BLOCKS

negatetheresolved:Resolved:Adolescentsoughttohavetherighttomakeautonomous
medicalchoices.
Definitions:
Medical:Oforrelatingtothescienceofmedicine,ortothe
treatment
ofillnessandinjuries
Oxforddictionary

valueismoralitybecauseoughtinvokesmoralsignificance

ObjectiveMoralityexists.
ShaferLandau2004:
somemoralviewsarebetterthanothers,despitethesincerityoftheindividuals
,
cultures,andsocieties
thatendorsethem.Somemoralviewsaretrue,othersfalse,andmy
thinkingthemsodoesntmakethemso.
Mysocietysendorsementofthemdoesntprovetheir
truth.
Individuals,andwholesocieties,canbeseriouslymistakenwhenitcomesto
morality.

Thebestexplanationofthisisthattherearemoralstandardsnotofourown
making.
[
24]

Objectivismcannotbereplacedbyacoherentmoralphilosophy,sorefutingobjectivismtriggers
skepticism
Levin2001:
Eventheenemiesofobjectivityrelyonit.
T
h eskepticstatesapositionthatcannot
possiblybesustainedorrationallybelieved[because]heis
ineffect
askingyounotto
applyhisassertiontohisownposition,withoutgivinganyreasonforexemptinghisown
wordsfromhisowngeneralclaim.
H
ispositionisfutileandselfrefuting
itcanbestated,
butitcannotconvinceanyonewhorecognizesitsimplications.
[19]

AsMoziconfirms,objectivemorallawsarederivedfrom
tian
,
translatedasnatureorheaven,
Mou2001:

Textreadinspeech:
Mozididappealtoareality.for
someof

hisargumentsinfavoroftranscendingsocial
ritual.Itwas
tian.Tian
wastheauthorofthemoralstandard
,
utility
,
towhichMoziappeals
inhismoralreform
.
M ozistressedthat
tian
wasuniversal,notboundedintheways
cultures,states,andsocietieswere.Itwas

constantwhereculturesandconventions
couldchange.

T heseclaimsdonotentailthat
tian
istheChinesenamefortheWestern
God,Elohim.Nordoesitconflictwiththeassumptionthat
tian
isapartofnature..It
essentiallygavea"naturalistic'basisfor[Mozis]
t
he

moralnorm[s]
o
f maximizingutility.
It
groundedaconceptionofanaturalvalueasopposedtoasocialone,butnotnecessarily
ofatranscendent,supernatural,orspookyvalue
..Infact,the
Mozis
useof
tian's
standardapproximates
theusepragmatistsmakeofnatureintheirargumentsforextractingnormsfromnatureandsocialpractice.Mozididnotfindhow
thestandardw orkedbyrevelationorbyhearingaboomingvoicecommanditorseeingafingeroffirew riteit.

Toeliminatesocialdisorder,everyonemustfollowobjectivemorals

Mozi1stmillenniumBCE

Mozisaid:
Inthebeginningofhumanlife,whentherewasyetnolawandgovernment,thecustom
was"everybodyaccordingtohisownidea."

Accordinglyeachmanhadhisownidea,twomen
hadtwodifferentideasandtenmenhadtendifferentideasthemorepeoplethemoredifferent
notions.Andeverybodyapprovedofhisownviewanddisapprovedtheviewsofothers,andso
arosemutualdisapprovalamongmen.Asaresult,fatherandsonandelderandyoungerbrothers
becameenemiesandwereestrangedfromeachother,
sincetheywereunabletoreachany
agreement.
Everybodyworkedforthedisadvantageoftheotherswithwater,fire,andpoison.
Surplusenergywasnotspentformutualaidsurplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithoutsharingexcellent
teachings(Dao)werekeptsecretandnotrevealed.
Thedisorderinthe(human)worldcouldbe
comparedtothatamongbirdsandbeasts.

Fraser2010
TheconceptionofactionIhavebeensketchingisillustratedbytheMohistshypotheticalaccount
ofthestateofnaturethatobtainedbeforetheadventofpoliticalsociety.10
Accordingtothe
Mohists,peopleinthestateofnaturearestrongly,evenobstinatelycommittedtotheir
personalconceptionofy ,orwhatisright.Sincedifferentpeoplesconceptionsofy
disagree,however,thiscommitmentleadstoconflictandeventuallyviolentdisorder.
TheMohistsdescribepeoplesattitudesbysayingthattheyshtheiryandonthatbasisfi
othersy,andthusfieachother(11/2).Thatis,theyeachdeemtheirytobesh,onthose
groundsdeemothersfi,andthusfallintoacycleofreciprocalcondemnation.
Akey
observationisthatpeoplesattitudeofdeemingtheirytobesh[orright]andothers
fi[orwrong]isaccompaniedbyastrongmotivationtoactontheirconvictions,which
ultimatelyleadstosocialturmoil.
Thiscorrelationbetweenshfiattitudesandconductis
underscoredbythetightlinkMohistpoliticaltheorydrawsbetweenemulatingtheshfiattitudes
andstatements(yn )ofpoliticalsuperiors,whoserveasmoralrolemodels,andemulating
theirconduct(xng ).

