Aircraft Structures

Analysis n Design

Aircraft Loads

D. Widagdo
Aeronautics and Astronautics
FTMD – ITB
2009
 Overview
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Contents
– Introduction
– Ground Loads
– Flight Loads
– Miscellaneous
– Airworthiness
• References
– de Jonge, J.B., “An Introductory Course on Aircraft Loading”, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, 1984.
– Niu, M.C.Y., ”Airframe Structural Design”, Conmilit Press, 1988.
– Megson, T.H.G., “Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students”,
Butterworth-Heineman, 2001.
– Roskam, J., ”Airplane Design Part V: Component Weight Estimation”,
Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp, 1985.

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Loads (static, dynamic,

operational, environmental)‫‏‬
1 LOADS
• Airframe/structure (skeletal,
5 plate-shell, continuum

• Structural responses (axial,

2 AIRFRAME MATERIALS shear, bending, torsion;
stress, strain, Mohr’s circle,
displacement, vibration,
6 energy)‫‏‬
STRUCTURAL
3 • Local effects (notch, cracks)‫‏‬
RESPONSE FAILURE
THEORIES • Materials (metal, composites;
ductile, brittle)‫‏‬

LOCAL • Failure theories (Tresca,

4 EFFECTS Hencky, modified Mohr)‫‏‬

• Failure modes (static, fatigue,

7 static instability, dynamic
response, dynamic instability,
FAILURE corrosion, etc.)‫‏‬
MODES
 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

D
T
W

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Loading action
– Estimation using some approximation must be employed to start the
design process.
– More accurate calculation is conducted in later stages to refine
– Requirement handbooks is normally consulted first
• Sources of loads:
– Aerodynamic loads: lift, drag, gust
– Thrust
– Gravity loads
– Ground reactions
– Specialised: catapulted t/o, arrested landing, water landing

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Requirements
– Military: defined in requirement handbooks issued by defence agencies
– Civil:
• Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), e.g.: FAR25 for large
aeroplanes
• British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCAR), e.g: section D for
large aeroplanes (> 5700 kgs)
• Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR) produced by some
European countries based largely on FAR
• TSS (Anglo-French) specially set for the design of Concord

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Load factor
– Additional loads due to manoeuvres and gusts
ΔL
n = 1+
W

– Fighters: high load factors due to violent maneouvres (6g - 8g)

– Transport: rather low load factor (2g - 3g), gust dominant

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Load factor
– Additional loads due to manoeuvres

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Types of loading:
– manoeuvres (fighter)
– gusts (transport)
– taxi loads
• Loading case: a specific type of loading w/ specified magnitude in a fully
defined flight condition
• Design loading cases: a large number of load cases that must be
considered as required for A/W (airworthiness)
• Structural loads : bending moment, axial loads, torsion, shear loads
• Critical design loading cases: the most critical load case for a particular
part/element

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

Design Criteria

• types of manoeuvres, speeds, payloads, weight (under

operator control)
• unexpected severe load: gust, turbulence, hard landing
• based on previous experience and statistics
• minimum requirements are presented in standards (FAR 23,
MIL-A-886X series

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 Introduction
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

Design loads (limit loads = maximum anticipated loads)

• occur less than 10-5 times per flight hour/ less than once in
the whole life
• below this value, the structure shows no sign of permanent
deformation
Ultimate load (limit loads x safety factor (1.5))

• withstood without failure for about 3 seconds

• reserved for
– the load higher than limit load (high turbulence, emergency)
– the actual strength is lower than design strength (due to
certain degree of approximation in the design)
– variety of material properties and manufacturing process

Aeroelasticity
• Unstable interlinked between structural deflection with airloads
effects (buffet, flutter) 11
 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Taxi and ground handling loads:

modern short haul a/c : ± 8km ground travel/flight
Types of loads:
– Runway roughness (cyclic loads)
– Turning loads
– Towing loads
• Landing loads (received first by landing gear):
Function of landing gear:
– suspension
– absorb kinetic energy (horizontally and vertically)
– convert flying movement into riding movement
– braking

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 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Design of sinking speed:

– 10 ft/s for most types of aircraft
– 13.5 ft/s for trainer
– 20 ft/s for carried based airplanes

• Spin up and spring back loads (load cycle important for fatigue
consideration)

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 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Energy absorption

Simple spring system

1 1
Pv X s = K s X s2
2 2

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 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Enhanced Energy Absorption

Oleo strut system

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 1W 2
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB Kinetic Energy = Vs
2 g
1
Tire Energy = ηt
2
KtXt
2

Potential Energy = ( W − L)(X t + X s )

+
1W 2 1
Vs − ηt K t X t + ( W − L)(X t + X s ) = ηs PV max X s
2

2 g 2

PV
Landing Gear Load Factor n LG =
W
ηKX
2 2
1 Vs L
− t t t + (1 − )(X t + X s )
2 g 2W W
n LG =
ηs X s

L
The inertia factor on the airplane = n LG + ( )
W 16
 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Enhanced Energy Absorption

Oleo strut system

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 Ground Loads
Aeronautics & Astronautics ITB

• Enhanced Energy Absorption

Oleo strut system

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