Review of Related Literature

Topography
Topography refers to the configuration, shape and roughness, of the ground.
Topographic surveys determine the locations of natural and artificial features and
elevations used in map making. Topographic maps show the spatial characteristics
of the Earths surface along with natural and manmade structures present. They are
commonly used during the planning stages of a construction project. Topographic
maps help in designing the layout and location of buildings, roads, dams, and other
structures in such a way that will ensure stability to said structures.
Relief Representation
Topographic maps are distinguished from other kinds of maps by its usage of
different symbols and methods for describing relief. Some commonly used symbols
and methods are listed below:

Contour Lines a line that goes through points of equal elevation the

map.
Spot Heights/Elevations indicates the elevation of specific points.

Spot heights are usually used on important locations/features.

Hachures multiple short parallel lines that produces an effect similar

to shading.
Subaqueous Contours similar to contour lines but are used to portray
underwater ground. Drawn in blue lines to avoid confusion with contour
lines.

Contours
Among the symbols commonly used in topographic maps mentioned above
contours are most
often used to show relief because they can give an accurate quantitative
representation of the grounds terrain. The vertical distance between two contour
lines in a map is referred to as the contour interval. It is dependent on the purpose
and scale of the map. A terrain with small to moderate elevation differences would
benefit more from a small contour interval. Mountainous or rugged areas with large
elevation differences on the other hand would require a larger contour interval as to
not crowd the map with too much contour lines. In regions where both flat and

mountainous areas are present, supplementary contours, a kind of contour line, are
used alongside regular contour lines to better depict the area relief. Supplementary
contours are usually drawn using dashed lines. In maps, only elevations that can
only be divided evenly by the contour interval are drawn as contour lines.
Contour lines have a specific set of characteristics that they follow. These
characteristics should be used as guidelines when drawing contours.
1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map.
2. Closely spaced contour signifies steep slope while widely spaced contours
indicate a gentle slopes.
3. On slopes that are of uniform elevation, contour lines are evenly spaced.
4. Contours cannot intersect/cross one another on the map, except on
overhanging cliffs.
5. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform.
6. Irregular contour symbolizes rough terrain. Smooth lines represent uniform
terrain.
7. Contours

that

form

circle

that

increase

in

elevation

represents

hills/mountains.
8. A depression contour is usually represented with closed loops around lower
ground, hachures towards the bottom, and a spot elevation at the lowest
point.
9. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
10.Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form Vs; they point
down the ridge and form Us when crossing a ridge crest.
11.A single contour of a given elevation cannot exist between two equal height
contours of higher or lower elevation.
Following these guidelines will help in preventing mistakes in drawing contours
and will make it easier
to visualize them when looking at an area.
Locating Topographic Details
Features to be included in a topographic map can range from point features
such as trees or lines for roads to complicated land formations. Detailing is the
process of locating points that are to be included in the map. Locating
contours/features can be accomplished by any one of the following procedures
listed below:
1. Radiation by Total Station

The total station is set up in a location where it can easily observe the

distances and directions of the features to be mapped.

2. Radiation by Stadia
- Similar to radiation by total station except a stadia is used to determine
the features distances and elevations.
3. Grid Method
- More commonly used in locating contours instead of features.
- The area being surveyed is staked in squares. The measure of the sides
depending on the ground configuration and the required accuracy. Larger
sided squares are used for gentle slopes while smaller sides are used for
rough terrain.
4. Offset from a Reference Line
- Employed in linear features such as roads, rivers, fences.
- A reference line is stationed and perpendicular distances to the feature
observed are recorded as well as the station where they were taken.
5. Topographic Detailing with GPS
- Employs Kinematic GPS Survey
- Provides real time data that can be stored and readily used.
Sources:
Wolf, Paul R., and Charles D. Ghilani. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2012. Print.
Anderson, J. M., and Edward M. Mikhail. Surveying, Theory and Practice. Boston:
WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1998. Print.
Cruz, Anjillyn Mae C. Topographic Surveying. 2015. PowerPoint slides.