Therearetwoconsequences:
1. Rejectingobjectivismortheprimacyof
tian
asametaethicalframeworkinthisdebate
roundencouragesprefiatchaos,warandmisery.
Affirmingwillnecessarilyavert
theseimpacts.
2. Thisincitementofchaoshasanontrivialriskofleadingtoawarofallagainstall,in
whichmoralitydoesnotexist,triggeringskepticism.

Hobbes1651:
Tothiswarreofeverymanagainsteveryman,thisalsoisconsequentthat
nothingcanbeUnjust.ThenotionsofRightandWrong,JusticeandInjustice
havetherenoplace.WherethereisnocommonPower,thereisnoLaw:where
noLaw,noInjustice.
Force,andFraud,areinwarrethetwoCardinallvertues.Justice,
andInjusticearenoneoftheFacultiesneitheroftheBody,norMind.Iftheywere,they
mightbeinamanthatwerealoneintheworld,aswellashisSenses,andPassions.
TheyareQualities,thatrelatetomeninSociety,notinSolitude.Itisconsequentalsoto
thesamecondition,thattherebenoPropriety,noDominion,noMineandThinedistinct
butonelythattobeeverymansthathecangetandforsolong,ashecankeepit.And
thusmuchfortheillcondition,whichmanbymeerNatureisactuallyplacedinthough
withapossibilitytocomeoutofit,consistingpartlyinthePassions,partlyinhisReason.
Corneli2014furthersandclarifies:
Thereisanintimateconnectionbetw eenHobbesview sonpropertyandHobbesmoralphilosophy(LV18.10).

Hobbesis
explicitthattherecannotbeanymoralityinthestateofnaturebecausethereisno
property:no
mine
or
yours
(LV13.131418.1021.8)
.
Ivebeenthinkingaboutthew aysinw hichHobbes
couldavoidsayingthatlibertyissufficientformoralagencyand,inlightofRussellsreadingofHobbes,how issuesconcerning
moralagency,thecontractand,now ,propertyarerelated.ForHobbes,thesocialcontractinvolveseachindividualsubmitting
theirw illstothesovereign:inparticular,thissubmissionneedstobeofaparticularkind.Itmustauthorizetheactionsofthe
sovereign.How ?ForHobbes,thisinvolvesaparticularkindofproprietaryrelationship:individualsneedto
own
theactionsofthe
sovereign.Theyneedtobe,inotherw ords,
authorsofthesovereignsactions
(SeeCh.16and17.13).Theow nership,or

property,ofactions(orw ords)Hobbescalls
authorship
(16.4).Naturalpersons,accordingtoHobbes,arethosethatow ntheir
ow nactions(orw ords)(16.1).Thus,personsareauthorsoftheirow nactions.Iw illcallthisview
possessiveagency
.Natural
personsarepossessiveagents.

PreferaMohistframeworkbecauseitstheonlyframeworkthat
promotesrealworldmoraleducation
Mozi1stmilleniumBCE

Thoseintheworldwhoperformanytaskcannotworkwithoutmodels

OurMasterMozisaid,

(
fa
)andstandards
.
Toworkwithoutmodelsandstandards,yetcompletetheirtasksuccessfullynoonecandoit.Evenofficersservingas
Thehundredartisans

generalsorministers,theyallhavemodelseventhehundredartisansperformingtheirtasks,theytooallhavemodels
.

formsquareswiththeLsquare,circleswiththecompass,straightedgeswiththe
string,verticallineswiththeplumbline,[evensurfaceswiththelevel].
Whetherskilledartisans
orunskilled,alltakethesefiveasmodels.Theskilledcanconformtothemexactlyastotheunskilled,thoughtheycannotconformtothemexactly,iftheyfollow
theminperformingtheirtasks,theystillsurpasswhattheycandoontheirown.Sothehundredartisansinperformingtheirtasksallhavemodelstomeasureby.

