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FrictionTheories

FrictionTheories

Frictionistheresistancetorelativemotion,whichisexperiencedwheneveronesolidbodyslidesoveranother.Theresistiveforce,whichisparalleltothedirectionof
motion,iscalledthefrictionforce.Ifthesolidbodiesareloadedtogetherandatangentialforceisapplied,thenthevalueofthetangentialforce,whichisrequiredto
initiatesliding,isthestaticfrictionforce.Thetangentialforcerequiredtomaintainslidingisthekineticfrictionforce.Kineticfrictionisgenerallylowerthanstatic
friction.

TheLawsofFriction:

Firstlawstatesthatthefrictionisindependentoftheapparentareaofcontactbetweenthecontactingbodies.

Secondlawstatesthatthefrictionforceisproportionaltothenormalloadbetweenthecontactingbodies.

Thirdlawstatesthatthekineticfrictionisnearlyindependentofthespeedofsliding.

FirsttwolawsareoftenreferredtoasAmontonslawsandCoulombintroducedthirdlaw.

CoefficientofFriction:

ThesecondlawstatesthatthefrictionforceFisproportionaltothenormalloadW.

i.e.,FW

ThereforeF=W

Whereisaconstantknownasthecoefficientoffrictionandisaconstantonlyforagivenpairofslidingmaterialsunderagivensetofambientconditionsand
variesfordifferentmaterialsandconditions

Weknowthatnearlyallsurfacesareroughonamicroscopicscaleandrealcontactisobtainedoverasmallfractionoftheapparentcontactarea.Thustherealareaof
contactisindependentoftheapparentareaofcontactsothefirstlawoffrictionisexplainedthatfrictionisrelatedtotherealareaofcontactandindependentofthe
apparentareaofcontact.

FrictionMeasuringDevices:

Anyapparatusformeasuringfrictionmustbecapableofsupplyingrelativemotionbetweentwospecimens,ofapplyingameasurablenormalloadandofmeasuringthe
tangentialresistancetomotion.Commonlyuseddevicesarepinoncylinderordiskanddiscondisc.Inthesecases,onespecimen,usuallyadiscoracylinderisdriven
continuouslywhileasecondspecimennominallystationary,isloadedagainstit.

Figure:Schematicofpinondisktestsystem.

CausesofFriction:

Whentwosurfacesareloadedtogethertheycanadhereoversomepartofthecontactandthisadhesionisthereforeoneformofsurfaceinteractioncausingfriction.If
no adhesion takes place then the only alternative interaction which results in a resistance to motion is one in which material must be deformed and displaced to
accommodatetherelativemotion.Wecanconsidertwotypesofinteraction

1.Asperityinterlockingmotioncannottakeplacewithoutdeformationoftheasperities.

2.MacrodisplacementHereahardsphereAloadedagainstasofterBcausesdisplacementofmaterialBduringmotion.

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Sowehavetwotypesofinteraction

1.Adhesion
2.Materialdisplacementeitherduetoasperityinterlockingormacrodisplacement

AdhesionTheoryofFriction:

BowdenandTaborexplainedtheadhesiontheoryoffrictionwhenmetalsurfacesareloadedagainsteachother,theymakecontactonlyatthetipsoftheasperities.
Becausetherealcontactareaissmallthepressureoverthecontactingasperitiesisassumedhighenoughtocausethemtodeformplastically.Thisplasticflowofthe
contactscausesanincreaseintheareaofcontactuntiltherealareaofcontactisjustsufficienttosupporttheload.Undertheseconditionsforonidealelasticplastic
material

W=A.Po

WhereAistherealareaofcontactandPoistheyieldpressureofthemetalandWisthenormalload.

Whenthemetalsareincontact,coldweldingtakesplaceduetoadhesion.SoaforceSperunitareaofcontactnecessarytoshearthejunction

F=A.S+Pe

Where Pe is the force required to plough hard asperities through a softer surface. For most situations involving unlubricated metals Pe is small compared to
ASandmaybeneglected.

