque, causing the
rotor to revolve in the direction of the field however, always at a speed slower than that of
the armature revolving field.
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To explain the principle of constant rotating magnetic field, consider the figure below.
3. cost 240

Y - direction

60

1. cos t

60

X - direction

60

2. cost 120

Fig 1.1: Rotating Magnetic Field in 3-phase Stator Winding

Three-phase currents can be used to produce, with stationary coils, a field which rotates in
space, by employing three sets of coils exciting poled pieces placed at 1200 to each other.
Let the component fluxes due to the three phases be as follows:
1 max cos t
2 max cos(t 120)
3 max cos(t 240)

represents the flux produced in the space between the coils by

current in phase 1.
represents the flux produced in the space between the coils by
current in phase 2.
represents the flux produced in the space between the coils by
current in phase 3.

Resolving the phasors in the X and Y directions,

0
0
0
0
X max cos t max cos(t 120 ) cos 60 max cos(t 240 ) cos 60
1.5 max cos t

(1)

0
0
0
0
Y max cos(t 240 ) sin 60 max cos(t 120 ) sin 60
1.5 max sin t

(2)

and

The resultant flux R is given as:

2
2
R X Y

1.5 max cos t 2 1.5 max sin t 2

(3)

1.5 max

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The angle between the resultant field and X-direction or X-axis is given by

1.5 max sin t

tan Y
tan t
1.5 max cos t
X

(4)

Thus the resultant flux is constant in magnitude 1.5 max and rotates with a uniform
angular velocity in the anticlockwise direction. It will be seen that if phases 2 and 3
are interchanged, the direction of rotation of the resultant field is reversed. It must be noted
that, a two-phase winding also gives a rotating or revolving field exactly the same as a
three-phase winding.
3-1.2 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field
Recall that for any number of poles P , the rotating magnetic field makes one complete
revolution during P / 2 cycles. The number of r.p.s. of the magnetic field times the number of
cycles during one revolution ( P / 2 ) gives the number of cycles per second, or the
frequency f, that is,
revolutions
cycles
cycles

f
sec ond
revolution sec ond

Since the revolutions per second equals revolutions per minute ( N ) divided by 60, then
N P
f
60 2

120 f
P

The speed of the rotating magnetic field N

SESSION 4-1

(5)
120 f
is termed synchronous speed.
P

WHY SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS ARE NOT

SELF-STARTING

The number of machines operating from single-phase supplies is greater than all other
types taken in total. For the most part, however, they are only used in the smaller sizes,
less than 5 kW and mostly in fractional horsepower range. They operate at lower power
factors and are relatively inefficient when compared with three-phase motors.
Single-phase motors are designed to operate from a single-phase supply, and are
manufactured in a large number of types to perform a wide variety of useful services in
homes, offices, factories, workshops, on farms, business establishments and many other
places where electricity is available.
Since the performance requirements of the various single-phase motor
applications differ so widely, many different types of single-phase motors have been
developed by the motor-manufacturing industries, each type operating
characteristics to meet specific demands.
.11

For example, one type operates satisfactorily on direct current or any frequency up to 50
Hz; another rotates at absolutely constant speed regardless of load; another develops
considerable starting torque; still another, although not capable of developing much starting
torque, is nevertheless extremely cheap to make and very rugged.
When fed from a single-phase supply, the stator winding of a single-phase motor produces
an alternating or pulsating flux (or field), i.e., one which alternates along one space axis
only. It is not a synchronously revolving or rotating flux, as in the case of a two- or threephase stator winding fed from a 2- or 3-phase supply. An alternating or pulsating flux acting
on a stationary rotor cannot produce rotation. Only a revolving flux can. That explains why
single-phase motors are not self-starting.
This peculiar behaviour of the single-phase motor can be explained by two theories:
(i)
(ii)

two-field or double-field theory

cross-field theory proposed by Ferrari

4-1.1 Double-Field Theory

Single-phase machines are examples of singly-excited rotating machines that have either
the stationary part (stator) or the movable part (rotor) being excited or energised by a
current-carrying coil. In either case, motion is caused by a movable part changing its
position so as to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Because of the physical
construction in the rotary case, the axis of the rotor tries to align itself with the axis of the
field.
Single-phase machines have the drawback of fixed speed and pulsating torque. To explain
the pulsating nature of the torque, we refer to the known torque equation for a singlyexcited system.

1
T max 2 (1 cos 2t )(S q S d ) sin 2
4
1
max 2 ( S q S d )sin 2 sin 2 cos 2t
4

(6)

where

= angle between the rotor axis and the reference stator axis
S d = minimum reluctance, and occurs when the rotor center line is

coincident with the direct (stator) axis, i.e., when = 0, , 2, etc.

S q = maximum reluctance, and occurs when the rotor center line is
coincident with the quadrature axis, i.e., when = /2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.
The torque Eqn (6) represents the equation of a pulsating field, in other words, the
magnetic field produced by the stator field of the single-phase system is pulsating, though
varying sinusoidally with time.
.12

Furthermore, it can be seen from the torque Eqn (6) that if = 0, /2, 3/2, 5/2, etc, the
torque is zero. Otherwise there will be two components:

a constant torque component and

a component oscillating at a frequency of 2.

The constant component of the torque will always act to return the rotor to its equilibrium
position at = 0 or /2. And so the single-phase motor (an example of singly-excited
system) is not self-starting.
Substituting = (rt ) into Eqn (6), the instantaneous torque expression becomes

1
T max 2 (1 cos 2t )(S q S d ) sin(2 r t 2 )
4
1
max 2 ( S q S d )sin(2 r t 2 ) sin(2 r t 2 ) cos 2t
4

(7)

Using the relation sinAcosB = sin(A + B) + sin(A B), Eqn (7) becomes

sin(2 r t 2 )

1
1
T max 2 ( S q S d ) sin(2 r t 2t 2 )
2

4
1

sin(2 r t 2t 2 )
2

(8)

The reluctance torque of Eqn (8) can be seen to contain the angular velocities of both the
rotor and the supply.

Consider the 2 cases where the

angular velocity of the rotor is equal to the angular velocity of the supply
synchronous operation and
angular velocity of the rotor is not equal to the angular velocity of the supply
voltage induction operation.

(i)
(ii)

CASE I:

r = (synchronous operation)

If the rotor angular velocity r is equal to the angular velocity of the source voltage, which
is the case for single-phase synchronous motors, then the torque expression of Eqn (8)
becomes:
1
1
1

T max 2 ( S q S d )sin(2t 2 ) sin(4t 2 ) sin(2 )

4
2
2

(9)

.13

It must be noted that this torque contains oscillating or harmonic components of

double- and quadruple-frequency. The pulsating torques produced by these harmonics are
time variables and have no net effect (mean values of zero).
Only the last term of Eqn (9) is independent of time and produces an average torque other
than zero, the value of which is given by:
1
T av max 2 ( S d S q) sin 2
8

CASE II:

(for single - phase synchronous system) (10)

r (induction operation)

If the rotor angular velocity r is not equal to the angular velocity of the source voltage,
which is the case for single-phase induction machines, then all three terms within the last
group of brackets become time variables with mean values of zero. Thus
T av 0 (for single - phase induction system)

(11)

4-1.2 Ferraris Theory

The torque Eqns (6) and (11) show that the single-phase induction motor experiences
pulsating torque and has no inherent starting torque.
Ferrari pointed out that the pulsating field can be resolved into two equal fields rotating in
opposite directions with equal angular velocities. The maximum value of each component is
equal to half the maximum of the pulsating field.
The existence of these two rotating fluxes in opposite directions can be verified practically
by supplying a fractional horsepower single-phase induction motor with rated voltage. The
motor does not start, but if the shaft is turned by hand, say in clockwise direction, the rotor
picks up speed. This means that the rotor conductors are rotating in the direction of that
field which rotates in clockwise direction.
When the motor is braked and stopped without switching off the supply, the rotor remains
at rest. If now the shaft is turned by hand in anti-clockwise direction, the motor picks up
speed in that direction. This means that the rotor conductors are now rotating in the
direction of the other field.
This non-self-starting behaviour of the motor, according to Ferrari, is due to the
presence of two opposing torques due to the two opposing fields. When the rotor is at
rest (i.e., slip = 1), the two torques are equal and opposite in direction. Hence the net
torque is zero and therefore the rotor remains at rest.

.14

The Fig below shows the torque variations due to the two fields.
Toque(T)
T2 owing to 2

Resultant torque
Slip(S)
T1 owing to 1

Fig 1.2: Torque Variation Due to Two Opposing Fields Ferraris Theory
If the rotor is made to speed up in one direction, say in that in which T1 increases, T1
exceeds the opposing torque T2 and the motor begins to accelerate. T2 goes on
diminishing until at the working speed, it is negligibly small. Hence the single-phase rotates
in the direction in which it is made to run.
To be most satisfactory, single-phase motors, must be self-starting, and a number of
methods are used to accomplish this.

SESSION 5-1

MAKING SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS SELF-STARTING

If a single-phase AC. voltage is applied to a squirrel-cage induction motor with only one
stator winding, the magnetic field produced is not rotating but merely pulsates. This
explains why the single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. The rotor will not turn, but
if turned mechanically, will start to rotate on its own accord after a certain speed is reached,
as has been explained in the preceding section.
To overcome this drawback and make the motor self-starting, means must be provided to
create an initial (starting) torque. But the starting torque is only possible, if a rotating or
revolving flux is created in the stator.
It is known that a rotating flux is produced when there is a difference of 90 0 between
the currents of two stationary coils. In other words, if the stator possesses two
fluxes having a large phase difference, the result is a rotating flux.
There are many methods by which the necessary phase difference between two stator
fluxes (or winding currents) can be created, and so make the single-phase motors selfstarting for the most satisfactory performance.

.15

SESSION 6-1

TYPES OF SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

Even though the three-phase motor has a number of distinct advantages over the singlephase machine, it is occasionally necessary to install small single-phase motors,
particularly where three-phase power is not available. In such a case, the single-phase
motors are energized from lighting circuits, which are invariably single phase and are used
for driving fans, sewing machines, relays, etc.
Single-phase motors may be classified as follows, depending upon their construction and
method of starting:
6-1.1 Single-Phase Induction Motors
(A) Split-Phase Motors
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Inductor-Start Motor
Capacitor-Start Motor
Permanent-Split (Single-Value) Capacitor Motor
Two-Value Capacitor Motor

(B) Shaded-Pole Motors

(C) Reluctance-Start Motor
(D) Repulsion-Start Motor
6-1.2 Single-Phase Commutator Motors
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Repulsion Motors
Repulsion-Induction Motors
AC Series Motors
Universal Motors

6-1.3 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors

i.
ii.
iii.

Reluctance Motors
Hysteresis Motors
Sub-synchronous Motors

.16

Unit 2
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Introduction
Single-phase induction motors are in very wide use in industry, especially in fractional
horse-power field. They are manufactured for low power (small loads) constant speed
apparatus such as machine tools, domestic apparatus and agricultural machinery in
circumstances where a three-phase supply is not readily available.
They have the following advantageous and disadvantageous characteristics:

It is simple, robust and cheap

It has low power factor and low efficiency at small loads, but these increase as the
load increases
It requires less maintenance
The speed of induction motor cannot be varied beyond a certain limit, thus limiting its
application to industry where speed control is not required as in driving generators,
lifts, pumps, shafts, etc.
Single-phase induction motor is, however, not inherent self-starting.

Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:

understand and explain the various methods adopted to start a

single-phase induction motor.
appreciate the applications or uses of the various single-phase
induction motors
compare the advantages and disadvantages of the various singlephase induction motors
solve simple exercises on the value of capacitance employed in
capacitor motors

The single-phase induction motors to be covered are:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Split-phase motors
Shaded-pole motors
Reluctance-start motors
Repulsion-start motors

.17

SESSION 1-2

SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS

One method of making a single-phase motor self-starting is to employ the so-called phasesplitting principle. For this purpose, the stator winding of a single-phase motor is provided
with an extra winding, known as starting (or auxiliary) winding, in addition to the main (or
running) winding. The two split-stator windings (running and starting windings) are arranged
900 electrically apart, and are connected in parallel across the single-phase supply.
It is so arranged that the phase difference between the currents I start and I run in the
starting and running windings respectively of the stator, is very large (ideal value being 90 0
because there are two windings). The current in the starting winding produces a field which
is out of phase with that due to the main or running winding.
These two stator-winding currents thus produce a revolving flux and hence make the motor
self-starting. Hence the motor behaves temporarily like a two-phase motor at starting.
Motors constructed in this way are called split-phase induction motors. The Fig below
shows an arrangement in which the stator has two windings, a main (running) winding and
a starting (auxiliary) winding.
d axis
Id
V
V

Iq

q axis

Iq

Id

Fig 2.1: Phase-Splitting Principle for Making Single-Phase Motors Self-Starting.

The main or running winding, which is connected across the line in the usual manner, is
made heavier wire of more turns, and placed near the bottom of the slots. The running
winding therefore has a low resistance and a high inductance. Because of its lower
impedance, the current in the running I run is higher than the current in the starting winding
I start .
The starting winding, which is displaced 90 electrical degrees from the main winding, has
fewer turns and is wound of fine copper wire of smaller diameter than the running winding,
and is placed near the top of the slot. The starting winding thus has a high resistance and
low inductance, because it consists of fine wire placed near the top of the slots.
.18

The resistance of the starting winding may be increased either by connecting a high
resistance in series with it or by choosing a high-resistance fine copper wire for winding
purposes.
The direction of rotation of split-phase motors can be reversed by reversing the
connections of one of the two stator windings, but not both. The speed regulation of
standard split-phase motors is nearly the same as that of the 3-phase motors. Their speed
varies about 2 5% between no-load and full-load. Because of this, split-phase motors are
usually regarded as practically constant-speed motors.

To obtain a higher ideal phase-splitting, a capacitor is additionally inserted in

series with the stator windings.
Split-phase induction motors can therefore be categorised, depending on whether an
inductor or capacitor is used for the phase-splitting, into the following types:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Inductor-Start Inductor-Run Motors

Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Motors
Permanent-Split (or Single-Value) Capacitor Motors
Two-Value Capacitor Motors

1-2.1 Inductor-Start Inductor-Run Motor

As a split-phase motor, the inductor-start split-phase motor has two windings spaced 900
apart in the stator. The starting winding of the split-phase motor is made of fine wire, 6 to 7
sizes smaller than that of the run winding, and has 20 to 30% fewer turns than the run
winding does. The run winding is placed in the bottom of the slots and has more turns than
the start winding does. This design gives the run winding less resistance and more
inductive reactance or lagging current than the start winding has.
The currents I start and I run in the starting and running windings respectively of the stator
are out of phase with each other. See Fig below for the phase relations:

.19

I run
Main or Running
Winding

V
Centrifugal
Switch

I start

start

Rotor

I run

q axis

Starting
Winding

d axis

Fig 2.2: Inductor-Start Split-Phase Motor and Their Phase Relations.

The difference in the amount of lag will make the two currents about 30 to 50 0 apart, thus
causing phase displacement at starting. Since the torque developed by a split-phase motor
is proportional to the sine of the angle between the start and run currents, the starting
torque is rather low. To obtain even greater displacement and better starting characteristics
with reduced current, a choke may be placed in series with the starting winding.
Because the starting torque of a split-phase motor is proportional to the sine of the angle of
lag between the starting and running currents of the split-stator, the ideal or best of
conditions would be that the two currents are 90 0 out of phase with each other. This is
achieved with a capacitor.
But for practical reasons, this is not readily obtainable. Therefore the two starting and
running windings will produce a weak rotating magnetic field, which is sufficient to produce
a low-starting torque. As the motor speeds up, the torque developed increases. See Fig
below.

Percent torque

300
Running and
winding
200

100

Running winding
only

20

40

60

80

100

Percent synchronous speed

Fig 2.3: Typical Torque-Speed Characteristics of Split-Phase Inductor-Start Motor

.20

Above 85% of synchronous speed, the torque developed by the running winding (main
winding) is actually greater than that developed by both running and starting windings, and
it might be advantageous to open the auxiliary circuit at this crossover point. And so to
minimise losses and keep the power factor as high as possible, a centrifugal switch
S which is connected in series with the starting winding, which automatically opens
and cuts out the starting winding from the supply when the motor attains
approximately 75-80% of synchronous or full speed. The motor then operates on only
the running winding as a single-phase induction motor, as previously explained.
The starting winding is not designed for continuous operation, and care must be exercised
that it does not remain connected to the supply after it should have been disconnected by
the centrifugally operated switch S. In case of a hermetically sealed motor, the switch is
magnetically operated, and is opened in the de-energised condition.
Split-phase induction motors may be reversed by reversing the line connections of either
the main (running) or the auxiliary (starting) winding. If, however, reversal is attempted
under normal running condition, nothing will happen. If it is necessary to reverse the motor
while it is rotating, then some means (incorporation of a timing device) must be
incorporated to slow the motor down to speed where the starting-switch contacts close,
placing the starting winding across the supply lines.
Another way of obtaining the required time phase differential between the two split-phase
winding currents is to insert a high resistance in series with the starter winding or by
designing the starter winding with high resistance-to-reactance ratio. Split-phase induction
motors are therefore sometimes referred to as resistance-start split-phase induction
motors, in order to distinguish them from capacitor-start induction-run and capacitorstart capacitor-run motors yet to be described.
1-2.1.1

Shortcomings and Uses of Inductor-Start Inductor-Run Motor

The major objections and advantages of the split-phase inductor-start motor are
(1) its low starting torque and efficiency, but its low starting efficiency makes it
impractical to be manufactured in any larger than horsepower.
(2) low manufacturing cost, which makes it popular
(3) that, when heavily loaded, the slip exceeds 5%, reducing the emf and producing a
pulsating torque which makes the motor somewhat annoyingly noisy.
For these reasons, the split-phase inductor-start motor is used in appliances to drive loads
which are themselves noisy or any unit that requires a small, competitively priced motor: oil
burners, machine tools, grinders, dish washers, washing machines, air blowers and
air compressors. Very few shops rewind split-phase motors because of the low
replacement cost.
The starting efficiency of the split-phase motor is not very good for two reasons: Firstly, the
ideal timing of 900 between the start and run currents is not possible without a capacitor.
Second, the small wire size of the start winding limits the amount of current flow. More
current would make a stronger magnetic field. The start winding of the split-phase motor
can be energized for only a few seconds.
.21

1-2.2 Capacitor Motors

Another method of splitting the single-phase supply into two phases to be applied to the
stator windings at starting is by placing a capacitor in series with the starting auxiliary
winding. Hence we obtain a capacitor motor, where a capacitor is connected in series with
the starting winding instead of a choke as described above, thereby achieving an even
greater displacement between the start and run currents.
In placing the capacitor in series with the starting winding, the current in the starting
winding may be made to lead the line voltage. Since the running winding current lags the
line voltage, the phase displacement between the two start and run currents may be made
to approximate 900 on starting.
The circuit of a capacitor motor and its phase relations are shown in the Fig below.
I run

Running
Winding

I start

s 40
run 40

S
C

I
I

start

Rotor

run

Starting
Winding

Fig 2.4: Capacitor Motors and Phase Relations

Because the starting torque depends on the sine of the angular separation between
the currents in the two split-windings, that is, T I run I startsin , the capacitor motor with
a much higher phase-shift angle has a higher starting torque than the induction- or
resistance-start split-phase motor.
Purely from the viewpoint of torque, it would appear that a 90 0 separation is optimal.
However, when the size of the capacitor, magnitude of the starting currents and economics
are considered, a lesser separation is more attractive. Practically, the difference between
900 and 800, for example, reduces the starting torque by only 1.5%, if all other factors
remain equal.
From the phase relations of the capacitor motor, the angular displacement between the
currents start run 400 (400 ) 800 .

.22

The capacitor motor is basically the same as the induction-start split-phase motor, except
for the start winding. The starting winding of the capacitor motor is made of fine wire, 1 to 4
sizes smaller than that of the run winding, and has 20 to 30% fewer turns than the run
winding does.
The run winding has a large amount of inductive reactance because it has a large number
of turns that are placed in the bottom of the slot. The start winding also has a large amount
of inductive reactance. However, the capacitor is connected in series with it to make its
start-current lead the run-winding current by almost 900. See Fig (b) above.
This near 900 separation of the start- and run-winding currents gives the capacitor motor
the same type of rotating magnetic field, while starting, as the two-phase motor has. The
exact 900 separation thus gives the capacitor motor the maximum starting efficiency.
The total current I , being the vector sum of the start and run currents, is nearly in phase
with the voltage, and hence the power factor is near unity, and the starting torque will be
large. This motor will supply the same torque as a three-phase motor, at about 70% as
much current.
When the rotor speed reaches about 75 to 80% of rated speed, the start winding is
switched off by the centrifugal switch system, and the motor continues to run as on the
main or run winding. The start winding and capacitor of the capacitor motor are designed to
be energized for only a few seconds.
Capacitor motors have become considerably popular, because it has better
efficiency and power factor than inductor-start split-phase type, and can be
constructed to have excellent starting and running characteristics.
Example 1:
Measured at 50 Hz, the two windings of a split-phase capacitor motor has the following
impedances:
Running Winding:

Z run 3.1 j 2.9

Starting Winding:

Z start 7.0 j3.1

Find the capacitor size that will produce an angular separation of = 900 between the splitstator winding currents.
Solution 1:
Because the supply voltage is common to the split-stator windings, the supply voltage is
taken as the reference voltage. That is, V V 0 0 . The capacitor is inserted in series with
the starting winding to produce a starting current that leads the supply voltage.

.23

The starting current is given as:

V 00
I start
Z start Z C ( Z start Z C )

tan 1 X start X C
Z start Z C
R start

(12)

I start tan 1 X start X C

R start

The running windings are without capacitor, and so the run current is given as:

I run

V 00
Z run ( Z run)
V

tan 1 X run
Z run
R run

(13)

I run tan 1 X run

R run
The angle of lead between I start and V is given as the difference between the voltage
angle and the impedance angle of the starting phase:

start V ( Z start Z C )

V R start ( X start X C )

1
V 7.0 ( j 3.1
)
jC

V 7.0 j (3.1
)
C

(14)

Similarly, the angle of lag between I run and V is given as the difference between the
voltage angle and the impedance angle of the running phase:

run V ( Z run)

V R run X run
V 3.1 j 2.9

(15)

For the capacitor providing the leading starting current, the angular displacement between
the leading starting current and the lagging running current is:

.24

 start run 900

Substituting the values as in Eqns (3) and (4),
1

900 (3.1 j 2.9) 7.0 j (3.1

)
C

3.1

2
.
9

1
C
tan 1
tan
7.0
3.1

C 250.7 F

Example 2:
A hp 115 V 60 Hz 1725 rpm split-phase induction motor at the instant of starting draws a
current of 11.2 150 A in its auxiliary and a current of 15.2 40 0 A in the main winding.
Calculate at the instant of starting the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)

line current
starting power factor
in-phase components of the main and auxiliary winding currents with the line voltage
If a capacitor is added in series with the auxiliary winding, which causes a current of
8.840 0 A to be drawn during starting, calculate
i. new line current
ii. new starting power factor
iii. value of the capacitor

Solution 2:
a) I start 11.2 150 A 10.82 j 2.90 A
I main 15.2 40 0 A 11.64 j9.77 A

Hence I line I start I main 22.46 j12.67 25.79 29.430 A

b) Starting power factor = Pf cos 29.430 0.87 lagging

c) In-phase component of starting current with respect to line voltage ReI start 10.82 A
In-phase component of main current with respect to line voltage ReI main 11.64 A

Note that at the instant of starting, the in-phase components are nearly
equal
.25

d) Insertion of capacitor in series with auxiliary winding

(i) I start( new) 8.840 0 A 6.74 j5.66 A
I main 15.2 40 0 A 11.64 j9.77 A (remains unchanged)

Hence I line( new) I start( new) I main 18.38 j 4.11 18.83 12.610 A

(ii) New starting power factor Pf new cos 12.610 0.98 lagging

Note that the addition of the capacitor has reduced the inrush(or
line) current from 25.79 A to 18.83 A, and at the same time improved the
power factor from 0.87 lag to 0.98 lag.
(iii) The auxiliary (start) winding impedance without the capacitor is

Z start

V0 0
1150 0

10.2715 0 (9.92 j 2.66)

I start 11.2 15 0

The new (increased) auxiliary winding impedance with the capacitor is

Z start( new)

V0 0
1150 0

13.07 40 0 (10.01 j8.40)

0
I start( new) 8.840

Hence the capacitive reactance due to the capacitor is

X c Im aginary component I m Z start( new) I m Z start j8.40 ( j 2.66) j11.06

Hence the capacitance is given as

C

1
1

239.84 F
2fX c 2 60 11.06

.26

1-2.3 Types of Capacitor Motors

Three are basically three types of capacitor motors:
1. Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Motor (Capacitor-Start Motor)
2. Permanent-Split Capacitor-Run Motor (Single-Value Capacitor-Run Motor)
3. Two-Value Capacitor-Run Motor
1-2.4 Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Motor
The capacitor-start induction-run motor (referred to simply as capacitor-start motor) uses
the circuit shown in the figure for capacitor motors, but has a capacitor of sufficient size to
give the best starting torque.