Now
forthemostpowerful
toordertheworld

and
theirdeputiestoordergreatstatesand

yethavenomodelsto
measureby,thisistobelessdiscriminatingthanthehundredartisans.
Thus,promotingsimple,accuratestandardsisnecessary toeducateonhowtomakemoralchoicesthatmaintainorderinaccordancewith
tian

Mou2001:

Textread:
The
M ozis
replacementfor[Confucianmorality]isalsonaturalistic.Hismodelofstandardsfor
settlingquestionsof[morality]arethecraftsmansoperationalmeasurementtools.Wedonot

relyonanintuition...oronreason.MeasurementisnotaPlatonicabsolute,butanoperationinthe
naturalworld.Itishighlyreliable,intersubjective,butpragmatic(ratherthanabstract...)
interpretationofsocietysguidingdiscourse.Mohistfocusonstandardsintroducesakey
mechanismforquasiobjectivity.
Thus,prefera
tian
justifiedframeworkwithclearstandards(or
fa
)becauseitintroducesmore
objectivity
n
eedtoprotectgoodofthestatefirst(
frameworkcriterion
),

Frazer2014(replace!)
ThiscommunitarianfocusisamajorpointofcontrastwithWesternsocialcontract
theoriesandutilitarianpoliticaltheory.Utilitariansandsocialcontracttheorists(excepting
perhapsRousseau)typicallytreatindividuals'interestsasprimaryandconstructsocialgood
outofindividualgood.Thestateisjustifiedbecauseitpromotesindividuals'rightsand
interestsbetterthananyalternative.FortheMohists,bycontrast,thestateisinstrumentally
justifiedbecausesocialorder(
z hi
)isanintrinsicgood,soughtbyall,andgovernmentbya
hierarchyofmoralleadersisneededtoachieveit.
Indeed,aswemightexpectfromtheircommunitarianism,theMohists'conceptionof
z hi
(order)containstheseedsofanargumentthatthestateisintrinsicallyjustifiedaswell.The
Mohistsmostoftenuse
z hi
inanarrowsense,torefertoharmoniousfamilyandsocial
relations.ButsomeMohisttextsmainlythetriaddevotedtothedoctrineofHeaven's
intentionuse
z hi
inabroadersense,inwhichitisidentifiedwith
y i
(right,moral)and
zheng
(goodgovernance),whichinturnistakentorequireahierarchicalpoliticalsystem
administeredbythenobleandwise.ThetextsthusimplythattheMohistpoliticalsystemis
notmerelyaninstrumentforproducingutility,butisitselfacomponentofthegoodsthat
constitutemoralrightandthusisintrinsicallyjustified.Ofcourse,evenifweallowthe
Mohiststoidentifymoralitywithorderandorderwiththeirpreferredformof
politicalorganizationinthisway,theirlineofargumentjustifiesatmostonlytheexistence
ofthestate,notthestate'spromulgationofatotalitarian,allencompassingcodeof
conduct.
Mozi1stmilleniumBC
Mozisaid:Aswelookbacktothetime
whentherewasyetnoruler,itseemsthe
customwas"everybodyintheworld
accordingtohisownstandard."Accordingly
eachmanhadhisownstandard,tenmen
hadtendifferentstandards,ahundredmen

hadahundreddifferentstandardsthemore
peoplethemorestandards.Andeverybody
approvedofhisownviewanddisapproved
thoseofothers,andsoarosemutual
disapproval.Evenfatherandsonand
brothersbecameenemies,sincetheywere
unabletoreachanyagreement.Surplus
energywasnotemployedformutualhelp
excellentteachings(Dao)werekeptsecret
surplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithout
sharing.Thedisorderinthe(human)world
couldbecomparedwiththatamongbirds
andbeasts.Thelackofregulations
governingtherelationshipsbetweenruler
andsubject,betweensuperiorand
subordinate,andbetweenelderand
youngerandtheabsenceofrulesgoverning
therelationshipsbetweenfatherandsonand
betweenolderandyoungerbrothers,
resultedindisorderintheworld.

Identification Knowingthecauseoftheconfusiontobe
withthe
intheabsenceofarulerwhocouldunify
Superior...: thestandardsintheworld,(Heaven)chose
thevirtuous,sagacious,andwiseinthe
worldandcrownedhimemperor,charging
himwiththedutyofunifyingthewillsinthe
empire.Havingbeencrowned,theemperor,
realizingtheimpossibilityofunifyingthe
worldjustbyhisownsensesofhearing
andsight,chosetheunderstanding,
virtuous,sagacious,andwiseoftheworld
andinstalledthemasthethreeministers,
sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthe
standardsintheempire.Theemperorand
thethreeministersbeinginoffice,theyfelt
thevastnessoftheempireandthedifficulty
ofunifyingallthepeoplesinmountainsand
woodsandthosefardistant.Thereforethey
systematicallydivideduptheempire,and
appointednumerousfeudallords,charging
thesewiththedutyofunifyingthe
standardsineachstate.Thefeudallordsin
turnfeltthedifficultyofunifyingthe
standardsintheirstatesjustbytheirown

sensesofhearingandsight.Thereforethey
chosethevirtuousofthestatetobetheir
ministersandsecretariesandalltheway
downtotheheadsofdistrictsandvillages,
sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthe
standardsinthestate.