Therefore,F=AS

F=(W/Po).S

F/W=S/Po

Therefore=F/W=S/Po

Thusthistheoryexplainstwolawsoffriction

Thefrictionisindependentoftheapparentareaofcontactand
Frictionforceisproportionaltotheload

Formostmetals

S=Po/5

Soadhesiontheorypredictsthat=0.2,whenthematerialpairsaresimilar.Itshouldbetrueforanycombinationofsamematerial.Butitisnottrueusuallybecause
ofjunctiongrowthandworkhardening.

Theabovetheoryistrueforstaticcontacts.Butwhentangentialforceisapplied,yieldingtakesplaceasaresultofthecombinednormalandshearstresses.SoBowder
andTaborreexaminesomeoftheassumptionsandpresentamodifieddescriptionoffrictionas

A2=(W/Po)2+(F/Po)2

WheretheW/Poistheareaofcontactderivedfromtheabovetheoryinwhichonlytheeffectofnormalloadisconsideredandtheadditionalterm(F/Po)2representsthe
increasecausedbytheshearorfrictionforce.

High values of friction are obtained for metal under high vacuum condition, where adhesion is unimpeded by oxide film or other contaminants, indicates larger real
contactarea.

CriticismsofBowdenandTaborTheoryofFriction:

1.isnotalways0.2whensimilarmetalslidovereachother.
2.Nonormalcomponentoffrictionisdetected.i.e.,tomeasureadhesioninthenormaldirection,thenormalloadmustfirstbereleasedandelasticrecoverywill
breakmanyofthebondsduringthisprocess.
3.Formationofloosewearparticlesisnotexplained.i.e.,Mostoftheexperimentshavedoneinsinglepass.Sosinglepassexperimentsnotnecessarilyproduce
loosewearparticles.
4.Theareaofcontactisalwaysproportionaltotheinitialplasticstrain.

PlowingEffect

Plowingcausedbyasperitiesofahardmetalpenetratingintoasoftermetalandplowingoutagroovebyplasticflowinthesoftermaterial.Thisisamajorcomponent
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offrictionduringabrasionprocessesandalsoitisprobablyimportantincaseswheretheadhesiontermissmall.

Figureshowstheplowingofasoftsurfacebyahardconicalasperity

Considerahardmaterialwhosesurfaceiscomposedofalargenumberofsimilarconicalasperitiesofsemiangleincontactwithasoftermaterialwhosesurfaceis
comparatelyflat.Duringrubbingonlythefrontsurfaceofeachconicalasperityisincontactwiththeopposingmaterialandtheverticallyprojectedareaofcontactis
givenby

A=n.(1/2)..r2

Wherenisthetotalnumberofasperities.

Weknowthat

W=A.Po

W=n.(1/2)..r2.Po

ThefrictionforceFisobtainedinasimilarmannerbyconsideringthetotalprojectedareaofmaterial,whichisbeingdisplacedbyplasticflow,thatis

F=n.r.h.Po

Therefore,=F/W=2h/r

Buth/r=cot

Therefore,=(2/).cot

Usingthisapproach,alwaysequaltoonehalftheverticalprojectedareaoftheasperitydividedbythehorizontalprojectedareaoftheasperity.Theabovetheory
assumesthattheyieldpressureisthesameintheverticalandhorizontaldirection

BowdenandTaborstatesthatthecontributionofploughingtofrictionissmallforthefollowingreasons.Thetangentialresistancetoslidingforasingleasperityis
madeupofasheartermandaploughingterm

F=AV.So+AH.Po

WhereAvandAHaretheverticalandhorizontalprojectedareas.

Forasperitiesonmostmetalsurfaces,theangleislargeandAV/AHisverysmall,sothattheploughingtermisnegligibleincomparisonwiththeadhesionterm.
Forroughsurfaceswhereislarger,theploughingtermcanbecomparabletotheadhesionterm.

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