I start
C
Starting
Winding

Rotor

I run
Running
Winding

Single-phase
a.c. supply

S
Fig 2.5: Capacitor-Start Motor
The capacitor used in the starting circuit of a capacitor-start motor is generally of the
electrolytic type, and is designed for extremely short-duty service, that is, the capacitor
phase (or start winding) is energized only during the starting for a few seconds (not more
than 3 seconds).
The motor has centrifugal switching system. When the motor reaches about 75 to 80% full
speed, the centrifugal switch cuts out both the starting winding and the capacitor from the
supply, leaving only the running winding across the line. The motor then runs as a singlephase induction motor. Hence the name capacitor-start induction-run motor. See Fig 2.6
below.

.27

Running and starting winding

300

200
Running winding only

Switching
speed

Percentage torque

400

100

20

60
80
40
Percentage synchronous speed

100

Fig 2.6: Torque-Speed Characteristics of Capacitor-Start Motor

With the capacitor operating during starting, the run- and start-currents could be out of
phase with each other practically by about 800 as compared to nearly 300 for an inductionor resistance-start motor. The resultant current is small and almost in phase with the supply
voltage, leading to improved power factor.
Since the torque developed by a split-phase motor is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the start and run currents, it is obvious that the increase in the out-of-phase angle
(from 300 to 800) alone considerably increases the starting torque of capacitor-start motors
to nearly twice the value developed by a standard induction-start motor. Other
improvements in the motor design have, however, made it possible to increase the starting
torque to a value as high as 350 to 450%.
1-2.4.1 Inductor-Start versus Capacitor-Start Motor

The increase in phase angle between starting and running winding currents is not
the only difference between the induction-start and capacitor-start motors. The
induction-start motor must keep the number of starting winding turns low (low
reactance), so that the current may be nearly in phase with the line voltage. This,
however, is not necessary in a capacitor-start motor, since the capacitor can
overcome the inductance of the winding while still providing the proper phase shift.
There are thus more auxiliary starting winding turns in the capacitor-start motor than
in the comparable induction-start split-phase motor. This provides a greater number
of ampere-turns, hence a larger rotating flux and therefore a further increase in the
starting torque.
Also, because of the greater angle between the two stator or field currents as a
result of the capacitor insertion, the line current is less in capacitor-start motors than
induction-start motors. In addition, the starting power factor is better. For a given line
current therefore, the starting torque is much higher for a capacitor-start motor than
for a standard split-phase induction motor.
The starting torque of a capacitor-start motor is from 3 to 4.5 times the full-load
torque, while that of split-phase induction-start motor rarely exceeds twice the fullload torque.
.28

The capacitor-start motor may be reversed by changing the connections of one of

the windings, but it is subject to the same limitations as the resistance-start splitphase induction motor.

1-2.4.2 Uses/Applications of Capacitor-Start Motor

By virtue of their higher starting torque, capacitor-start split-phase induction motors are
used for pumps, compressors, refrigeration units, air conditioners, and large washing
machines, where a split-phase motor is required that can develop high starting torque
under load.

1-2.5 Single-Value (Permanent-Split) Capacitor Motor

The permanent-split capacitor-run motor, also sometimes referred to as single-value
capacitor-run motor, is a single-phase induction motor which has the same capacitor in
series with the starting (or auxiliary) winding for both starting and running. Obviously,
because the capacitor remains in circuit permanently, there is no need for a centrifugal
switching system for the permanent split-phase motor, which is necessary in the case of
capacitor-start motors.
The Fig 2.7 below shows the connection diagram for a permanent split-phase capacitor
motor with a capacitor in conjunction with an autotransformer, and the phase relations.
Adjustable autotransformer

I start
Starting
Winding

Rotor

I run
Running
Winding
Single-phase
a.c. supply

Reversing selector
switch

Fig 2.7: Single-Value Capacitor Motor and Its Phase Relations

The permanent split-phase capacitor motor starts and runs by virtue of the quadrature
phase-splitting produced by the two identical start and run windings. As a result, it does
not possess the high running torque compared with that produced by either the
inductor-start or the capacitor-start motor.
.29

1-2.5.1 Principle of Operation of Single-Value Capacitor Motor

This scheme permits the starting winding to draw a large leading current with the use of a
comparatively small capacitor. When the motor is started, the reversing selector switch
connects the starting windings to a higher point on the autotransformer, thereby supplying
higher voltage to the capacitor.
The high transformer ratio provides a current through the starting winding that is about
twenty times as large as would flow, if the capacitor were connected directly to the starting
winding. This heavy current provides a high-starting torque.
When the motor reaches nearly full-load speed, the reversing selector switch connects the
starting phase to a lower point on the autotransformer with a transformer ratio about one to
two. The current through the starting phase will now be about twice as much as would flow
if the capacitor were connected directly in this phase.
Since the capacitor remains in the circuit permanently, this motor is often referred to as
permanent-split capacitor-run motor, and behaves practically like an unbalanced 2-phase
motor. Furthermore, since the same capacitor is used for both starting and running, the
capacitor must be designed for continuous-duty rating. Hence more expensive oil-filled
capacitors or pyranol-insulated foil paper capacitors are used.
Because the same capacitor is used for both starting and running conditions, it is obvious
that neither optimum starting nor optimum running performance can be obtained, since the
value of capacitance used must be a compromise between the best value for starting and
that for running. The result is that the motor has a very poor starting torque, about 50 to
100% of rated torque. Generally, oil-filled capacitors of 75 to 350 F capacitance are
employed.
As mentioned, the permanent capacitor motor runs on both windings. When running on a
single winding (as in the case of a resistance-start split-phase motor), the power pulsations
at twice the applied frequency (Refer Eqn 7), result in a fairly noisy motor. However, in
the case of permanent capacitor motors which run on both windings with approximately
900-phase separation, the power is smooth and the motor is quiet.
And so because of the fairly uniform rotating magnetic field created by equal windings
whose currents are displaced by almost 90 0, the torque is fairly uniform and the permanent
split-phase motor does not exhibit the characteristic pulsating hum (noise) developed by
most single-phase motors when loaded.

.30

1-2.5.2 Advantages of Single-Value Capacitor Motor

There are a few advantages in leaving the capacitor permanently in circuit. The permanent
split-phase capacitor motor thus possess the following merits:
1. Improvement of over-load capacity of the motor (since the starting current I start is
reduced by the capacitor)
2. Higher power factor at full-load
3. Lower full-load line current I .
4. Higher efficiency
5. Increased pull-out torque
6. Quieter running of the motor, which is so much desirable for small power drives in
offices and laboratories.
The permanent split-phase capacitor motor is more expensive than the equivalent splitphase resistance-start or capacitor-start induction motor. This is primarily due to the fact
that the auxiliary (or starting) winding is now also a running winding. It must therefore have
a continuous duty rating, and as such is heavier than if it were short-time rated.
1-2.5.3 Single-Value Capacitor Motor versus Capacitor-Start Motor
The split-phase permanent capacitor-run motor is similar to the capacitor-start induction-run
motor, except for the following:

The capacitor and start winding are connected in the circuit at all times in the
permanent-split capacitor-run motor
The capacitor in the permanent-split capacitor-run motor is the oil-impregnated type
(because of continuous-duty service) and is of low value, compared with electrolytic
capacitors (due to short-duty operation for starting) for capacitance-start motors.
No centrifugal device or stationary switch is necessary in the permanent-split
capacitor-run motor.

1-2.5.4 Uses/Applications of Single-Value Capacitor Motor

Because of its instant response as a reversing motor, its quieter operation and the
possibility of speed control, the permanent-split capacitor motor is used for exhaust and
intake fans and blowers, unit heaters and office machines.

1-2.6 Two-Value Capacitor Motor

For the single-value (permanent-split) capacitor-run motor to supply a high starting torque,
it would require a large capacitor, which would be too large and unsuitable for normal
running conditions. To optimise running characteristics, a relatively low capacitance is
required. Low capacitance in the starting windings, however, result in low starting torques,
about 50% of the rated torque. Therefore to retain the running characteristics, and
simultaneously improve the starting torque, a second capacitor will have to be paralleled
with the permanent capacitor during the starting period.
.31

The ideal situation therefore is to have two capacitance values, a high capacitance value
for starting purposes and a low capacitance value for running. The capacitance during
starting may be 10 or more times as much as the running capacitance. The starting
capacitor is rated for limited duty.
1-2.6.1 Principle of Operation of Two-Value Capacitor Motor
A common method to provide two capacitance values is to use two parallel capacitors, for
which means are provided (through a centrifugal switch) to reduce the capacity as soon as
the motor nears full speed. This is obtained with a two-value capacitor-run motor. See Fig
below.
C run-oil-filled capacitor
C start-electrolytic capacitor

C start

C run
Starting
Winding

Rotor

Running
Winding

Single-phase
a.c. supply

Fig 2.8: Connection Diagram for a Two-Value Capacitor Motor

Using Two Parallel Capacitors
The two-value capacitor-run motor combines the quiet operation and limited speed control
advantages of a permanent-split capacitor-run motor with the high starting torque of the
capacitor-start motor. The motor has a starting electrolytic capacitor connected in
parallel with a running oil-filled capacitor and the centrifugal switch. See Fig above
The electrolytic starting capacitor, similar to that used for the intermittent duty of the
capacitor-start split-phase motor, is of fairly high capacity (about 10 to 15 times the value of
the running oil-filled capacitor), and is cut out of the circuit by a centrifugal switch when slip
reaches about 75%.
At the instant of starting, both capacitors are in parallel with each other, but in series with
the start winding, providing a high capacity. This creates a high-starting torque, which is
usually required by compressors, stokes, and so on. When the motor reaches
approximately 75 to 80% synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch S disconnects the
large starting electrolytic capacitor from the starting circuit, and leaves the comparatively
small running oil-filled capacitor permanently connected in the circuit. The oil-filled running
capacitor gives power factor correction, reducing the magnetizing current supplied by the
line.

.32

1-2.6.2 Advantages of Two-Value Capacitor Motor

The major advantage of the two-value capacitor-motor is its high starting torque, coupled
with quiet operation and good running torque.
Still classed as a reversing motor, when the line leads are reversed, it is reversed in the
usual manner. When the speed drops below 25% slip during reversing, the centrifugal
switch closes its starting contact, providing the maximum torque as the motor slows down
and reverses. The contact opens again when the motor is up to about 75% synchronous
speed. It must be noted, however, that frequent reversals will reduce the life of the
centrifugal switch.
1-2.6.3 Performance Characteristics of Two-Value Capacitor Motor
The performance of the two-value capacitor motor has the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ability to start heavy loads

Extremely quiet operation
Lower starting current and lower running current
Higher efficiency and power factor
Ability to develop 25% overload capacity.