Identification Whenthelordsofthecountryandthe
withthe
headsofthepeoplehadbeenappointed,
Superior...: theemperorissuedmandates,instructing
thepeople:"Discoveringgoodyoumust
reportittoyoursuperior,discoveringevil
youmustreportittoyoursuperior.What
thesuperiorthinkstoberightallshallthink
toberightwhatthesuperiorthinkstobe
wrongallshallthinktobewrong.When
thereisvirtueamongthepeoplethereshall
bepopularrecommendationwhenthe
superiorisatfaultthereshallbegood
counsel.Youshallidentifyyourselfwiththe
superiorandnotassociatewithyour
subordinates.Sodoing,onedeserves
encouragementfromhissuperiorsand
praisefromthepeople."Ontheotherhand,
ifupondiscoveringgoodyoushouldnot
reportitandupondiscoveringevilyou
shouldnotreportitifyoushouldnotthink
toberightwhatthesuperiorthinkstobe
right,andwrongwhatthesuperiorthinksto
bewrongifthereshouldbeno
recommendationwhenthereisvirtue
amongthepeopleandnogoodcounsel
whenthesuperiorisatfaultandifyou
shouldunitewiththesubordinatesbutdiffer
fromthesuperioryoudeserveheavy
punishmentfromyoursuperiorsand
condemnationfromthepeople."Therefore
thesagekingsofoldwereveryjudicious
andfaithfulintheirpunishmentsand
rewards.

Migdal:

Thus,tobenefitanindividual,itsnecessarytobenefitthecommmunity
Migdal2(stateisseperateentity)

conformingtotraditionalnormsisnotnecessary(
justifyintegrated
prefiatimpacts),
Loy2003
Third,theMohistsseethemorallyrightasconceptuallydistinctfromthecustomaryor
traditional.Anargumentthatappealstothedistinctioncanbefoundin"Frugalityin
Funerals."TheMohistspointtothevarietybetweenburialcustomsamongthetribal
peoplesontheperipheryoftheChineseworldandnotethat,althoughwhatthetribes
practiceiscustomarywithintheircommunities,thesepracticesalsoareallunderstoodby
aneliteChineseaudiencetobebarbaricandimmoral.TheMohiststhusurgethat,just
becauseelaboratefuneralsandlengthymourningarecustomarypracticesamongthe
gentlemenofthecentralstates,thisfactalonewillnotsecuretheirconsistencywithmoral
rightness.

elevatetheworthy(
dropopponentb/cpollutingmorality),

Mohismisessentiallyaworkingclass,foreignphilosophy,requiredto
increasediversityindebate(
prefiatframeworkjustification)
,
mohismisconsistentw/ldb/ctruthseekingandrootsourceuse
model(
meta^2ethicaljustification),
Frazer2014:
Mohismwasaninflue ntialphilosophical,social,andre ligiousmove me ntthatflourishe dduring
the WarringState se ra(479221BCE)inancie ntChina.
MohismoriginatesintheteachingsofMo
Di,orMozi(MasterMo,fl.ca.430BCE),fromwhomittakesitsname.
M oziandhisfollowe rs
initiatedphilosophicalargumentationanddebateinChina.They
we re the firstinthe traditionto
e ngage ,like Socrate sinancie ntGre e ce ,inane xplicit,re fle ctive se archforobje ctive moral
standardsandtogive ste pbyste p,tightlyre asone dargume ntsforthe irvie ws,
thoughtheir
reasoningissometimessimplisticorrestsondoubtfulassumptions.
The yformulate dChina'sfirst
e xplicite thicalandpoliticalthe orie s
andadvancedtheworld'searliestformofconsequentialism,a
remarkablysophisticatedversionbasedonapluralityofintrinsicgoodstakenasconstitutiveofhuman
welfare.TheMohistsappliedapragmatic,nonrepresentationaltheoryoflanguageandknowledgeand
developedarudimentarytheoryofanalogicalargumentation.
The yplaye dake yrole inarticulating
andshapingmanyofthe ce ntralconce pts,assumptions,andissue sofclassicalChine se
philosophicaldiscourse .

feware
ren
individualsetccantmakedecisions,requirethestate,votetofurtherspread
of
fa

paragraphinterp:alloffensebacktoonejustifiedmoralframwork,thusframeworkmust
haveprefiatandpostfiatimpactsifpreandpostareclaimed

spike:needTian,w/onowaytoevaluatemorality(ifprovenfalse)
And, ethics not based in the concept of Tian trigger skepticism because unrooted morality is
nonsensical.
Craig1
provides5warrants
[First,] If there is no God, then any ground for regarding the herd morality evolved by homo sapiens as objectively true seems to have been
removed. After all, what is sospecialabouthumanbeings?Theyare justaccidentalbyproducts
of nature which have evolved relatively recently on an infinitesimal speck of dust lost
somewhere in ahostile andmindless universe andwhicharedoomedtoperishindividually andcollectively inarelatively short
time. Some action, say , incest, may notbe biologically or socially advantageousandsointhe course of humanevolutionhasbecome taboobutthere isonthe atheistic view
nothingreally wrongaboutcommittingincest.If,asKurtzstates,"Themoralprinciplesthatgovernourbehaviorarerootedinhabitandcustom,feelingandfashion,"
5
then the nonconformist who chooses to floutthe herdmorality isdoingnothingmore seriousthanactingunfashionably .The objective worthlessnessof humanbeingsona
naturalistic world view is underscored by twoimplicationsof thatworldview:materialism anddeterminism.Naturalistsare ty pically materialistsor phy sicalists,whoregard

[Second] if man has no immaterial aspect to his being (call it soul or

mind or what have you), then he is not qualitatively different from other animal species
. For him to
regard human morality as objective is to fall into the trap of specieism. On a materialistic
man as a purely animal organism. But


[Third] if there is no mind
distinct from the brain, then everything we think and do is determined by the input of
our five senses and our genetic makeup
. There is no personal agent who freely
decides to do something. But without freedom, none of our choices is morally
significant. They are like the jerks of apuppet'slimbs,controlledby thestringsofsensory inputandphy sicalconstitution.Andwhatmoralvaluedoesapuppetor
its movements have? Thus, [Fourth] if naturalism is true, it becomes impossible to condemn war,
oppression, or crime as evil
.Norcanonepraisebrotherhood,equality ,orloveasgood.Itdoesnotmatterwhatvaluesy ouchooseforthereisno
right and wrong good and evil do notexist.Thatmeansthatanatrocity like the Holocaustwasreally morally indifferent.Youmaythinkthatitwas
wrong, but your opinionhas nomore validitythanthatofthe [oppressor]warcriminalwhothoughtit
anthropology there is no reason to think that human beings are objectively more valuable than rats. Secondly ,

was good. In his book Morality after Auschwitz, Peter Haas asks how an entire society could have willingly participatedina statesponsoredprogram of masstorture and
genocide for over a decade without any serious opposition. He argues that far from being contemptuous of ethics,the perpetratorsactedinstrictconformity withanethic
whichheldthat,however difficultandunpleasantthe taskmighthave been,massexterminationof the JewsandGy psieswasentirely justified....the Holocaustasa sustained
effort was possible only because a new ethic wasinplace thatdidnotdefine the arrestanddeportationof Jewsaswrongandinfactdefineditasethically tolerable andever
6
good.Moreover, Haas points out, because of its coherence andinternalconsistency ,the Naziethic couldnotbe discreditedfrom within.Only from a transcendentvantage
point which stands above relativistic, sociocultural mores could such a critique be launched.Butinthe absence of God,itisprecisely sucha vantage pointthatwe lack.One
Rabbi who was imprisoned at Auschwitz said that it was as though all the Ten Commandmentshadbeenreversed:thoushaltkill,thoushaltlie,thoushaltsteal.Mankindhas
never seen such a hell. And y et, in a real sense, if naturalism is true, our world isAuschwitz.There isnogoodandevil,norightandwrong.Objective moralvaluesdonot

[Fifth: Without Tian] there is no moral accountability for one's actions.

Even if there were objective moral values and duties under naturalism, they are
irrelevant because there is no moral accountability. If life ends at the grave, itmakes
no difference whether one lives as a Stalin or as asaint.AstheRussianwriterFy odorDostoy evsky rightly said:"If
exist
. Moreover,

7
thereisnoimmortality ,thenallthingsarepermitted."

spike:needintegratedprefiatimpactsandculturaldiversityfor
education,presumethus
spike:presumeonstatusquo
presumptionisharmfultodebateeducation
educationsaveslives:
AbuelEaleh2013

Improvededucationisresponsibleforhalfoftheglobalreductioninchilddeathsin
thelast40years,
havingafargreaterimpactthaneconomicgrowthinreducingpreventative
deaths.[iv]

Educationspreadsprosperityandreducespoverty.Itisestimatedthatifallstudentsin
lowincomecountriesleftschoolwithbasicreadingskills,then171millionpeoplecouldbe
liftedoutofpoverty.Thisisequivalenttoa12%cutinglobalpoverty.[v]Ontopofthis,each
additionalyearofaverageschoolingcanincreasetheGDPbyupto1%peryear.Ananalysis

basedondatafromtheInternationalAdultLiteracySurveyshowedthatatthenationallevel,
thelongruneffectsofinvestmentinliteracyareaboutthreetimesasimportanttoeconomic
growthasinvestment.[vi]