1-2.6.4 Uses/Applications of Two-Value Capacitor Motor

Due to its extremely quiet operation, the two-value capacitor motor finds use in smaller
home air-conditioning units which use this motor in its compressor and operate on a 15
A branch circuit. The lower starting current and lower running current (7.5 A maximum) at
an improved power factor over the capacitor-start motor, are obtained through precise
selection of starting and running capacitors for the fixed compressor load.

SESSION 2-2

SHADED-POLE MOTORS

Another method of obtaining a starting torque is by means of the so-called magnetic

shading. The shaded-pole motor is one of the simplest and cheapest of manufactured
motors. It is essentially an induction motor, since its squirrel-cage rotor receives power in
much the same way, as does the rotor of the three-phase induction machine. There is,
however, one extremely important difference between the two.
Whereas the three-phase induction motor creates a true revolving field flux of constant
magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed completely around the entire core, the field
of the shaded-pole motor is not constant in magnitude but merely shifts from one side of
the pole to the other. Because the shaded-pole motor does not create a true revolving
field, the torque is not uniform but varies from instant to instant.
.33

2-2.1 Constructional Features of Shaded-Pole Motor

The construction of a shaded-pole motor is illustrated below.
Stator
d

Main
winding

q
Rotor

Shading coil

Fig 2.9: Shaded-Pole Motor

The rotor is squirrel-cage. Unlike the distributed-winding poles of the split-phase motors,
the stator of the shaded-pole motor has wound salient poles. A heavy copper shortcircuited band, called shading coil, is placed around a shaded portion of each pole. The
free portion of the pole is the unshaded part. The exciting coil surrounds the entire shaded
coil. In a small, cheap motor, this may be done by merely drilling a hole, inserting a bare
copper wire, and twisting the ends together to loop a portion of the pole.
2-2.2 Principle of Operation of Shaded-Pole Motor
When the exciting (or main) winding is connected to a single-phase AC source of supply, a
sinusoidal flux will be established by the pole windings. The flux created by the main
winding will split up into two parts, d and q, and the magnetic axis will shift from the
unshaded part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole. This shift in the magnetic axis is,
in effect, equivalent to an actual physical motion of the pole. The result is that the rotor will
rotate in a direction from the unshaded part to the shaded part.
The splitting of flux is explained below. With a sinusoidal flux established by the pole
windings, a voltage will be induced in the shading coil (short-circuited copper band) and
short-circuit currents will also be induced in the shading coils, which according to Lenzs
Law, will have such a direction as to oppose changes in flux through the shading coil.
There will thus be a concentration of flux, say d, in the main segment (unshaded portion)
of each pole, while the shaded segment which opposes the main field flux will experience
less concentrated flux, say q, through it.

.34

The end effect is that q will lag d by a certain angle , and conditions are therefore
met for the creation of a starting torque. The motor will run in the direction of the q-axis,
that is, in the counter-clockwise direction.
2-2.3 Revolving Field of Shaded-Pole Motor
As stated in the introductory statement, field of the shaded-pole motor is not constant in
magnitude but merely shifts from one side of the pole to the other. This is explained as
follows:
During the portion of the sinusoidal build-up, that is, when the sinusoidal flux is increasing
in each field pole, the rate of change of change is substantial and the resulting short-circuit
currents in the stator produce an opposing flux to the main field flux, thus causing the flux
to divert to the unshaded portion (main segment) of the pole.
When the sinusoidal flux is near its peak value, the rate of flux change and of current is
small, and there is virtually no induced voltage in the shaded coil. Consequently, the flux is
the same in both the shaded and unshaded portions. The flux is thus uniformly distributed
across the poles.
When the flux is decreasing at a substantial rate, the current reverses in the shaded coil
to maintain the flux in the same direction. The result is that the most of the pole flux gets
crowded in the shaded portion of the pole.
And so when both of the poles are considered, the resulting flux through the rotor of the
shaded-pole motor is not constant, does not have a uniform velocity, and does not
revolve completely around the stator. But the motion is sufficient to provide the
necessary rotational-voltage component in the rotor to cause it to start.
Flux movement continues during the running period, adding an additional torque
component to that attributable to speed voltages. The resulting direction of movement of
flux and the rotor is from the unshaded to the shaded side of the pole.
2-2.4 Merits and Demerits of Shaded-Pole Motor
The demerits of the shaded-pole motor are:

low power factor

very low starting torque
low efficiency (30 to 40%)

The merits of the shaded-pole motor are:

rugged construction
small in size
cheaper in cost
requires little maintenance

.35

2-2.5 Uses/Applications of Shaded-Pole Motor

Its slow starting torque limits its application in devices where low starting torque and low
efficiency are of minor concern in devices such as toys, small fans and blowers,
phonograph or turntables, rotating store-window display tables and relatively light
loads (1/20 to 1/4 horsepower).

SESSION 3-2

RELUCTANCE-START MOTORS

Of great importance in certain types of electric machines is the creation of what is called
reluctance torque. The reluctance-start induction motor is a single-phase motor that
operates on the reluctance principle. The reluctance principle exploits the characteristic that
magnetic flux will select the lowest-reluctance path in completing its circuit.
3-2.1 Construction and Principle of Operation of Reluctance-Start Motor
The single-phase reluctance-start induction motor has a salient-pole stator and a
squirrel-cage rotor (non-salient). The effect of the saliency is the creation of a nonuniform air-gap between the stator and rotor. See Fig below.
Single-phase a.c
supply

Salient-pole stator

Field
winding

Squirrel-cage
Rotor

Fig 2.10: Reluctance-Start Induction Motor

The characteristics of the reluctance-start induction motor are similar to that of the shadedpole motor in the sense that, its magnetic field shifts across the pole. But this magnetic field
shifting is obtained by the non-uniform air gap of the salient poles.
Where there is a greater air gap, the reluctance is greater and the sinusoidal flux in that
portion is more nearly in phase with the current. But where the air gap is smaller, the
reluctance is lower and there is a greater lag between the flux and current.
.36

Since the same current produces both fluxes, the flux across the larger air gap leads the
flux across the smaller air gap, and so the magnetic field shifts across the poles from the
larger air gap to the shorter air gap. The displacement of the two fluxes by an angle with
respect to each other creates the necessary condition for a starting reluctance torque.
Since the shifting of the magnetic flux is as a result of the non-uniform air gap, the direction
of rotation of the rotor is firmly fixed by the construction, and the motor cannot be reversed
at all.
3-2.2 Uses/Applications of Reluctance-Start Motor
The reluctance-start induction motor has low starting torque, and therefore has limited use,
usually only where starting torque requirements are low. For most small power applications,
however, the shaded-pole motor is preferred.

NOTE: The reluctance-start induction motor is an induction motor, and should not
be confused with the reluctance motor which is actually a non-excited synchronous motor.

SESSION 4-2

REPULSION-START MOTORS

As its name implies, the repulsion-start induction motor starts as a repulsion motor with its
brushes set to the maximum torque. To appreciate the principle of operation of the
repulsion-start induction motor, an understanding of the principle of operation of the
repulsion motor is necessary.
A repulsion motor in its simplest form consists of a distributed stator field winding in a
smooth-cored stator and a rotor or armature with distributed windings connected to a
commutator (split-rings), similar to that of a DC machine. The armature or rotor winding is
not connected electrically to the main supply circuit. But the brushes are short-circuited,
and are set at an angle to the direction of the main flux. See Fig below.

S
R

(a) S

S
R

(b) S

(c)

R Inclined to S

Fig 2.11: Rotor of the Repulsion Motor

.37

4-2.1 Construction and Principle of Operation of Repulsion-Start Motor

When energised, the distributed stator winding establishes a sinusoidally variant flux on the
stator axis, say vertical or q-axis, resulting in transformer voltages (i.e., induced voltages) in
the rotor.

If the short-circuited brushes are electrically located on the direct or d-axis, i.e., at
right angles to the direction of the stator flux (see Fig a), the emf induced in onehalf of the rotor winding is exactly balanced by the emf induced in the other half, so
that the resultant emf is zero. No net current flows in the rotor winding and no
torque is developed.
If the brushes are placed in line with the direction of the stator flux (see Fig b), the
emf in one half assists that in the other, so that a maximum current flows. But here
again, no net torque is developed, since the torque of one half of the rotor
conductors is exactly balanced by that due to the other half.
But if the brushes make an angle with the stator flux as shown in Fig c, a resultant
torque is produced. Rotation of the rotor occurs because of the repulsion of like
poles. The torque is a maximum theoretically, if this angle is 450, but in practice the
angle of inclination is about half this value.

Thus it can be seen that the emfs induced in the rotor windings induce rotor coil currents
whose polarity changes not with respect to the direct axis but rather to the brush axis. In
other words, the speed of the repulsion motor is not frequency-sensitive as in
induction and synchronous motors, but depends on the brush axis. Speed
adjustment is thus by shifting the position of the brushes.
For the repulsion-start induction motor, when the load has been accelerated to about
75% of synchronous speed, a complex mechanism raises the brushes and concurrently
short-circuits the segments (commutator bars). By creating a short-circuit across the
commutator segments, the rotor is the electrical equivalent of a squirrel cage. The rotor
then runs as induction motor.
4-2.2 Merits and Demerits of Repulsion-Start Motor
The repulsion-start induction motor has the following merits:
1. high starting torque
2. low starting current
3. ability to accelerate a heavy load more rapidly than the dual-capacitor motors.
Despite the high starting torques, the repulsion-start induction motor has been replaced by
capacitor motors because of the following demerits:
(i) requires more maintenance
(ii) more expensive
(iii) makes quite a bit of noise
(iv) causes radio interference when starting
(v) cannot be reversed easily
.38

EXERCISES ON SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Exercise 2.1
(a) Give the FOUR main classes of single-phase induction motors according to starting
characteristics?
(b) With the aid of a sketch and mathematical deductions, explain why three-phase motors
are self-starting.
(c) Describe the principle of operation of a shaded-pole motor, and give two demerits and
merits each of the shaded-pole induction motor
(d) State the reluctance principle. Give a short and concise description of the construction
and operation of a reluctance-start induction motor
(e) Explain, with schematic and phasor diagrams, the construction and principle of
operation of a split-phase AC induction motor. Indicate the phasor diagram at the
instant of starting and discuss the speed-torque characteristics
(f) A 1/4 hp 220 V 50 Hz 4-pole capacitor-start motor has the following constants.
Main or Running Winding:
Z run 3.6 j 2.9
Auxiliary or Starting Winding: Z start 8.5 j3.9
Find the value of the starting capacitance that will place the main and auxiliary winding
currents in quadrature at starting.
Exercise 2.2
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

Describe the operation of a single-value capacitor motor, and give THREE

advantages of the motor.
Outline any THREE constructional differences between the single-value capacitor
motor and the capacitor-start motor
1
Starting from the torque equation T max2 ( S q S d )sin 2 sin 2 cos 2t of a
4
singly-excited motor, displaced at angle r t , where the symbols have their
usual meanings, explain why a single-phase induction motor is non-self-starting, but
a single-phase synchronous motor is self-starting.
How can a capacitor-start induction motor be reversed? What is the advantage of
using the two-value capacitor motor?
A hp 115 V 60 Hz 1725 rpm split-phase induction motor has the following winding
constants:
Main Winding: Z main 9.29 j 2.72
Auxiliary Winding: Z aux 5.93 j5.08
Calculate the following:
i. locked-rotor current at the instant of starting and starting power factor
ii. running power factor and input power with a full-load current of
4.05 40.6 0 A
iii. full-load efficiency, neglecting core losses.
iv. value of capacitor required to be connected in series with the auxiliary
winding to draw a leading current of 12.843.4 0 A
.39

Exercise 2.3
(a)

State the reluctance principle. Discuss, with diagrams, the construction and principle
of operation of a reluctance-start motor.
What is the basic drawback of the reluctance motor? Give any TWO applications of
the reluctance motor.
Assume that the torque equation of a singly-excited motor, displaced at angle
1
r t , is given as, T max2 (S q S d )sin 2 sin 2 cos 2t , where the
4
symbols have their usual meanings. Expand this equation and use it to explain why
a single-phase synchronous motor is self-starting, but a single-phase induction
motor is non-self-starting.

(b)
(c)

Unit 3
SINGLE-PHASE COMMUTATOR MOTORS
Introduction
The single-phase commutator motors are so called because the wound rotor of this kind of
motor is equipped with a commutator (split-rings) and brushes. This group consists of two
main classes:

Those operating on repulsion principle in which energy is inductively transferred

from the single-phase stator field winding to the rotor.
Those operating on the principle of the series motor in which energy is conductively
carried both to the rotor armature and its series-connected single-phase stator field.

The types of single-phase commutator motors to be covered are:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Repulsion Motors
Repulsion-Induction Motors
AC Series Motors
Universal Motors

Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:

understand and explain the various methods adopted to start a

single-phase commutator motor.
appreciate the applications or uses of the various single-phase
commutator motors
compare the advantages and disadvantages of the various singlephase commutator motors
.40

SESSION 1-3

REPULSION MOTORS

The constructional features and principle of operation of repulsion motors are as covered
under repulsion-start induction motor. (See Section 4-2)

SESSION 2-3

REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTORS

The single-phase repulsion-induction motor combines the constant-speed

characteristics of the single-phase induction motor with the good starting torque
characteristics of the repulsion motor.
The stator of the repulsion-induction motor is like that of a single-phase induction motor.
The rotor, however, is built up of laminations, each of which has two concentric sets of
slots. These slots contain two independent windings, squirrel-cage windings in the inner
slots and repulsion (or commutator) windings in the outer slots. Both windings are
continuously operative. See Fig below:

Slots for commutator

windings

Squirrel-cage windings

Fig 3.1: Rotor of the Repulsion-Induction Motor

2-3.1 Principle of Operation of Repulsion-Induction Motor
At starting and during the acceleration period, the magnetic flux produced by the stator
windings embraces only the commutator windings in the outer slots owing to the high
reactance of the squirrel-cage. The motor then starts up virtually as a repulsion motor, and
develops a high starting torque. As the motor speeds up, the reactance of the squirrel-cage
decreases, so that the squirrel-cage winding assists the commutator winding to supply the
running torque.
2-3.2 Merits of Operation of Repulsion-Induction Motor
1.
2.
3.
4.

high starting torque

fairly good speed regulation
very high power factor
major virtue is the ability to continue to develop torque under sudden, heavy applied
loads without breaking down
.41

2-3.3 Uses/Applications of Repulsion-Induction Motor

All forms of the repulsion motor are expensive. Such motors are suitable for single-phase
power applications which require a high starting torque and constant speed when running.
They are particularly adapted to drive machine tools, lifts, hoists, mixing machines,
centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers.

SESSION 3-3

AC SERIES MOTORS

The series motor due to its desirable speed-torque characteristics is almost exclusively
used in railway service. While the series DC motor is entirely satisfactory for this class of
work service and is generally used on trams (street railway cars) and trolley coaches, the
fact that it is more convenient and more economical to transmit power and transform
voltages in AC systems than with DC, has led to the development of the AC series motor
for use. See Fig below:

Ia=If=Iline
Single-phase a.c.
supply

armature
Field winding

Fig 3.2: AC Series Motor

3-3.1 Principle of Operation of AC Series Motor

The single-phase series AC motors are commutator motors (with split-ring and
brushes), whose working principle is the same as that of the DC series motor. The
armature and field windings are wound and interconnected in the same manner as the DC
series motor. In machines designed for series excitation, the field coils are made of a few
turns of thick wire, because these coils carry the full load current.
It will be recalled that in a DC series motor, the field windings are connected in series with
the armature windings and therefore carry the full-load current. Because these coils carry
the full load current, the field coils are made of few turns of thick wire (i.e., low resistance R ,
low reactance X ). In a series motor, due to the low reactance, the field current and
armature current will be considerably in phase. Consequently, in such a machine,
considerable torque will be developed, since the torque developed is proportional to the
angle of lag.
.42

From the knowledge of the DC motor, it is known that reversal of the directions of both the
flux and the armature current (achieved through the commutators or split-rings) does not
change the direction of the torque. The direction of the flux depends on the direction of the
current through the coil.
And so when an alternating emf is applied to the terminals, since field and armature
windings are connected in series, the field flux and armature current reverse
simultaneously every half cycle, but the direction of the instantaneous torque remains
unchanged. However, the unidirectional torque developed is not of constant magnitude (as
in DC series motors), but will have the double-frequency (2 ) pulsation (see Eqn 7)
common to single-phase power. But its average value is equal to that which a DC motor will
develop if it had the same rms value of flux and current.

NOTE: Although it is theoretically possible to operate a DC series motor from an AC

circuit, the ordinary DC series motor, however, does not function satisfactorily on AC,
for the following reasons:
1. In DC machines, the stator and pole cores are solid castings inasmuch as the flux is
constant. For AC operation, the alternating flux will set up large core (eddy currents
and hystereis) losses in the unlaminated portion (yokes and field cores) of the
magnetic circuit of DC series motor, causing excessive heat and a lower efficiency.
2. The high inductive field reactance of a series motor establishes a large voltage drop
across the field winding, which reduces the current input and power factor to such an
extent as to make the motor impractical.
3. When used on AC, there is some problem with commutation, especially in large
motors. It should be noted that in an AC series motor, the flux produced by the field
winding is alternating and it induces voltage (by transformer action) in the shortcircuited coil during its commutating period. The field winding, associated with the
armature coil undergoing commutation, acts as primary and the armature coil during
its commutating period acts as a short-circuited secondary. This transformer action
produces heavy currents in the armature coils short-circuited by the brushes as they
undergo commutation. The rupture of these currents gives rise to severe arcing or
excessive sparking at the brushes during the commutation period, unless the voltage
induced by transformer action is neutralized. The series AC motors are therefore
used only in small sizes and find their application in various domestic appliances.

.43

3-3.2 Necessary Structural Changes to Reduce Eddy Currents and Reactance

Problems Associated With AC Series Motor
By proper modification of design and other refinements, a satisfactory single-phase series
AC motor can be produced. The methods of reducing the above difficulties associated with
series AC motors to a minimum are:

The eddy currents are reduced to a negligible value by making the magnetic circuit
entirely laminated. The laminated field poles and yoke must then be supported in a
cast-steel housing. Hence AC motors require a more expensive construction than
DC motors.

To reduce the reactance voltage drop of the field and improve the power factor, it is
necessary to decrease the reactance of the field and armature winding. This may be
done by using a low frequency. The usual supply frequency of 50 Hz is too high,
except for small motors. Medium-size series AC motors are generally supplied with a
25-cycle voltage, and in the case of large railway series motors, a 15-cycle voltage is
sometimes used (through frequency converter).
Regardless of the frequency used, the field reactance is reduced by using as few
turns on the field winding as possible. For a given current, it will reduce the field
mmf, which will result in reduced air-gap flux. This will tend to increase the speed (
V I a Ra
N
E b ) but reduce the motor torque ( T a K 2 I a ). To obtain the

K1
K1
same torque, it will be necessary to increase the number of armature turns
proportionately. This will, however, result in increased inductive reactance of the
armature, so that the overall reactance of the motor will not be significantly reduced.
A high field flux is obtained, however, by reducing the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit as low as possible, which is accomplished by making the iron cross section
large and the air gaps short.

A distributed compensating winding is required to reduce the reactance of the

armature winding by reducing the leakage flux and to neutralize the crossmagnetising effect of the armature ampere-turns. The compensating winding is
arranged to supply a magnetizing action that is equal and opposite to that of the
armature coils at all loads. This is accomplished either by connecting the
compensating winding in series with the armature (conductive compensation) or
short-circuiting it upon itself so that it has no interconnection with the motor circuit
(inductive compensation).

.44

Line

Line

Field
windings

Field
windings

Armature

Armature
Compensating
winding

(a)

Compensating
winding
(b)

Fig 3.3: Connections for

(a) Conductive Compensation
(b) Inductive Compensation
In the inductive compensation, the magnetizing action of the compensating winding
is obtained by transformer action. The compensating winding acts as a shortcircuited secondary of a transformer, for which the armature winding acts as a
primary. The current in the compensating winding will be proportional to the
armature current and 1800 out of phase with it.
But if the motor is designed for both DC and AC, the compensating winding should
be connected in series with the armature (conductive compensation).

The excessive sparking at the brushes, caused by the flux cutting short-circuited
coils during commutation, can be eliminated by using non-inductive high-resistance
leads to connect the coils to the commutator segments. These leads are generally
wound at the bottom of the slots, and each has a resistance of about twice that of a
coil. Each coil short-circuited by a brush has two resistance leads in series with it,
hence the current through it is small.

Owing to the modifications (structural changes) that must be made to reduce eddy currents
and high reactance, AC series motors are more complex in structure, heavier per power
output, and therefore more expensive than DC series motors of the same rating.
3-3.3 Uses/Applications of AC Series Motors
Single-phase series AC motors are used to drive equipment having a fairly constant load
such as hand tools, vacuum cleaners. Direct-on-line starting is usual for these small
motors. Reversal of rotation is obtained as in the DC case, with the reversal of either field
or armature winding.

.45

SESSION 4-3

UNIVERSAL MOTORS

Fractional horsepower series motors that are adapted for use on either DC or AC circuits of
a given voltage are called universal motors. The universal motor is designed for
commercial frequencies from 50 Hz down to DC (zero frequency), and for voltage from 250
V to 1.5 V. A commercial universal motor may have a somewhat weaker series field and
more armature conductors than a DC series motor of equivalent horsepower. It is
manufactured in ratings up to 3/4 h.p., particularly for vacuum cleaners and industrial
sewing machines, electric shavers. In smaller sizes of 1/4 h.p. or less, it is used in
electric hand drills and hand hair dryers.
Like all series motors, the no-load speed of the universal motor is universally high and
torque low. And so quite frequently, gears are built into the motor housing of some
universal motors to provide exceedingly high torque at low speeds.
4-3.1 Advantages of Universal Motors
The universal motors offer the following advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.

High speed from above 3600 rpm to around 25,000 rpm

High power output in small physical sizes for use in portable tools
High torque at low and intermediate speeds to carry particularly severe loads
Variable speed by adjustable governor, by line voltage or by modern pulse
technique.

4-3.2 Disadvantages of Universal Motors

The universal motor suffers the following disadvantages:
1. Increased service requirement due to use of brushes and commutators. The life of
these parts is limited in severe service
2. Relatively high noise level at high speeds
3. Moderate to severe radio and TV interference due to brush sparking
4. Requirement for careful balancing to avoid vibration
5. Requirement for speed reduction gears in most portable tools.

EXERCISES ON SINGLE-PHASE COMMUTATOR MOTORS

Exercise 3.1
(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

Give FOUR types of single-phase commutator motors.

What design or constructional modifications are needed to practically make it
possible for the series motor to be adapted and operated as a universal motor on
either AC or DC circuit? Explain why these modifications are necessary.
What function does the compensating winding serve in this motor? Give and explain
the two connection arrangements used for compensating winding.
Give three (3) advantages and disadvantages each of the use of universal motor.
.46

Unit 4
SINGLE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Introduction
In many motor applications, it is very important that the speed be constant. For example,
the accuracy requirement of an electric clock certainly necessitates a synchronously
running motor. The need for frequency reproducibility in a high-quality recording system
may also exclude an asynchronously running induction motor. In such and similar cases,
one may choose a motor which starts as an induction motor but runs as a synchronous
motor.
Generally, synchronous machines lack starting torque and require a prime mover or motor
to bring them up to synchronous speed before being synchronised. For some applications,
when the synchronous machine must be self-starting, this feature is added by means of a
rotor-cage winding. Upon being energised, the rotor starts as an induction motor. When its
speed nears the synchronous value, the field winding is excited by a DC source, and the
DC current sends synchronous flux that creates a synchronous torque and locks the rotor
into synchronism with the stator flux.
Single-phase synchronous motors are really single-phase induction-start
synchronously running motors, that is, upon being energised, the rotor starts as an
induction motor, and when its speed nears the synchronous value, the motor snaps into
synchronism due to the synchronous torque emanating from the DC current in the field
winding. The torque necessary for this locking-in is of the reluctance type, which is
described in the next section. This type of motor lacks the brushes and slip rings of a
normal synchronous machine. Its rotor winding has the simplicity and ruggedness of an
induction motor cage.
The single-phase induction-start synchronously running motor is widely used in constant
speed applications where the requirements for high torque are not too severe.
The basic difference between the rotors of an induction-start synchronously running motor
and a normal induction motor is the saliency design. The effect of the saliency is the
creation of a non-uniform air-gap between the stator and rotor. Normal induction motors
have non-salient poles on the stator and a cylindrical rotor, whilst induction-start
synchronously running motors have salient poles in either the stator or rotor core.
In reluctance-start synchronously running motors, the number of salient rotor poles must
match the number of poles of the stator winding. The induced currents in the squirrel-caged
rotor winding will give the torque necessary for starting as induction motor. As the rotor
reaches speeds close to synchronous speed and if the slip speed is below a critical value,
the field winding is excited by a DC source, and the rotor locks into synchronism with the
stator flux, due to the synchronous torque emanating from the DC current in the field
winding.