_______________________________________________________________

Educationimpactsmoralidentity:
AbuelEaleh2013

Educationhasacriticalroletoplayinactivecitizenshipandpoliticalparticipation:it
empowersindividuals,broadenscriticalthinkingandenablesthemtoexercisetheir
citizenshiprights.
ResearchinsubSaharanAfricahasshownthatvoterswithaprimary
educationwere1.5timesmorelikelytosupportdemocracythanthosewithnoeducation
voterswhohadcompletedsecondaryschoolwerethreetimesmorelikely
.[viii]

spike:allimpactsmustgobacktoonestandard:
Argumentativelegitimacy:Argumentativelegitimacyistheabilityofthedebatersto
formulateargumentsthathavelegitimatecompetitivevalue.Whenmyopponentextends
andtriestowinoffofargumentsthatdontlinkbacktoacriterion,ashiftinthedebate
occursandwebecomeconcernedwithoneupmanshipofblippyargumentsjustwaitingfor
theothertoslipupandmissone.Insteadofcraftinglogicalcoherentargumentsdesigned
torespondcarefullytodemonstrateourdebateabilityaswellasrespondingtoour
opponentsasefficientlyaspossible.Argumentativelegitimacyholdstheinternalweighing
mechanismbehindeducationasitallowsfordebatesandargumentstobeviewedand
givenweighttoengageintheeducationdebate.

Thus,mycriterionismaximizingthestrengthandorderofthestate

Contentons:1,cosmeticswasteful,refusing/misdecidingtreatmentleadstodiscordand
inefficiency,
SoleConteniton:
m edicalautonomyFagan2009:
http://journalofethics.amaassn.org/2009/08/msoc10908.html

ThemoralidealsoftheHippocraticOatharenotuniversallysharedandespoused.
F or
somepatients,physicalsufferingorevendyingfromamedicallypreventabledeathisnottheworst
thingthatcanhappen.
Somepatientshaverefusedtoconsenttorudimentarymedical
treatmentinfullknowledgethattheinevitableconsequenceoftheirrefusalwouldbe
theirprematureand,inclinicalterms,unnecessarydeath.
Themostcommonlycitedexample
ofthisphenomenonistheJehovahsWitnessrefusaltoreceiveabloodtransfusion.U.S.courts
havetendedtoupholddecisionsmadebycompetentadultpatientsinsuchinstancesandhave
deniedmedicalauthoritiesrequeststoadministertreatmentagainstpatientswishes.
Thus,clinicianshavebeenpreventedfromsavinglivesinthenameofpatientautonomy
[1].Theapplicationoflifesavingmedicalexpertiseisrefusedinthenameofpatientscommitment
tothetenetsoftheirreligion,recognisingthewilloftheirGod.Whiletheliteratureinthisareaof
medicalethicsmightsuggestotherwise,JehovahsWitnessesbynomeansexhaustthelistof
religiousandculturalcommunitieswhohave,orarelikelyto,refusemedicaltreatmentonmoral
grounds.
TheChurchofChrist,Scientisthaslongprohibitedtheuseofvaccinationsand
inoculationsamongstitsmembers.Similarly,astrictadherencetoveganidealsis
incompatiblewithreceivingmedicaltreatmentthatinvolvesorhasfundamentally
benefitedfromxenotransplantation

Byallowingpeopletodie,medicalautonomysapsthehumancapitalofthevirtuousstateand
weakensitspower.

Peopleopttospendbillionsofdollarsonplasticsurgery,wastingtheresourcesofthestate

NEWYORK,NY(March11,2015)
The
AmericanSocietyforAestheticPlasticSurgery
(ASAPS)
releaseditscomplete18thannualmultispecialtystatisticaldatatodayshowinganaesthetic
plastic
surgery
spendconsistentwiththefiguresfor2013,withAmericansspendingmorethan12billion
dollarsonsurgicalandnonsurgicalproceduresforthesecondyearinarow.Withmorethan10
million
cosmeticprocedures
performedin2014,thosethatshowedthelargestgrowthinvolumeon
ayearoveryearbasisincludedbuttockaugmentation(up86%),labiaplasty(up49%),and
nonsurgicalfatreduction(up42%).Additionally,moremenareturningtoaesthetic
cosmetic
procedures
,withdramaticincreasesseeninbothsurgicalandnonsurgicaloptionsoverthepast5
yearsanda43%increaseoverall.
Thetopfivesurgicalproceduresforbothmenandwomencombinedin2014were:

Liposuction
(342,494procedures)

BreastAugmentation
(286,694procedures)

EyelidSurgery
(165,714procedures)

T ummyTuck
(164,021procedures)

NoseSurgery
(145,909procedures)
Thetopfivenonsurgicalproceduresforbothmenandwomencombinedin2014were:

BotulinumToxin(3,588,218procedures)

HyaluronicAcid
(1,696,621procedures)

HairRemoval(828,480procedures)

ChemicalPeel
(484,053procedures)

Microdermabrasion
(417,034procedures)
Someofthemorepopularprocedures,includingafewinthetopfivelistsabove,didsee
decreasesin2014including
breastaugmentation
(down8.5%),
earsurgery
(down12.3%),
injectables
,(down6.5%)andPhotorejuvenation,(down18.9%).Despitethedecreasesinspecific
proceduralareashowever,onethingisabundantlyclear:Thenumberofmenflockingto
plastic
surgeons
forbothsurgicalandnonsurgicalprocedurescontinuestoincreasedramaticallyandare
up43%thisyearalone,statesMichaelEdwards,MD,Presidentofthe
AmericanSocietyfor
AestheticPlasticSurgery
.
Overthepast5years,(since2010),therehavebeensignificantincreasesinthefollowing
proceduresformen:
Surgical:
Blepharoplasty
(up34%)
Male
BreastReduction
(up33%)
Facelift
(up44%)
Nonsurgical:
BotulinumToxin(up84%)
HyaluronicAcid
(up94%)
Nonsurgicalskintightening(up37%)
IntensePulsedLight(up44%)
SinceASAPSbegancollectingstatisticaldatain1997,therehasbeena273%increaseinthe
numberofproceduresperformedonmen.Thisisnotatrendweexpecttoseewaneanytime
soon.Facingachallengingandsometimesageistjobmarket,men,likewomen,arestartingto
considertheiroptionstomaintainayouthfulappearancethatexudesexuberanceandenergyand
thefullspectrumofcareofferedbyboardcertified
plasticsurgeons
caterstotheirindividual
needs,explainsJamesGrotting,MD,PresidentElectofASAPS.
Toobtainafullcopyofthereport,pleasevisitthemediasectionofTheSocietyswebsite:
www.surgery.org
###

manyoftheseareadolescents
AmericanSocietyofPlasticSurgery

Common[operations]
physicalcharacteristicsorconcernsateenmaywishtocorrect
includea
misshapennose,protrudingears,overlylargebreasts,asymmetricalbreasts,or
severe
acne
andscarring.
Teensfrequentlygainself-esteemandconfidencewhentheirphysicalproblemsarecorrected.In
fact,successfulplasticsurgerymayreversethesocialwithdrawalthatsooftenaccompaniesteens
whofeeldifferent.
AccordingtoAmericanSocietyofPlasticSurgeons(ASPS)statistics,63,623
cosmeticsurgicalprocedureswereperformedonpeopleage13-19in2013,while155,941
cosmeticminimally-invasiveprocedureswereperformed.
[Eventhough]noteveryteenagerseekingplasticsurgeryiswellsuitedforanoperation.
Teensmustdemonstrateemotionalmaturityandanunderstandingofthelimitationsofplastic
surgery.TheASPScautionsteenagersandparentstokeepinmindthatplasticsurgeryisreal
surgery,withgreatbenefits,butalsocarriessomerisks.Teensshouldhaverealisticexpectations
aboutplasticsurgeryandwhatitcandoforthem.Inaddition,certainmilestonesingrowthand
physicalmaturitymustbeachievedbeforeundergoingplasticsurgery.
Althoughhealthinsurancedoesnotpayforcosmeticplasticsurgery,coverageisoftenprovided
whenaprocedurealleviatesphysicalsymptomsorimprovesabodyfunction.Suchisusuallythe
case,forinstance,whenbreastreductioneliminatesseverebackandneckpain.Itshouldbenoted;
however,thathealthinsurancecoveragevariesgreatlybetweenhealthplans.

Atanaveragecostofover5000dollarspersurgery,thiscoststhestatehundredsofmillionsof
dollarsinwastefulprocedureseveryyear.Theeconomyisnecessary

BLOCKS

Autonomydefinition:

in
b ioethics
,selfdeterminationthatisfreefrom
both
controlling
interferencesbyothers
andpersonallimitationspreventingmeaningfulchoice(suchas
inadequateunderstandingorfaultyreasoning).Havingthecapacitytoactwithautonomydoesnot
guaranteethatapersonwillactuallydosowithfullunderstandingandwithoutexternalcontrolling
influences.adj.,adjautonomous.FarlexMedicalDictionary

Preferthisdefinitionbecauseitistopicspecific,beingspecificallyinthecontextofbioethicsand
sourcedfromareputablemedicinespecificdictionary.
Theautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoralityisplacedinthesocietaldao
Mou2001