.47

Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:

understand and explain the various methods adopted to start a

single-phase synchronous motor.
appreciate the applications or uses of the various single-phase
synchronous motors
compare the advantages and disadvantages of the various singlephase synchronous motors

The single-phase synchronous motors to be covered are:

5. Reluctance motors
6. Hysteresis motors
7. Sub-synchronous motors

SESSION 1-4

RELUCTANCE MOTORS

Of great importance in certain types of electric machines is the creation of what is called
reluctance torque. Reluctance motors are single-phase salient-pole induction-start
synchronously running motors that operate on the reluctance principle. As has been stated
already, the reluctance principle exploits the characteristic that magnetic flux will select the
lowest-reluctance path in completing its circuit.
As stated earlier, the basic difference between the rotors of an induction-start
synchronously running motor and a normal induction motor is the saliency design. Whilst
normal induction motors have non-salient poles and a cylindrical rotor, induction-start
synchronously running motors rather have salient poles either in the stator or in rotor core.
The effect of the saliency is the creation of a non-uniform air-gap between the stator and
rotor, so that the reluctance of the air-gap flux path will be greater where there are no
conductors embedded in slots and lower at the salient-poles with embedded conductors.
Such synchronous-induction motors are generally called reluctance-type motors.
A motor with such a salient-pole rotor is called a reluctance motor. They start and come
up to speed as induction motors, and are pulled into synchronism with the pulsating AC
single-phase field by the reluctance torque developed at the rotor salient-poles which have
lower reluctance air-gaps.

1-4.1 Constructional Features of Reluctance Motors

The reluctance motor, basically an induction-start synchronously run motor, is one of the
simplest forms of an electric motor, and demonstrates a torque of alignment. In reluctance
motors, the saliency is on the rotor core.

.48

The stator winding of the reluctance motor is a phase-splitting type or shaded pole, to
ensure a revolving flux and hence a starting torque. The rotor of the reluctance motor is
basically a squirrel-cage (unsymmetrical salient-pole) with a number of teeth and
conductors removed. See Fig 4.1 below

Rotor slots

Fig 4.1: Salient-Pole Rotor of Reluctance Motor

If the rotor of any uniformly distributed single-phase induction motor is so altered or shaped
that the laminations tend to produce such an unsymmetrical salient-pole rotor, then the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit will depend on the angular position of the rotor.
1-4.2 Principle of Operation of Reluctance Motors
In order to understand the working of a reluctance motor, the basic fact which must be
borne in mind is the reluctance principle: When a piece of magnetic material is located in a
magnetic field, a force acts on the material, tending to bring it into the densest portion of the
field. The force tends to align the specimen material in such a way that the reluctance of
the magnetic path that passes through the material will be minimum.
Stated simply, the reluctance motor operates on the variable reluctance principle,
where the displacement of the rotor through an angle results in a change in
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, and the machine experiences a torque which tries
to align the rotor with the stator poles.
When the supply is given to the phase-splitting type or shaded pole stator winding, the
revolving magnetic field will exert reluctance torque on the unsymmetrical salient-pole rotor,
tending to align the salient-pole axis of the rotor with the axis of the revolving stator
magnetic field (because in this position, the reluctance of the magnetic path would be
minimum).
From the general torque equation of a single-phase motor in Eqn (6), which is recalled
1
T max 2 ( S q S d )sin 2 sin 2 cos 2t
4

(6)

.49

it is seen that the instantaneous reluctance torque on the rotor depends on two factors:

instantaneous strength of the flux and

concurrent angular orientation of the of the rotor with respect to the axis of the stator
flux.

But the average reluctance torque (obtained for synchronous operation) is as given in Eqn
(11), and is recalled here:
1
Tav max 2 ( S q S d ) sin 2
8

(11)

Rotor torque

A graph of the variation of torque with rotor angular orientation is shown below:

45

90

135

180

Fig 4.2: Variation of Torque With Rotor Angular Orientation

From the graph of torque variation with rotor angular orientation, the rotor reaches a
maximum when = 450, and then decreases to zero as the rotor takes on a horizontal
position ( = 900) characterized by zero magnetization. As the angle exceeds 900, the
polarity of the rotor reverses and so does the torque. Note that the torque completes a fullcycle for one-half turn of the rotor.
If the reluctance torque is sufficient to start the motor and its load, the rotor will pull into
step with the revolving field and continue to run at the speed of the revolving field.
Actually, the motor starts on the main (running) and auxiliary (running) windings of the
stator as an induction motor, continues to run when the auxiliary (starting) winding cuts out,
and at speed near synchronous, the motor snaps out of induction and into reluctance
running, where the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field so that
the motor now runs as synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency.
Reluctance motors have approximately one-third the horsepower rating they would have as
induction motors with cylindrical rotors, although the ratio may be increased to one-half by
proper design of the field windings. Power factor and efficiency are poorer than for the
equivalent induction motor.
.50

1-4.3 Speed-Torque Characteristics of Reluctance Motors

%synchronous speed

Running and auxiliary winding

100
80
60
Running winding only
40
20
100

200

300

400

500

600

%full-load torque

Fig 4.3: Speed-Torque Characteristics of Reluctance Motor

The motor starts at anywhere from 300 to 400% of its full-load torque (depending on
the rotor position of the unsymmetrical rotor with respect to the field windings) as a
two-phase motor, as a result of the magnetic rotating field created by a starting and
running winding displaced about 900 in both space and time.
At about 75% of the synchronous speed, a centrifugal switch opens the starting
winding, and the motor continues to develop single-phase torque produced by its
running winding only.
As it approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque (developed as a
synchronous motor) is sufficient to pull the rotor into synchronism with the pulsating
single-phase field of the running winding.
The motor operates at a constant speed up to a little over 200% of its full-load
torque. If it is loaded beyond value of its pull-out torque, the motor loses
synchronism but continues to run as a single-phase induction motor up to 500% of
its rated output.

1-4.4 Uses/Application of Reluctance Motors

Being a singly-excited (single-phase) rotating machine, the reluctance motor has the
drawback of a pulsating component of torque of double-supply frequency.
Despite its shortcomings, the reluctance motor is widely used for many constant speed
applications such as recording instruments, time devices, and control apparatus.

.51

SESSION 2-4

HYSTERESIS MOTORS

Whilst reluctance motors are single-phase salient-pole synchronous-induction motors,

hysteresis motors on the other hand are single-phase non-salient-pole (cylindrical)
synchronous-induction or shaded-pole motor. A hysteresis motor has neither a salient pole
rotor nor direct excitation, but nevertheless it rotates at synchronous speed. This type of
motor runs into synchronism and runs on hysteresis torque.
The operation of this motor depends on the presence of a continuously-revolving magnetic
flux. Hence for the split-phase operation, its stator has two windings which remain
connected to the single-phase supply continuously both at starting and running of the
motor. Once the rotor is started, it will rotate in synchronism with the revolving stator field,
since it does not rely on the induction principle.
2-4.1 Constructional Features of Hysteresis Motors
Because the operation of this motor depends on the presence of a revolving magnetic flux,
the stator winding may be of the phase-splitting type or shaded- pole type. But usually,
shaded-pole principle is employed for this purpose, thus giving shaded-pole hysteresis
motor. Alternatively, the stator winding of the type used in capacitor motors may be used,
giving the so-called permanent-split capacitor-type hysteresis motor.
The capacitor is chosen so as to result in approximately balanced 2-phase conditions within
the motor windings, thereby producing a rotating field, approximately constant in space
waveform and revolving at synchronous speed. It is obvious that in either case, no
centrifugal switching system is used.
It will be recalled that a substantial mmf is required to alter domain orientations in a highretentivity material. In a hysteresis motor, the rotor is a smooth cylindrical (non-salient-pole)
type, made of hardened, high-retentivity material like steel without windings or teeth, so
that the hysteresis loss is high. Alternatively, rotors of ceramic permanent magnet material
may be used, whose resistivity approaches that of an insulator. Consequently, eddycurrents are almost non-existent in such a rotor. Hence there will be no eddy-current loss,
but only hysteresis loss.
The rotor of a hysteresis motor is made of permanent-magnetic material and has no
windings. It is placed within a slotted stator carrying distributed windings designed to
produce as nearly as possible a sinusoidal space distribution of flux, since undulations in
the flux wave greatly increase the losses.
The Fig below shows a two-pole hysteresis rotor.

.52

Direction of rotation

(a) domain vectors

(b) hard magnetic

steel rotor

Fig 4.4: 2-Pole Rotor of the Hysteresis Motor

2-4.2 Principle of Operation of Hysteresis Motors

Because of the high retentivity of the rotor material, it is very difficult to change the
magnetic polarities once they are induced in the rotor by the revolving flux. If the rotor is
locked and a constantstrength stator flux s, revolving at synchronous speed is applied,
magnetisation takes place in the rotor and the domains tend to align with this flux (Fig a).
However, a high-retentivity steel produces a high hysteresis loss, and an appreciable
amount of energy (work) is consumed from the rotating field in the continual realignment
and the domain vectors lag the stator flux.
The vector sum of the domain vectors, the rotor flux r, therefore lags the stator flux by the
so-called hysteric angle . (Fig a above). The condition is then met for a high starting
hysteresis torque that causes the rotor to rotate. If the rotor now is locked, it will follow the
stator flux, accelerating to synchronous speed. The rotor revolves synchronously, because
the rotor poles magnetically lock up with the revolving stator poles of opposite polarity.
However, the rotor poles always lag behind the stator poles by the hysteric angle .
Throughout the accelerating period, the lag angle remains constant and both r and s
are constant. Therefore the torque also is constant. (see Fig below)
At synchronous speed, the lag angle decreases, as the domain vectors more nearly align
with the stator flux s. But complete coincidence or alignment of the domain vectors with
the stator flux is not possible, since there then would be no torque angle to maintain
rotation.

In effect, at synchronous speed, the rotor is permanently magnetized along a

fixed axis, which lags the stator flux s by the torque angle required for the rotation of the
load. Consequently, the motor continues to rotate at synchronous speed. (see Fig below)
.53

Fig 4.5: Torque-Speed Characteristics of Hysteresis Motor

The mechanical power developed by the rotor of the hysteresis motor is given as:
1 s

Pmech Phys
s

(16)

where Phys = hysteresis loss

Also the hysteresis torque is given by the relation

T hys 9.55

Pmech
Ns

(17)

It is seen from Eqn (17) that the hysteresis torque is dependent only on the area of the
rotors hysteresis loop. A high starting hysteresis torque (proportional to the hysteresis) is
thus produced as a result of the high retentivity.

2-4.3 Points to Note About Hysteresis Motors

Unlike the reluctance motor, the hysteresis motor cannot operate at steady speeds less
than synchronous. If the load torque increases, the motor will readjust the torque angle to
provide equilibrium. Loading beyond the maximum torque will stop the motor.
Furthermore, the hysteresis motor will not accelerate with a stator flux pulsating on a fixed
axis, and so either a split-phase (permanent-capacitor) or shaded-pole stator is required.
2-4.4 Uses/Applications of Hysteresis Motors
With permanent-capacitor stator, the hysteresis motor is the smoothest-running, quietest
single-phase motor and therefore is preferred for quality sound-reproduction equipment.
However, for identical horsepower ratings, the hysteresis motor is more expensive than the
reluctance motor. With provision for pole changing in the stator, the motor can be made
multi-speed. The hysteresis motor is made in very small sizes only.
.54

SESSION 3-4

SUB-SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

When the motor has a rotor that has an overall cylinder outline and yet is toothed as a
many-pole salient-pole rotor, it is a sub-synchronous motor. A typical rotor may have 16
teeth or poles, and in conjunction with a 16-pole stator, will normally rotate at a
synchronous speed of 375 r.p.m. when operated on a 50 Hz supply. See Fig below.

Fig 4.6:Rotor of the Sub-Synchronous Motor

3-4.1 Principle of Operation of Sub-Synchronous Motors
This type of motor starts and accelerates with hysteresis torque just as the hysteresis motor
does. If the sub-synchronous motor were temporarily overloaded, it would drop out of
synchronism. Then the speed drops down toward the maximum torque point, and the motor
will again lock into synchronism at a sub-multiple speed of 187.5 r.p.m. Hence the motor is
given the name sub-synchronous motor. There is no equivalent of induction-motor
torque as in the reluctance motor.
This type of motor in any given size will develop a higher starting torque but a lesser
synchronous speed torque than a reluctance motor.

.55

SESSION 4-4

SELECTION OF SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

The type of single-phase motors to be selected depends on the applications requirements

and the operating characteristics. See Fig below:

% full-load torque

600

Centrifugal
Switching
speed

ue
torq
g
n
i
t
star
r
high pacito
ca
repu
l si o
n in
duc
tion

500 (4)
400 (3)
300

split-ph

200 (2)

a se

Shaded pole

100 (1)
10

20

30

40
50
60
% synchronous speed

70

80

90

100

Fig 4.7: Selection of Single-Phase Motors

1. Small fans, phonograms and measuring instruments require little starting torque.
The shading-coil starting motor (curve 1) is therefore satisfactory for these
machines.
2. Larger machines that start unloaded, such as lathes, mills, grinders, drills and
washing machines, can be started and operated most economically by split-phase
motors (curve 2).
3. Naturally, machines that start on load require a motor producing a higher starting
torque. Examples of these machines are pumps, compressors, stokers, food
grinders and conveyors. The two common types of high-starting torque motors are
the capacitor and the repulsion motors.
4. The high-torque capacitor motor is generally used for machines requiring starting
torques up to 300% full-load torque (curve 3).
5. The repulsion motor is generally used for machines over 1/3 hp requiring a starting
torque over 300% full-load value.
The high-torque capacitor motor can usually do the same type of work as the repulsion
motor. However, the capacitor motor is preferred to the repulsion motor for the
following reasons:

It costs less
It is more efficient
It does not produce radio interference
It is cheaper to maintain, because it does not have a commutator or short-circuiting
mechanism.
.56

For some heavily loaded machines, the capacitor motor may not be able to reach running
speed (approximately 75% synchronous speed) within about 30 seconds. In such a case,
either the capacitor or the starting winding may be damaged. The repulsion motor is more
rugged and will withstand the same load for 15 minutes or more without incurring any
damage.
For driving portable tools such as drills, grinders, and saws, the series (universal) motor
has the most suitable characteristics and is used almost exclusively for these tools, except
where three-phase power is available.

EXERCISES ON SINGLE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Exercise 4.1
(a)

Give THREE types of single-phase synchronous motors

(b)

Give a short description of the construction and operation of a hysteresis motor, and
explain why the hysteresis torque remains constant.

(c)

Point out TWO basic differences between reluctance and hysteresis motors.

.57

Unit 5
CONTROL MOTORS SPECIAL PURPOSE MOTORS
Introduction:
In industry and other applications, there is the growing need for unique types of electrical
machines that produce a rotary motion somewhat different from that produced by
conventional electric motors. Particular emphasis is now being placed on the design of
machines that can be controlled by computers, microprocessors and programmable
controllers and that are used for automated manufacturing systems. Such motors are called
control motors.
Microprocessor- and computer-controlled motors are used in automated machine tools and
processes as well as in robots, where precise positioning or precise speed control or both
are required. Some of the controlled processes include welding, turning, milling, lifting,
tightening, and the like, where precise control of motor speed, position, acceleration and
deceleration are needed.
The control motors are precisely controlled electronically by using solid-state circuits. A DC
drive amplifier that is controlled by computer logic circuits energises the stator coils of the
control motors. The drive amplifier circuitry is thus a key factor in the overall performance of
control motors.
The broad categories of solid-state motor control systems used in controlled processes are:

Stepper Motors
Servo Systems
Synchro Systems
Resolvers

Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:

understand and explain the various types of control motors.

appreciate the applications or uses of the various control motors
compare the advantages and disadvantages of the various control
motors

.58

SESSION 1-5

STEPPER MOTORS

Stepper motors are specialised electrical machines that are used to control automatic
industrial equipment. In a stepper motor, a logic circuit control switches in series with the
stator windings in order to cause the rotor to move through a specified or precise number of
angular increments, thereby permitting controlled angular or linear displacement in
automated manufacturing processes.
DC motors of this type are used in many high-power servomechanisms. They are typically
more efficient and develop significantly more torque than the synchronous servomotor. The
DC stepper motor is used primarily to change electrical pulses into rotary motion that is
used to produce precise mechanical movement.
Stepper motors are also called stepping motors or step motors. The name stepper is used
because the motor rotates through a specific number of mechanical degrees (or a fixed
angular step) in response to each input current pulse received by its controller. The amount
of rotary movement or angular displacement produced by each pulse can be repeated
precisely with each succeeding pulse from the input source. The output is then used to
accurately locate or position elements in automated industrial systems.
The widespread demand for and popularity of stepper motors is due to the fact that they
can be controlled directly by computers, microprocessors and programmable logic
controllers.
1-5.1 Stepper Motors In Open-Loop Systems:
The unique feature of a stepper motor is that its output shaft rotates in a series of discrete
angular intervals or steps, one step being taken each time a command pulse is received.
When a definite number of pulses are supplied, the shaft then turns through a definite (or
specific) known angle. This makes the stepper motor well-suited for open-loop position
control, because no feedback needs to be taken from the output of the shaft.
1-5.2 Some Stepper Motors Technologies:
The rotation of a stepper motor shaft is in fixed, repeatable increments or steps. Each time
the stator winding is energised by the input logic circuitry, the stepper motor shaft rotates
through a specific amount. Some of the terminologies used for stepper motors are
considered below.
1-5.2.1

Step Angle :

The degree of rotation or angle through which the stepper motor shaft rotates for each
command pulse from the input logic circuitry is called step angle . The smaller the step
angle, the greater the number of steps per revolution, and hence the higher the resolution
or accuracy of positioning obtained.
The step angle can be as small as 0.72 0 or as large as 900, but the most common step
angles are 1.80, 20, 2.50, 50, 7.50, and 150.
.59

The value of the step angle can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator poles
(or teeth) Pr and Ps respectively, or in terms of the number of stator coil pairs m (or
phases) and the number of rotor teeth Pr .

~
P s P r 3600
Ps Pr

1-5.2.2

3600
m Pr

3600
No. of stator phases x No. of rotor teeth

(18)

Resolution:

Resolution is the number of steps required for the rotor shaft to rotate through 360 0 or
complete one revolution. It is obtained by dividing the step angle into 360 0. Thus

Resolution No. of steps per revolution

360

step angle
1-5.2.3

(19)

Stepping Rate:

Rather than using the r.p.m speed rating as motors with free-running shaft do, the stepper
motor is rated in steps per second. This stepping rating is the number of steps the stepper
motor shaft rotates in 1 sec.
A stepper motor has the extraordinary ability to operate at very high stepping rates (up to
20,000 steps per second), and yet remain fully in synchronism with the command pulses.
When the pulse rate is high, the shaft rotation seems continuous. Operation of stepper
motor at high speeds is called slewing.
If f is the stepping frequency (or pulse rate) in pulses per second (pps) and is the step
angle, then the stepper motor shaft speed is given as:
N stepper

1-5.2.4

f
360

(r.p.s)

(20)

Step Response Time:

Step response time is another important rating of stepper motors. The value indicates the
time required for the motor shaft to complete a single step after a DC input signal has been
applied to the stator. This time rating is usually in milliseconds.
.60

Example 3:
A stepper motor has 8 stator poles which have 5 teeth each. If the rotor has 50 teeth,
calculate:
a)
b)
c)
d)

step angle
resolution
number of steps required to make 25 revolutions
shaft speed, if the stepping frequency is 3600 pps.

Solution 3:
No. of stator teeth Ps = 8 x 5 = 40 teeth No. of rotor teeth Pr = 50 teeth
a)

Step angle is

~
(50 40) x 360
P s P r 3600
1.80
0

Ps Pr

b)

50 40

Resolution is given as:

Resolution No. of steps per revolution

360
360

200 steps per revolution

step angle
1.8

c)

Number of steps required for 25 revolutions

No. of steps required for 25 revolutions steps per revolution x no. of revs
200 x 25
5000 steps

d)

Shaft speed N stepper

N stepper

f
360

1.8 x 3600
18 r.p.s.
360

1-5.3 Types of Stepper Motors:

Stepper motors can be classified into 3 main categories. These are
1. Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor
2. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor
.61

1-5.3.1

Variable-Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors:

It has wound salient multi-pole stator poles and unwound salient rotor poles made of
ferromagnetic material. The variable reluctance (VR) stepper motor operates on the
variable reluctance principle, i.e., the reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed by the rotor
and stator teeth varies with the angular position of the rotor. The direction of the VR stepper
motor rotation is independent of the polarity of the stator current.
As a variable speed machine, the VR stepper motor is sometimes designed as a switchedreluctance motor.
1-5.3.2

Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors:

It also has wound salient stator poles, and a cylindrical rotor whose poles are permanently
magnetised. The PM stepper motor is also called a variable speed brushless DC motor.
The direction of rotation of a PM stepper motor depends on the polarity of the stator
current.
1-5.3.3

Hybrid Stepper Motors:

A hybrid stepper motor combines the features of a VR stepper motor and a PM stepper
motor. Its stator construction is similar to that of the VR motor but the rotor is cylindrical and
composed of radially magnetised permanent magnets.

Let us look at the variable-reluctance stepper motor into detail.

1-5.4 Principles of Operation of VR Stepper Motors:
Consider, in the Fig below, a variable-reluctance stepper motor with a multipole (4 pole)
armature or rotor, and a multipole stator having six equally-spaced projecting poles (or
teeth) each wound with an exciting coil and series-connected to form 3 pairs of stator coils.
A
N

stator

S
1

N
3
S
B

rotor

2
4

S
N

N
S
A

Fig 5.1: Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor

With 4-Pole Rotor and 3 Pairs of Stator Coils
.62

The stepper motor is usually driven by pulsing the stator coils in a desired sequence.
When a pair of stator coils is energised, a magnetic field with its axis along that stator pair
of poles (or stator phase) is created, and in accordance with the reluctance principle, the
rotor will rotate into a position of minimum reluctance so that the diametrically opposite
rotor teeth line up with the energised pair of stator field coils.
The Table 5.1 below shows a typical switching sequence for the 3-phase 6/4-pole VR
stepper motor shown above.
Table 5.1: Switching Sequence for the 3-Phase 6/4-pole VR Stepper Motor

Step
1
2
3
1

AA
ON
OFF
OFF
ON

BB
OFF
ON
OFF
OFF

CC
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF

0
0
30
60
90

Step 1 shows the case for stator field coil pair AA (phase A) energized, and the rotor will
rotate into the 00 position.
In Step 2, the coil pair AA of phase A is deenergised and the coil pair BB of phase B is
energised,
causing
the
rotor
to
rotate
through
the
full-step
of
0
~
(6 4) 360
P s P r 3600
300 , so that the rotor aligns its two opposite poles with
5x4
P s Pr
the stator coil pair BB of the phase B.
In Step 3, the coil pairs AA and BB are deeenergized, whilst the stator coil pair CC of
phase C is energised. This causes the rotor to turn another full-step of 300 to align the rotor
with the stator coil pair CC, bringing the total angle turned in Step 3 to 60 0.
Finally in Step 4, the coil pairs BB and CC are deenergised, whilst the pair AA is
energised again, completing the switching sequence. The rotor turns an additional angle of
300, so that the total angle turned is 90 0.
It is thus seen that by successively energizing and deeenergizing the stator coil pairs, the
armature or rotor can be made to rotate in fixed steps through any number of complete
revolutions. In this example, by repetitively switching in the step sequence 1-2-3-1 and thus
energising the stator phases in sequence ABCA, the rotor will rotate in 30 0 full-steps.
However, the rotor can be rotated in 15 0 steps (instead of the full-step of 300) by
overlapping pulses, that is, exciting two stator phases (or coil pairs) simultaneously. In that
situation, the rotor experiences torques from both phases and comes to rest at a point
midway between the two adjacent full-step positions.
With proper commutation of the stator fields, the armature can be made to rotate smoothly
and continuously at speeds controlled precisely by the switching rate. The amount of
rotational displacement or step angle is determined by the number of teeth on the rotor and
switching sequence.
.63

1-5.5 Uses of Stepper Motors:

As explained, the stepper motor can be looked upon as a digital electromagnetic device
where each pulse input results in a discrete output, i.e., a definite angle of shaft rotation. It
is ideally suited for open-loop operation, because by keeping a count of the number of input
pulses, it is possible to know the exact position of the rotor shaft.
1.

2.

Stepper motors can be used as a high-precision positioning device. Usually,

precise position information can be obtained by simply keeping count of the
pulses sent to the motor, thereby eliminating the need for expensive positions
sensors and feedback controls. They thus find application in line printers,
automated machine tools and in robots, open-loop process control systems (like
welding, milling, turning, tightening, metering, etc), where there is no need for
feedback. It is available for angular displacements from 0.9 0 to 1800.
It can also function as a precise speed and acceleration device, as it will exactly
follow a pulse train pattern. Because of its inherent precision, feedback is not
required.

SESSION 2-5

SERVO MOTORS

A servo system or servomechanism is ordinarily a special type of AC or DC motor that

drives a precision piece of equipment in specific increments. Systems that include
servomechanisms generally require amplifiers and error-detecting devices to control
angular displacement.
Servo systems are special types of electromechanical systems or devices employed in data
transmission and automatic control systems, and rely on feedback for precise mechanical
positioning and speed control of a motor. And so a servo system is usually a complex unit
that follows the commands of a closed-loop control path, and can start and stop motors
smoothly, position them precisely and guide them through complicated sequences of
motion.
Mechanical positioning applications include computer-controlled machinery and process
control equipment (welding, drilling, milling, etc). Speed applications are found in conveyorbelt control units, spindle speed control in machine tool operations, and disk or magnetic
tape drives for computers.
The Fig 5.2 below shows a basic closed-loop servo system designed to position a motor
precisely.

.64

Error
detector
Input
command

amp

Servo
motor

Controlled
Output device position

(Reference source)
Feedback
loop

Fig 5.2: Basic Closed-Loop Servo System

The servo system consists of:

an input reference (serves as reference element to which the controlled device

responds)
an error detector (receives data from both input source and controlled output
device)
a servo motor (a form of rotary actuator)
a controlled output device (which may be a synchro system)
a feedback network (returns the signal from controlled output device to the input
summing point i.e. circle with X)

2-5.1 Operation of Servo System:

By changing the input reference, a command is applied to the error detector. This device
also receives data from the controlled output device through the feedback loop. The
reference and feedback signals are compared at the summing point (circle with X).
If there is no position error, the output of the summing box is zero, and no power is
delivered to the servomotor. On the other hand, if there is a position error (i.e. a correction
is needed with reference to the input command), the summing box outputs either a positive
or negative voltage, whose polarity depends on the direction of the position error. This
output from the error-detecting device is amplified by the servo amplifier, which delivers
power to the motor until it is correctly positioned.
2-5.2 Servo Motors:
Unlike large industrial motors, servomotors are not used for continuous energy
transformation, but used only for precise speed and precise position control at high torques.
The servomotor is normally coupled to the controlled device by a gear train or some
mechanical linkage.

.65

All types of motors are used as servomotors. Initially, DC motors driven by the controlled
output of the servo amplifier were used. Now, however, because of widespread interest in
servo systems, many new motors, both AC and DC, are being designed specifically for
servo systems. These developments have provided higher torque-weight ratios, greater
efficiencies and more precise control.
The basic principle of operation of servomotors is the same as that of the other
electromagnetic motors. However, they have some unique features as far as their
construction, design and mode of operation are concerned all because of the peculiarity
of their function.
Servomotors must be able to:

respond accurately to signals developed by the systems amplifier

reverse direction quickly when a specific signal polarity is applied
develop high torque at all speeds

SESSION 3-5

SYNCRO SYSTEMS

A synchro is a small rotating machine that is similar to a synchronous alternator. However,

the salient field winding of the synchronous alternator is excited with direct current,
whereas in the case of the synchro, the field is excited with alternating current. Both
machines have a three-phase stator winding.
Synchro systems are classified as two or more generator-motor units or synchros that are
electrically interconnected (but without any mechanical linkage) to permit the transmission
of angular shaft position by electromagnetic filed changes.
When the generator unit, also the control transmitter CX, is turned to a certain position, it
automatically rotates the shaft of the motor unit, the control receiver CR, to an equivalent
position (be it through a complete revolution or only one degree) at a remote location. Thus
through the synchro system, it is possible to achieve accurate remote control, signalling or
indication over great distances.
These machines are not used as motors, and therefore are not rated in horsepower, but
rather in the torque that they exert. Synchros must be used in conjunction with one or more
similar machines.
3-5.1 Constructional Features of the Synchros:
A synchro system contains two or more electromagnetic devices that are similar in
appearance to small electric motors. These devices are connected together in such a way
that the angular positioning of the generator unit (transmitter) shaft can easily be
transmitted to the motor unit (receiver).

.66

The Fig 5.3 below shows a schematic diagram and symbols of a synchro system.
S2

S1
R1
R2

S2

CX

S3

Single
Phase
supply

R1

Slip ring

rotor

S1

R2

R1
R2
S1

S3

S2

CR

S3

Fig 5.3: Schematic Diagram and Symbols of a Synchro System

As a general rule, the generator and motor units are identical electrically. However, there is
a slight physical difference between the two synchro units. Unlike the generator unit, the
motor unit has a metal flywheel (as a mechanical damper) attached to its shaft to prevent
vibrations or shaft oscillations, and so permit the motor rotor to respond without
overshooting its mark.
The stator of a synchro is like that in a split-phase or three-phase inductor motor. It has a
three-phase, star-connected winding similar to that of a three-phase synchronous
generator. The stator coils of a synchro are uniformly placed in cylindrical laminated slots
and connected to provide three poles spaced 120 0 apart. These stator coils serve
functionally like the secondary winding of a transformer.
The rotor of a synchro usually consists of a laminated core having two salient poles. It has
two field coils connected for alternate polarity. The ends of this coil are connected to
insulated slip rings on the shaft so that single-phase AC power can be supplied to the rotor.
The rotor coils responds functionally like the primary winding of a transformer.
3-5.2 Principle of Operation of the Synchro:
Each synchro may be thought of as a transformer. The rotor field coil acts like the primary
and is connected to an AC source through the slip rings, whilst the stators three-phase
winding acts like the secondary. Because there are three windings in the synchro stator, a
voltage will be induced in each phase.
If the rotor is turned slowly, different voltages will be induced in the three-phase windings of
the stator. These induced phase voltages differ, depending on the position of the rotor with
respect to the stator. If the coil is parallel with a stator coil, maximum voltage is induced.
The induced voltage is minimum when the rotor coil is at right angles to a stator coil set.

.67

The Fig 5.4 below shows the circuit diagram of a basic synchro system.

S1

S1

S2

S2

S3

S3

R1

R1
G

R2

R2

1 Voltage
source

Fig 5.4: Circuit Diagram of a Synchro System.

Note that the rotor winding is excited by a single-phase AC. One synchro is located at the
sending point as a generator or transmitter, and the other is operated at the receiving point
as the receiver. The two machines are connected as shown above. Note that the threephase stator (secondary) windings are joined in to one another and that the rotor windings
(primaries) are connected in parallel to the same single-phase source of excitation. The
receiver will remain motionless until the generator unit (transmitter) is turned.
When AC is applied to the rotor coil of the synchro unit, it produces an alternating magnetic
field. By transformer action, this field cuts across the stator coils and induces a voltage in
each winding. Recall that the physical position of the rotor coil with respect to the stator
coil, determines the amount of voltage induced in each stator coil.
If the rotor is in the same position in both the transmitter (generator unit) and receiver
(motor unit), then the voltages generated in the corresponding phase windings of both
machines will be equal. Because corresponding phases are connected to each other, the
voltages induced will oppose one another, and no current will flow.
But if the rotor of the transmitter is turned at whatever degree from its initial position, the
induced voltages in the corresponding phase windings of both synchro units will be unequal
and opposite. Consequently, a resulting current will flow from the stator coils of the
generator unit to that of the motor unit. This current in turn will cause a corresponding
magnetic field to be established in the motor units stator to interact with the alternating field
from the rotor of the motor unit. As a result, torque is set up in the receiver, causing its rotor
to turn until it is in a position corresponding to that of the transmitters rotor.
When both rotors are in the same position, no more current will flow, and the receivers
rotor will not turn. If the receiver turns in the opposite direction to the transmitter, it is
necessary to reverse two wires of the three-phase winding. It is important that the primaries
of each winding be connected to the same source of supply, or they will be out of phase
and will not operate properly.
.68

In this way, any turn or angular change in rotor position of the transmitter (generator unit) is
translated into an induced voltage and applied to the receiver (motor unit). Through this
system, linear displacement changes can be effectively transmitted electrically (without any
direct mechanical linkage) to the motor through three rather small stator coil wires.
3-5.3 Uses of Synchro Systems:
1. Synchro systems are becoming very important in industrial automatic process
control applications
2. They are used for remote signalling, control or indication
3. Synchros are used extensively in servomechanisms for torque transmission and
error detection.

SESSION 4-5

RESOLVERS

A resolver is similar to a synchro, but differs from it in the following aspects:

The resolver has two stator windings (and not three) and two rotor windings
Electrical displacement between stator windings of a resolver is 90 0 and not 1200
The input of the resolver can be either to the stator or to the rotor, whilst the input to
the synchro is only to the rotor
Resolvers are usually not used as followers, because their output voltage is put to
further use.

4-5.1 Uses/Applications of Synchro Systems:

In combination with radar systems, resolvers find application in:
navigation (determining distance from a destination) and
height determination

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EXERCISES ON CONTROL MOTORS

Exercise 5.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

What are stepper motors? Mention the two forms of stepper motors, and briefly state
the main differences between them.
By means of a diagram, describe the principle of operation of a 3-phase 6/4-pole VR
stepper motor
In an tabular form, describe the switching sequence of events that result in the motor
producing (i) 300 steps
(ii) 150 steps
Define the following terminologies as used to characterise stepper motors:
(i) step angle
(ii) resolution
(iii) stepping rate
(iv) step response time
(v) stepping frequency
A stepper motor is excited at a pulsing rate of 1650 pps. If its stator has 8 poles and
the rotor has 60 teeth, determine the following:
(i)
step angle
(ii)
resolution
(iii)
speed of motor
(iv)
number of pulses required to rotate the shaft through 3200.

Exercise 5.2
(a)

Briefly explain what servo systems are. Mention three (3) unique features of
servomotors that enable them to perform their peculiar function in a
servomechanism.

(b)

Discuss, with diagrams, the constructional features and principle of operation of a

synchro system. How different is a synchro from an alternator?

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