MozisutilitarianismdiffersfromitsWesterncounterpartsinotherinter
estingwaysthatbearonthetranscendenceissue.Hismeasureofutilityisnot
mental,private,orsubjective.
Thesubjectofthemoralautonomyhisargu
mentvouehsafesisnottheindividual.Heseemingl_vsharestheConfucian
notionthata
dao
isasocialguide.Asamoralrefonner,hequestionswhat
socialduowe(thesociety)oughttouseinguidingourbehavior.Thenhe
urgeswemakeasocialchoicetofollowapathofmoralreformthatwillnatu
rallyresultintheindividualsinsocietyfollowingadilferentpathfromtheone
theynowfollow.Thelocusoftheautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoral
refomiisnotplacedinindividuals,butinthenomiativeorguidingdiscourse
(dao)
itself.

Cosmeticsurgeryismedicine
AmericanAcademyofCosmeticsurgery(http://www.cosmeticsurgery.org/?page=CosmeticSurgery)
A.Cosmeticsurgeryisauniquedisciplineofmedicinefocusedonenhancingappearance
throughsurgicalandmedicaltechniques.Cosmeticsurgerycanbeperformedonallareasof
thehead,neckandbody.Becausetreatedareasfunctionproperlybutlackaestheticappeal,
cosmeticsurgeryiselective.

Mohismbelievesinafterlife:
Fulford2008
FewpeopleintheWestareawarethat500yearsbefore
Christ
wasborn,therelivedasageinChina
whoseteachingsareuncannilysimilartothoseof
Jesus
.Hisnamewas
Mozi
(originalnameMoDi)or
the"tattooedone."

Inhistimehewasaseriousrivalto
Confucius
.Healsohadamillionmanarmyathisdisposal.

Mozipreachedthatallmenarecreatedequal.UnlikeConfucius,whosaidrelativeshadfirstpriority,he
preacheduniversalloveandcaringforthepoorestandweakestinsociety.
Mozialsosaidtherewasa
Heaven
a ndanafterlifeandthatpeoplewhobecamerichthroughunrighteousmeanswould
notbeabletogothere.

Justas
Jesus
saiditwasbettertoteachamantofishandfeedhimforalifetimethanitwasgogivehim
afish,sodidMoziemphasizeteachingthepoortheskillstheyneededtocareforthemselves.


ThemostimportantteachingofMozi,however,wastheconceptof"Gi"whichhasbeentranslatedas
"righteousness"butwouldbebettertranslatedas"life"or"love."Theideaistodrawalineandfight
wheneverGiorlifeisbeingharmed.

Evidencefor
tian
basedmetaethics
Mozi1stmilleniumBC
Allstatesintheworld,largeorsmall,arecitiesofHeaven,andallpeople,youngorold,honourableor
humble,areitssubjectsfortheyallgrazeoxenandsheep,feeddogsandpigs,andpreparecleanwineand
cakestosacrificetoHeaven.DoesthisnotmeanthatHeavenclaimsallandacceptsofferingsfromall?
SinceHeavendoesclaimallandacceptsofferingsfromall,whatthencanmakeussaythatitdoesnot
desirementoloveandbenefitoneanother?HencethosewholoveandbenefitothersHeavenwillbless.
ThosewhohateandharmothersHeavenwillcurse,foritissaidthathewhomurderstheinnocentwillbe
visitedbymisfortune.Howelsecanweexplainthefactthatmen,murderingeachother,willbecursedby
Heaven?ThuswearecertainthatHeavendesirestohavemenloveandbenefitoneanotherandabominates
tohavethemhateandharmoneanother.

Theancientsagekings,Yu,Tang,Wen,andWulovedthepeopleoftheworlduniversally,leading
themtoreverenceHeavenandworshipthespirits.Manyweretheirbenefitstothepeople.And,
thereuponHeavenblessedthem,establishingthememperorsandallthefeudallordsofthe
empireshowedthemrespect.(Ontheotherhand)thewickedkings,Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,hated
allthepeopleintheworld,seducingthepeopletocurseHeavenandridiculethespirits.Great
weretheirinjuriestothepeople.
ThereuponHeavenbroughtthemcalamity,deprivingthemoftheir
empireandtheirlivesandposteritycondemnedthemtothisday.Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,then,arethose
thatcommittedevilandwerevisitedbycalamities.AndYu,Tang,Wen,andWuarethosethatlovedand
benefitedthepeopleandobtainedblessings.Thuswehavethosewhoobtainedblessingsbecausethey
lovedandbenefitedthepeopleaswellasthosewhowerevisitedbycalamitiesbecausetheyhatedand
harmedthepeople.

Faareobjectiveparadigms: