Divine Messages and Human Actions in The Argonautica

Divine Messages and Human Actions in the Argonautica
University Press Scholarship Online
Oxford Scholarship Online
Ritual and Religion in Flavian Epic

Antony Augoustakis
Print publication date: 2013

Print ISBN-13: 9780199644094
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: May 2013
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199644094.001.0001

Gesine Manuwald
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199644094.003.0003
Abstract and Keywords

This chapter discusses the description of divine messages and their impact on the human
characters in ValeriusFlaccus Argonautica: although human beings never learn details of
the overall divine worldplan that they are made to implement, they acknowledge divine
interference and make attempts at learning details about the future via prophecies and
oracles. Ultimately, the humans, though unaware, and the gods are subject to the
workings of fate and Jupiters worldplan, which provide a framework of outside forces.
By increasing the role of destiny,Valerius has created a setup not only in line with the
literary tradition of epic,but also relevant to philosophical concerns of his time; this
provides a means of explaining events otherwise difficult to understand.
Keywords: Valerius Flaccus, gods, Jupiter, fate, prophecy, oracle
Divine messages: status and function
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Following ancient epic conventions, Valerius Flaccus Argonautica includes activities on a
divine level: the poem presents gods acting according to their own agendas, divine
councils chaired by the supreme god, Jupiter, and cooperation and argument among
gods, as well as a web of communication between the divine and the human spheres. This
interaction typically happens by indirect means, such as prodigies, dreams, oracles, and
prophecies on the part of the gods, as well as prayers and sacrifices offered by epic
characters. Only when the goddesses Juno and Venus make Medea fall in love with Jason
(and similarly for the flashback on the events on Lemnos) is there direct intervention of
gods, though the goddesses appear in disguise (6.427506, 7.153322). Communication
between the divine and human spheres is limited: while the meaning of many messages is
clear to readers, epic characters can only interpret them on the basis of their own
experiences, so that signs may remain partly or completely obscure to them.
Most importantly, the Argonauts never learn of the wider purpose of their journey
according to Jupiters plan for the development of world history, i.e. the destined changes
of hegemony (1.53160).1 For these shifts to happen, the opportunities for military
conflicts between peoples far removed from each other by natural barriers will have to
be expanded. Valerius inserts the announcement of this plan (without an equivalent in
Apollonius Rhodius) as a special divine prophecy, Jupiters (p.34) address at the divine
council.2 Given by Jupiter, fata predetermine the successful completion of the Argonautic
voyage, since it is a step that will create the necessary preconditions for Greece to take
over from Asia as the foremost power.3
Humans in the epic are not aware of this divine framework; hence their own actions follow
their personal plans and/or individual divine messages, which they receive (e.g. in
dreams) or request from gods. Therefore epic characters can be variously influenced by
divine messages: gods can guide protagonists, determine the timing of actions, or confirm
decisions.4 Yet the form and structure of these divine messages typically do not commit
humans to specific actions; hence the characters feel free in their decisions and may try
to work against the announcements, may forget or ignore omens, or may feel
encouraged in their plans (esp. 1.15683). Ultimately, however, whatever the motivation
and the relation to divine signs, all human actions are shown to contribute to the overall
goal determined by Jupiters plan.5
Such a framework raises questions concerning the status and function of divine
messages, as well as the role of the gods, an issue that has received much attention from
scholars who are divided in between two opposite ends: does the traditional divine
apparatus represent divine powers to be worshipped, or is it part of the conventional
narrative structure, thus functioning as a symbol for the humans own feelings? The latter
view is particularly connected with the presentation of Medeas struggle between loyalty
to her family and love for Jason; the goddesses are seen to promote love for Jason as a
motivating factor in opposition to Medeas moral concerns (7.2929, 7.30924, 7.3712,
7.4612).6 The problem of the status of spontaneous or ritually requested divine
messages therefore becomes even more urgent. Psychological interpretations have been
suggested: divine messages do not move human beings to anything (p.35) that is
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against their nature,7 or prophecies agree with the hopes of human beings.8
Yet the hypothesis that the introduction of divine intervention is designed to illustrate
deeper psychological processes seems difficult to sustain, even with regard to the divine
influence on the decision of Medea, who, at least initially, opposes the wishes of the
goddesses. With its juxtaposition and connection of human thoughts and divine
intervention, Valerius narrative includes hints that divine messages may be read as
external influences on humans. In view of the ongoing scholarly discussion, this chapter
will analyse the description of divine messages and their impact on humans in the
Argonautica, thereby making an attempt at determining how the poet may have
envisaged gods and other supernatural forces.
Significance of divine messages

The significance of divine messages can be seen already in the epics introductory proem
(1.521) immediately after the mention of its topic (1.14): here the poet places his poetry
under divine guidance by invoking Phoebus Apollo (1.5), just as Apollonius Rhodius does
(A. R. 1.1). Whereas Apollonius mentions Phoebus primarily as the god of prophecy, since
oracles form the starting point of the plot (A. R. 1.17), and adds an invocation to the
Muses in the catalogue of heroes (A. R. 1.22), Valerius appeals to Phoebus for inspiration
and intensifies the invocation by a reference to the tripod aware of the Sibyl in his house
(1.57). Although scholars continue to debate whether this statement implies that the
poet is one of the quindecemuiri sacris faciundis, whose duties include a cult of Apollo as
well as maintenance, consultation, and interpretation of the prophetic Sibylline books, or
whether he assumes a pose, it is still noteworthy that he chooses to mention this office or
to invent it for his poetic persona.9
(p.36) While references to the personality of the poet, particularly in prologues or
epilogues, are not unprecedented in Roman epic, including such a detail is unusual.
Earlier Roman poets like Naevius and Ennius use references to their own experiences to
enhance their credibility and standing.10 Valerius places his story under the guidance of
Phoebus (and also of the soon-to-be-deified Vespasian), on the basis of a close
relationship between the poetic persona and the god due to the activities of the
quindecimuiri. Contemporary ritual practices and institutions are taken so seriously that
they can be used to enhance the poets role; since the quindecimuiri are concerned with
looking after the Sibylline books, such a reference implies that the custom of dealing with
oracles in Roman life is present from the start of the Argonautica.
The significance of prophecy for the narrated action is highlighted from the beginning:
even before the reference to the poet (1.521), the Argo is introduced as the prophetic
ship, lit. fate-telling ship (fatidicamque ratem, 1.2). In Apollonius, the Argo is defined as
well-benched (A. R. 1.14). By endowing the ship with the special ability of prophecy,
Valerius indicates that sacred physical items have the ability to convey information about
fate. On the level of the narrative, the reason for the Argos faculty is explained by the
fact that she has been built with divine support and incorporates a beam from a Dodonian
oak: after Jason has prayed to Juno and Pallas, the two goddesses do not react directly;
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instead, they are described as making preparations for the journey on his behalf (1.915).
The Argos divine properties are explained at her first appearance to Jason in his sleep
before departure, when the sacred oak encourages him not to delay setting off any
further (1.30010). The Argo asserts that she is an oak from Dodona, the servant of
Chaonian Jupiter (1.3023) and that the Saturnian goddess could not have torn her from
the prophetic woods had not heaven been promised to her (1.3045). She encourages
Jason to get rid of his fear and to trust in the gods and the Argo. Jason reacts in fear,
favourable though the omen from heaven was (1.309), an indication of his awe before the
divine appearance.11 Jupiters oak, however, has now provided him with an answer to his
prayer for help (1.8090): he has received reassurance that the gods will support him.
Thus the Argos divine intervention is not (only) intended to confirm Jasons own decision
to go on this journey or to determine the timing of (p.37) the departure; 12 instead,
Jupiters prophetic oak promises divine support of the voyage to Jason in line with the
role of the journey according to Jupiters plans.
The Argo has been endowed with divine properties which cannot be read as mere
manifestations of human emotions, as becomes apparent also on two other occasions. The
sacred oak plays a decisive role when a new helmsman has to be selected after the death
of the original helmsman, Tiphys: the Argo chooses a third person other than the two who
contend for the job (5.636). This outcome is predetermined, as the Argo is governed by
the unspecified higher powers of Fates prompting (5.65), which recognize the best
helmsman for a successful completion of the journey.
After the Argonauts reach Colchis, the Argo turns round of her own accord, providing a
sure omen (5.21012). The Argonauts interpret this as a promise of return (5.212
13).13 As the omens conveyed by the Argo concern the success of the voyage, these
revelations bring the Argonauts close to getting an idea of Jupiters plans, since the
portents come from a servant of his. In his world plan, Jupiter says that his oak trees, the
tripods, and the spirits of their ancestors have sent forth the Argonauts (1.5445).14
Although there are no other references to these motivations, the correspondence
between Jupiters plan and the signals given by the Argo suggests Jupiters involvement.
Divine messages and human knowledge

The clear signals conveyed by the Argo are unique among the divine messages to epic
characters. The Phineus episode in particular shows that Jupiter wishes humans to have
only incomplete information about the future: because of his revelation of Jupiters
thoughts and decisions to humans out of compassion, Phineus is tormented by the
Harpies (4.47782). He is kept alive by the hope that the fata have decreed that the sons
of Aquilo should dispel the cruel plague, and he knows that the (p.38) Argonauts are
coming (4.43164); hence he is convinced that not chance but Gods own will has
brought the Argonauts to him (4.4834). Upon arrival the Argonauts react according to
the fata (4.485): two of them free Phineus from the Harpies (4.50128). Yet the issue of
whether this salvation will be permanent is called into question later, when Phineus
remembers another, ambiguously worded prophecy, conveyed by a voice from heaven
(4.580), with the exact sources remaining obscure: this sorsdiuum (heavenly decree,
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4.577) has linked the end of his punishment with the Argos successful passing through
the Symplegades (4.57784). Phineus cannot take for granted at this stage that this will
happen (4.5856).15 While the divine prophecies first mentioned by Phineus, namely that
he will be freed from his punishment by the Argonauts (4.46061), could be interpreted
as a symbolic expression of his wishes, such an interpretation is unlikely with respect to
the second prophecy, non-existent in Apollonius. The complex causal link between the
continuation of the journey and Phineus rescue rather indicates the fateful coincidences
that have been engineered by a higher power with the ultimate aim of opening the seas
permanently to traffic.
Phineus uncertainty about his own fate underscores the limits of human foreknowledge
more prominently than in Apollonius (A. R. 2.17896, 2.311425): even a seer does not
know everything; what is more, he does not have permission to reveal details to other
humans. Hence Phineus prophecy to Jason, concerning the subsequent stages of the
Argonautic voyage, is only granted by exception and does not convey certain knowledge
(4.55760): what will happen after the Symplegades is presented under the condition that
the Argonauts manage to pass through, and the seer is not allowed to talk about the end
of the Argonautic voyage (4.6235). Jupiter does not wish humankind to be aware of its
predetermined fate (4.55960). Still, seers have a special role among human beings: due
to their relationship to the gods they know more, though there are limitations for them
too.
Prophetic knowledge of seers and human desire for information

A ritual scene prior to the departure of the Argo demonstrates that the access of seers
to knowledge of future events varies, and that their (p.39) messages are not always
clear and may differ: the seer Mopsus foresees not only dangers looming because of the
voyage but also details relating to incidents during the journey and to events in Colchis
and beyond, up to the murder of Jasons children by Medea (1.20726).16 This bleak
prophecy, incomprehensible to the epic characters (1.2278),17 is followed by another,
contrasting prophecy by the seer Idmon (1.22833): Idmon also announces perils, while
he includes the prospect of the successful completion of the journey.18 The prophet
keeps silent about his own death, which he sees forecast by the omens (1.2349; cf. also
1.36061). Indeed when Idmon passes away (5.112), his qualities as a truthful seer are
confirmed only for the reader.19
The positive outlook conveyed by Idmon is essential within the immediate narrative:
derived from Apollo, his prophecy is a sufficient basis for Jason to infer that the gods
support the Argonautic mission. For him it is Jupiter himself who has willed the fellowship
of men throughout his world, and their union in such mighty tasks (1.2457). Jasons
conclusion cannot have been deduced entirely from Idmons words, but the seers
positive prophecy provides the hero with the certainty that the enterprise has a purpose
beyond carrying out Pelias tyrannical will. Even though Jason almost identifies the actual
intention behind the Argonautic trip, he cannot imagine the most important element of the
journey according to Jupiter, namely enabling military conflicts by means of initiating
contact between distant peoples.20
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A seers function is not limited to being a medium for divine messages. Because of special
knowledge, he may also mediate between human and (p.40) divine spheres by means
of rituals. Hence Mopsus can free the Argonauts from their guilt when they have sunk
into lethargy after the events on Cyzicus. In response to Jasons question whether this
predicament is ordained by fatum or contrived by human hearts (3.3745),21 Mopsus
argues that people who have killed unwillingly are terrified by their conscience; at the
same time, he expects that the Argonauts can be cured by a supernatural ritual,
revealed to him by a Celaeneus at the edge of the Underworld (3.377416).22
Furthermore, the seers Idmon and Mopsus are called Apollos men (1.228, 1.3834,
3.372), the prophetess Polyxo is a favourite of Apollos (2.316), Apollo has his seat in
Phineus breast (4.4456), and the god himself is defined by the term augur (1.234).23
The poet creates a connection between himself and those who serve Apollo by alluding to
the office of quindecemuir in the proem (1.57). The Romanization of practices and
terminology indicates that the poem, though a literary text, is rooted in the religious
reality of the time.24
The special status of seers corresponds to the expectations of the epic characters.
Accordingly, after the battle on Cyzicus, during which he accidentally kills his host,
Cyzicus, Jason complains that neither Apollos nor Jupiters oracles nor the predictions of
seers had warned him of this misfortune, although other evil was indeed foretold
(3.299302).25 Clearly, oracles and the interpretations of seers are expected to provide
support and forewarnings. Therefore, as the Argonauts approach Colchis, Jason is even
more worried, and the prophecies of the Argos own seers, Mopsus and Idmon, no
longer suffice; hence he asks Phineus for a comprehensive prophecy (4.53846). Jason
does not lack trust in his own seers, and he knows that he has received help from Pallas
and Juno, but he is keen on learning as many details as possible about the future. He
obviously believes that the course of events is predetermined and can be predicted by
seers.
(p.41) That Jason continues to seek reassurance with regard to the future, although he
has been told that the Argonautic voyage will ultimately be successful (1.2348, 2.5927),
may be interpreted as a lack of confidence in the gods.26 In fact it is an expression of
uncertainty, since thus far Jason has been provided with vague allusions rather than
definitive certainties. At the same time it shows that he continues to have faith in the gods.
Like his parents, Jason is described as someone for whom religio is important and who is
careful to observe religious rituals. Hence he asks Juno and Pallas to support the
Argonautic voyage before he sets off. According to the narrative, it is this belief in divine
help (religio) that confirms his decision to undertake the voyage ordered by Pelias (1.79
90). Jason immediately sacrifices to the sea gods when caught by a sea storm (1.65980),
as he is aware that a possible reason for the tempest may be the Argonauts
transgression into the new and hitherto closed realm of Neptune.
Divine plans and divine intervention

Readers will recognize that Jasons assumption concerning the sea storm is correct: the
winds and Boreas in particular feel enraged at the Greeks and their mad bark (1.574
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607). This is not the only time that gods act and react for personal reasons: Mars, for
instance, intervenes, prompted by a request from Aeetes (5.2505; cf. also 6.2830); the
events on Cyzicus are a result of Cybeles anger (3.1931); Juno and Pallas interfere in
the action: not only do they take care for providing the ship and its crew (1.919), but
they also agree, upon the Argonauts arrival in Colchis, that they should join the ongoing
fight on Aeetes side, although they know that the Argonauts will not win the Golden
Fleece by doing so. Afterwards the goddesses will jointly make sure by other means that
the Greeks can gain the Fleece and safely return home (5.27899). The scene closes with
the authorial comment: So planned at that time the heavenly ones for mens renown
(5.296).
Ultimately, all human actions, directed or supported by individual gods depending on
personal interest, contribute to the realization of Jupiters plan. If divine activities
contradict this goal or threaten to delay it too much, Jupiter intervenes (e.g. 3.24952,
4.121, 5.67289). Only within this framework are the gods given the freedom to pursue
(p.42) their own agendas.27 For instance, Neptune withdraws his support for his son
Amycus because Jupiter wishes him to be defeated by the Argonauts to open up the seas
(4.11432). Prevailed upon by Juno and Pallas, Neptune calms the sea storm raised by
the winds, because the Argonautic voyage is destined to take place (1.188204 and
1.64180). Despite his great powers, even Jupiter has to accept the force of fate and does
not make an attempt to save his son Colaxes from death during the battle in Colchis; he
only grants him enormous fighting prowess to win final honours (6.62130).28
Humans, however, are not privy to divine operations. For instance, when the Argonauts
approach Lemnos, the Lemnian women are initially minded to confront them until Vulcan
quells their passions. Polyxo, the priestess beloved of Phoebus (2.316),29 declares that
the god that favours Lemnos, presumably Jupiter (cf. 2.35660), has brought the
Argonauts there,30 and that Venus herself gives the Argonauts and the Lemnian women
a chance to be joined (2.31625). Sanctioned by divine messages, the friendly reception
by the Lemnian women makes the Argonauts lose interest in travelling further (2.3713),
until Hercules reminds them of their journeys purpose (2.37392). Here the motivation
for returning to the main action derives from an epic character; ultimately, this is another
step towards the fulfilment of Jupiters plan.
Double motivation of human actions

Whereas on Lemnos progress is brought about within the human sphere, actions of epic
characters are often given double motivation: a psychological one and one based on
divine messages.31 When Jason decides to accept Pelias order, one of the motivations is
the expectation of winning glory (1.758). Striving for glory is therefore often seen as
Jasons sole motive and presented as a negative trait.32 The structure of the narrative
(p.43) makes it clear that Jason builds on confidence in Juno and Pallas, and that his
religio finally gives him the reassurance to go (1.734, 1.7980). The goddesses become
active immediately (1.919), a proof that Jasons religio is valued.
Pelias is also doubly motivated: the poet narrates that the ageing tyrant is concerned
because of Jason and threats of heaven, since soothsayers have predicted his downfall
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at Jasons hands, and victims at the altar have repeated the warning.33 Above all, Jasons
fame and virtue are weighing heavily upon Pelias (1.2630). The malicious plan Pelias
develops as a response, namely to destroy Jason by ordering him to travel to Colchis,
introduces the Argonautic voyage at the level of the narrative. When Pelias tries to
circumvent what has been foretold by divine omens, he actually contributes to the
completion of Jupiters plan. Pelias may be said to react to the divine message according
to his nature, or the divine signs may be thought to determine the timing of his
initiative.34 Yet such readings do not fully cover the complex character of the omens: the
poet mentions the threatening signs, brought about by anonymous gods, as a second
element independent of Pelias personal fears, while the phrasing, according to which
sacrificial victims reinforce what the seers say, strengthens the force and plausibility of
the external divine signal. Only by means of this divine authority does Pelias get
confirmation that his jealous fears are not without reason.
A similar structure applies to Aeetes motivation in Colchis.35 Here the entire set-up is
rather complex and also includes direct divine intervention. In a dream, Aeetes sees
Phrixus, who says: dolour and ruin of your realm shall abound for you, when the fleece
is stolen from the sleep-drugged grove (5.2367); then he orders Aeetes not to let
Medea, whomever she should marry, remain within her fathers kingdom.36 Phrixus
functions as a messenger; the ultimate origin of the prophecy is not revealed. Like Pelias,
Aeetes is only concerned with retaining his power; therefore he takes action to forestall
the dangers prophesied by Phrixus, first by asking the gods Sol and Mars for support
and then by promising Medea to an Albanian prince (5.24458). Aeetes appeal to the
(p.44) gods meets with success: a serpent appears immediately not without the will of
the god, entwining the grove where the Golden Fleece is kept and looking towards
Greece (5.2535).
By interpreting Phrixus words only with a view to maintaining his power, and
disregarding the welfare of the Colchians, as the poet notes (5.2635), the king places
himself in opposition to his own people, who ask for the return of the Fleece. In particular,
the god who always forewarns (5.260)37 sends evil omens and portents throughout the
city; a priest interprets them as indication that the Fleece should be returned to Greece
(5.25962). This creates a divine entity with a different message, though its identity does
not become clear. By complying with this advice, the Colchians could have avoided a
military conflict. But because Aeetes interprets Phrixus warning with reference to himself
and therefore refuses to follow the peoples wishes, and as he sees Perses setting his
hopes on power (5.26971),38 the two messages sent by undetermined divinities cause
the military conflict between Aeetes and his half-brother Perses (5.2715).
While it is possible to assume that the dream appearance is exploited to illustrate Aeetes
own anxieties, the incidents in the city and their interpretation by a priest belong to a
course of events that is unexpectedly created by external intervention. The occurrence
of two divine messages might be interpreted as indicating two different points of view or
as ambiguously phrased oracles expressing the same idea.39 But with no portents, there
would be no motivation for Perses to take action. The presentation rather suggests that
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the events are to be seen as directed by the divine in the background, just as the arrival
of the Argonauts during a truce between the two brothers is described as ordained by
fate (5.277) and thereby characterized as externally determined.
(p.45) The involvement of the Argonauts in the civil war in Colchis is not yet the military
conflict between Asia and Greece intended by Jupiter (1.54254), as is revealed in a
discussion between Juno and Pallas upon the Argonauts arrival. The goddesses decide
that the Argonauts should support Aeetes, so that Pallas has a chance to engage in battle,
and they agree that they will resort to other means later, in order for Jason to win the
Fleece and return home (5.27896). The goddesses plans are translated into reality on
the human level when the Argonauts are initially deceived by Aeetes, who promises the
Fleece as a reward for their participation in the fighting (5.52841). As a result of the
divine and human motivations combined, the Argonauts make no progress, and Juno
eventually realizes that her actual goal cannot be achieved in this way. Therefore she
decides to gain Medeas support (6.42755, 7.153299).
A horrifying dream has indicated to Medea that the Argonauts arrival in Colchis will have
terrible, predetermined consequences for her (5.32942). Again, no specific god is
identified as initiating this dream, which foreshadows the murder of Medeas brother and
her children. These portents affect an addressee who is virtually unprepared, since
Medea is lying in relaxed sleep without any trouble when the dream appears (5.3334).
Thus it is made clear that the dream has prophetic significance; it has not developed from
human preoccupations and does not reveal secret wishes.40 By contrast, in Apollonius
account, Medea has a dream after meeting Jason; this dream does not extend to the
future, but rather focuses on the decision to be made between Jason and her parents (A.
R. 3.61632). As Valerius Medea is unexpectedly confronted by divine predictions, which
she does not understand, she seeks purification from the dream in an attempt to avoid
the undefined horrors. This human reaction, however, brings about her first meeting
with Jason, beautified by Juno (5.32998). Within this complex series of foreshadowing,
activities of individual gods and human actions, by which Valerius launches the
presentation of the events in Colchis, humans may believe that they are acting freely. In
fact, they become subject to a superior directing force, particularly when they react to
divine signals.
Direct divine intervention (in disguise)

The same relationship between human activities and divine will applies to Medea being
brought to support Jason: Juno resolves to intervene (p.46) when she sees no other
way of ensuring Jasons success (6.42754).41 The goddess first tries to deceive Venus
by asking for the latters magic girdle, allegedly for herself (6.45576). Though
recognizing the deceit, Venus agrees, because of her long-standing hatred of Colchis
(6.4679). Armed with the girdle and disguised as Chalciope, Medeas sister, Juno puts
pressure on Medea (6.47794, 6.575601, 6.65780); she leaves her when she is
confident that her trick will be successful (6.680). Medea, however, is not an easily pliable
object of divine will: she opposes the divine forces (7.16061) with such might that Juno is
obliged to call upon Venus for more help. Disguised as Circe, Medeas aunt, Venus
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manages to lead the heroine to a meeting with Jason (7.153406). The goddesses
eventually get Medea to turn against her father and fatherland, although her pudor
(shame) and pietas (piety) advise against it; yet she is only overcome after a long
struggle and much hard work on the part of the divine.
The intervention of the two goddesses is motivated by personal interests. Medeas
struggle with opposing powerful forces could be construed as a process taking place
within her soul and mind, as in Ovid (Met. 7.799). Valerius, however, has not chosen this
option. If the goddesses are still seen as representing conflicting views and feelings in
Medeas mind, i.e. as symbols of the force of love, then the question remains why only
one side should be symbolized by divinities whereas the other part is portrayed by the
poet straightforwardly as Medeas thoughts and values.42 There is no opposition
between personified moral entities, as in contemporary epics, when, for instance, Virtus
and Voluptas each try to persuade Scipio in Silius (Sil. 15.1130), or when Pietas and
Tisiphone fight each other in Statius (Theb. 11.45796). Valerius shows that all-powerful
supernatural forces manipulate humans, so that they follow the predetermined course of
events, even against their will.43
This is a less fanciful portrayal than the corresponding scene in Apollonius, where the
goddesses manage to win the support of Eros, who is called away from his games and
then pierces Medea with an arrow (A. R. 3.6166, 3.27598). Valerius Medea is
described as an unhappy girl, unaware of future evils, at the mercy of her false relative
(6.49091). Moreover, Valerius makes Hecate, Medeas patroness, comment that (p.47)
Medea will go to Greece unwillingly (haud sponte, 6.498). At the end of the long process,
Medea herself feels that she is defeated by an unspecified numen and Jasons fata.44
Jupiter has announced Medeas liaison with Jason as part of the predetermined course of
events in world history (1.54651); the activities of the goddesses contribute to its
fulfilment.
Divine messages and human reactions

Predetermined incidents are translated into reality, even when epic characters do not
react to divine messages. For instance, Jason seems to have learned that Hercules would
not participate in the journey until its very end. When the Argonauts are about to sail
from Mysia and leave Hercules behind, Jason remembers an oracle that had announced
that he who was the mightiest in arms of all this band should be held fast by fate and
Joves command before he reached the sea that storms about the wandering rocks
(3.61921). Jason wishes that this were a false oracle, but has to accept its validity.45 In
this case Jason has known future sad events, but has apparently taken no steps to
prevent them or to prepare himself for their eventual realization. Therefore he has to
accept what is fated, even though it goes against his sense of loyalty and duty.46
Likewise, Cyzicus has not paid attention when birds and flashes of lightning predicted his
death. In this context, an authorial comment asks which human would not reject the first
divine signs and instead expect a long life (3.3526). Knowledge of the future has been
granted, but has not helped the individual to cope; this is explained by a common human
tendency to shy away from terrible truths. Hence no particular guilt on Cyzicus part is
Page 10 of 17

highlighted; his killing of the sacred lion and Cybeles resulting anger and revenge (3.19
31) turn out only to have triggered his end, but Cyzicus could not have avoided his
predetermined fate.47 The source of these divine warnings and the time at which
Cyzicus fate (p.48) is sealed (the building of the Argo) suggest that his death is part of
the predestined plan for the world in connection with the Argonautic voyage. Both
Cyzicus and Jasons behaviour reveals a certain type of human reactions to divine
messages, which is similarly described by Statius (Theb. 6.9347) and Silius (Sil. 13.494
506).
Since such a response to divinely conveyed messages is presented as characteristic of
humans in Valerius, it becomes all the more remarkable how seriously epic characters
take divine messages: either they obey them or they try to achieve a different result.
While some of the foreshadowing is linked to Jupiter or Apollo, a large proportion comes
from unidentified sources, from unspecified numina/diui, or is given in impersonal form.
Nevertheless, they are all taken into account by the epic characters. This might suggest
that the presence of gods as named individuals is rather an element of poetic tradition;
and in Valerius time anthropomorphic features that turn gods into full-scale individuals
are limited in literary descriptions. Yet this does not explain sufficiently the divine
influence on the lives of the characters, as well as the complex juxtaposition of fatum, the
intentions of other gods, and Jupiters world plan.
Fate and free decisions of gods and humans

In the Argonautica, there exists a hierarchy between fatum and individual gods,
inasmuch as Jupiters plan determines the lives of the characters. The rest of the gods,
including Jupiter himself, cannot obstruct the force of destiny set a long time beforehand.
Only within this predetermined framework are the gods given the freedom to pursue
their own agendas. Whenever Jupiter intervenes as moderator, other divinities learn why
their actions have to be limited by firm boundaries. For the protagonists who never
receive clear information about the overall framework, the gods remain their
addressees: humans worship them in rituals and ask for support and further information
about the future. It is not obvious to humans that the gods themselves are not
completely free in their actions.
Since the epic protagonists are aware that they are subject to the workings of fate (or the
wishes of the individual gods) beyond their (p.49) control, they try to learn as much as
possible. By being forewarned or by at least understanding the context afterwards,
humans are able to come to terms with what they experience. Divine messages are often
unclear and must be interpreted; the personality of individuals influences human actions
accordingly.48 There is therefore space for psychological motivation behind human
actions, as Valerius seems to suggest by exploiting double motivation.
Divine messages
The status and function of divine messages emerges from the overall relationship
between human characters and the gods or fata:49 humans view the gods as powers that
influence their lives and deserve worship; divine messages may provide (partial) insight
into what is predetermined by fate.50 The gods, however, often follow their own agendas
Page 11 of 17

and do not act in accordance with the fata. Therefore Jupiter has to call them to order.51
Still it is clear that, besides the noticeable influence of gods, there is an impersonal fate to
which even Jupiter is subject, and which will be realized at any cost.
This provides a further, philosophical layer, informed by Stoic doctrine: although, in
contrast to his predecessor Lucan, Valerius has introduced gods into the epic narrative,
the concept underlying the Argonautica is actually not so different from the De bello
ciuili, because fortune and fate are important factors in Lucans epic too (e.g., Luc. 1.262
5, 2.699701, 3.3924, 9.89091). Therefore the (Olympic) gods in Valerius function both
as traditional elements in the narrative and as representatives of a middle level in the
relationship between the divine and the human spheres. A crucial difference, however, is
that the (p.50) narrator in Lucan wishes that Jupiter left humans unaware of the future,
so that they can still enjoy hope rather than live in fear of terrible events to come (Luc.
2.415); in Statius (Theb. 3.55165) there is also an outburst against the unsettling
consequences of wanting to know the future. Conversely, Valerius characters try to
seek reassurance by gaining information about the future, while Jupiter withholds
complete knowledge from them.
Within the context of the relationship between gods and humans Jupiter is presented as
occupying a special role: he has created the world plan, he checks that it is fulfilled by
contributions from gods and men and that other gods do not interfere too much, but he
is himself subject to the necessities of this plan.52 Jupiter calls his plan fata (1.534), though
elsewhere fatum/fata and Jupiter are juxtaposed (3.620).53 Indeed, the idea that Jupiter
may not be the concrete figure, who hurls thunderbolts, but rather a supernatural,
powerful force that determines everything, and could also be called fate or
providence, agrees with Stoic doctrine found in Seneca the Younger (Sen. Nat. 2.45).
That humans are ruled by predetermined fate is in line with ideas in Seneca and Lucan:
human will is irrelevant, for what has been determined by fate will happen, and unwilling
humans will be dragged along in that direction and even made guilty against their
intentions (Sen. Ep. 107.711; Luc. 7.4858). The notion that Jupiter as a creator has fixed
a world plan and cannot change it afterwards, and that humans and gods, including
Jupiter himself, are subject to its rules, has a parallel in Senecas De prouidentia (Sen.
Dial. 1.5.89). The dialogues juxtaposition of Stoic fatum and active gods reads almost like
a philosophical concept for Valerius Argonautica. Thus Valerius has created a framework
not only in line with the literary tradition of epic, but also relevant to philosophical
concerns of his time.
In the Argonautica traditional gods, as well as oracles, prodigies, and prophecies of the
poetic tradition, have been adapted to a more rationalist or philosophical framework,
where, however, external, supernatural forces and mysterious coincidences (actually
determined by fate) remain as outside influences on the lives of epic characters. Engaging
with gods as powerful entities by receiving divine messages and prayers in an (p.51)
attempt to ward off bad consequences or at least to be prepared for impending events is
the only, not always successful, option for the protagonists to cope with their situation.
Attributing events to the workings of destiny, which will carry on irrespective of the
Page 12 of 17

wishes and intentions of individuals, is a step towards an explanation of the course of
events that humans are confronted with, but do not always understand. (p.52)
Notes:
(1 ) Cf. Ferenczi (1996: 446).
(2) The existence of an overall plan that determines the outcome of divine and human
actions does not necessarily imply that it must lead to a positive outcome for all parties
concerned (but cf. e.g. Lefvre 1998: 230).
(3) On several occasions it is highlighted that the Argonauts land somewhere as arranged
by fata and/or gods, and in some cases the locals entertain hopes that this will bring the
help predicted by divine signs (2.3224, 2.356, 2.4456, 2.486, 4.4835); see Adamietz
(1976: 38 and 59).
(4) For some examples, see Gro (2003).
(5) Cf. Billerbeck (1986: 3130) (though she believes that Jupiters plan does not play a
major role in the epic); Gro (2003 passim).
(6) See e.g. Eigler (1991: 1634 and 167); Grtner (1996: 2956); contrast Soubiran
(2002: 36).
(7) See Gro (2003: 9, 123, 243).
(8) For instance, Hesione sees in Hercules the saviour promised by auguries (2.4856).
Such an oracle is only found in Valerius version; cf. Poortvliet (1991: 262); Spaltenstein
(2002: 444); Drger (2003: 395). See also Grtners (1996) interpretation of dreams as
announcing an individuals wishes.
(9) For a summary of the issue, cf. Zissos (2008: xiiixiv, 80). Boyanc (1935; 1964) claims
that religion plays a major role in the epic and is an important source for certain rites
described, because of Valerius position as quindecimuir.
(10) On Naevius, cf. Gel. 17.21.45; on Ennius, cf. Enn. Ann. 2, 3, 11 Skutsch; Tert. An.
33.8; Schol. ad Pers. Prol. 23 and ad Pers. 6.11.
(11 ) Cf. Spaltenstein (2002: 137); on this scene, see Schubert (1984: 1823); Grtner
(1996: 2926); Gro (2003: 13038).
(12) Thus Lthje (1971: 278); Gro (2003: 1345).
(13) Later the Argo exhibits joy when Jason wins the Fleece (8.12930), though without
any prophetic force; cf. Spaltenstein (2004: 441).
(14) On the difficulties of a realistic explanation of this statement, see Zissos (2008: 317).
Drger (2003: 357), for instance, concludes that it must refer to an oracle that Jason had
Page 13 of 17

received in the meantime (see n. 20 below). Feeney (1991: 318) assumes that one of the
prophesying oaks is the Argo.
(15) For a fuller discussion of the Phineus episode (including these lines) and
bibliography, see Manuwald (2009).
(16) Mopsus is aware of future events also elsewhere (8.24751, 8.3959).
(17) Difficult divine messages are not limited to verbal communications. On the decoration
of the doors of Sols temple, fashioned by Vulcan, the Colchians are not yet able to
identify the future events depicted, but are rather awestruck, as are the Argonauts
(5.40855); see Gro (2003: 17783).
(18) Lovatt (Ch. 3) points to the contrast between the stagey prophecy of Mopsus and
the matter-of-fact intervention of Idmontwo different types of prophecy, the dramatic
and the persuasive.
(19) See Lovatts analysis in Ch. 3 below of the theatricality of prophecy and its political
significance.
(20) Cf. Ferenczi (1996: 45); but cf. Lefvre (1991: 178). Again (see n. 14 above), Drger
(2003: 333) infers that Jasons assessment is based on an oracle sought but never
mentioned in the text. There is no evidence that the Argonauts are aware of Jupiters
plan. Drger (1993: 33655) and (1998: 20611), however, assumes that Jason had
gained information from the oracles at Delphi and Dodona before sailing off. Even though
pronouncements of oracles are mentioned throughout the poem without narration of an
actual consultation, this is not a sufficient basis for construing a prehistory. An earlier
augurium in a different context (1.15662) has also been seen as an explanation for
Jasons views, see Lthje (1971: 20 and 27 n. 2).
(21 ) For a similar alternative, cf. Virg. Aen. 9.1847. Lthje (1971: 108) relates Jasons
question to his desire for glory and fame. But Jason and his men would not be able to
move on without the support of Mopsus ritual. On the significant role of Mopsus in
Valerius, see Spaltenstein (2004: 114); on this passage, cf. also Schubert (1984: 26971).
(22) Mopsus erecting altars to gods with names unknown (3.4267) will have resonated
with Roman readers. On relevant Roman beliefs, see Scheid (2003: 1534).
(23) On the significance of Apollo in connection with prophecies, see Schubert (1984: 183
4).
(24) On religion in Roman epic, see Feeney (2007) and the Introduction to this volume.
(25) Scholars have rightly observed that such predictions are not mentioned elsewhere,
with different explanations (see nn. 14 and 20 above); see Drger (2003: 414); Gro
(2003: 191); Spaltenstein (2004: 96). The poet inserts the information at this point to
illustrate the severity of the blow to Jason.
Page 14 of 17

(26) See Gro (2003: 7680).
(27) Cf. Billerbeck (1986: 3130) and Gro (2003: 22638).
(28) Cf. Virgils Jupiter and Hercules (Aen. 10.46672). Contrast Statius Jupiter (Theb.
1.197213), whose orders are obeyed by the gods and followed by the fata.
(29) Only in Valerius: see Adamietz (1976: 34); Poortvliet (1991: 182); Spaltenstein (2002:
394); Drger (2003: 386). On this scene, see Gro (2003: 1414).
(30) If Summers (1894: 72) supplement fatis for the incomplete line (2.322) is correct, a
god and the fata are behind the Argonauts stop on Lemnos; cf. Spaltenstein (2002: 396).
(31 ) The interpretation that the involvement of gods adds a psychological dimension to
individuals motivation (see e.g. Gro 2003: 239) explains only a part of the complex setup.
(32) See e.g. Lthje (1971: 6); Lefvre (1991: 17880); Grtner (1996: 295); Gro (2003:
1219); but also Zissos (2008: 127).
(33) The divine signs are directly related to Jason in Valerius (there is no warning against
a person wearing one shoe, as in other versions); thus the divine message can be closely
associated with a psychological motivation on the human level. The poet also presents the
divine message according to typical forms of Roman divination; cf. Drger (2003: 320).
(34) See Gro (2003: 78). The view, however, that divine signs have provoked Pelias to
do what he would not have done otherwise (so, elsewhere, Gro (2003: 121)) ignores
one element of the motivation.
(35) Cf. Adamietz (1976: 7071).
(36) See Fucecchis discussion in Ch. 1 above.
(37) It is unclear from the narrative whether the phrase semper monens deus refers to a
particular god (and to which one) or whether it functions as a general term for divinity;
see Drger (2003: 459); Spaltenstein (2004: 456). On this scene, see Grtner (1996: 298
300); Lefvre (1998: 2258).
(38) Lthje (1971: 2078) and Lefvre (1998: 228) highlight that Perses actions are
determined by concern for his own power rather than by his intention to follow divine
orders. Perses motives, however, are described from Aeetes point of view, and he only
becomes active in response to divine signs.
(39) Some scholars place emphasis on rapta (seized, 5.237) and try to reconcile the two
pieces of advice: Aeetes is told of danger only if the Golden Fleece were to be stolen,
but there is no warning with regard to handing it over. Yet he misinterprets the
prophecy, driven by his desire for power; see Lthje (1971: 2067); Grtner (1996:
Page 15 of 17

299300); Gro (2003: 113). This reading is possible in hindsight. But Aeetes reacts like
Pelias, reading the prophecy in the most obvious way, which is probably intended.
(40) On different types of dreams in the ancient world, see Kessels (1969).
(41 ) Throughout the poem, Juno is perhaps the goddess who has recourse to the most
direct (and traditional epic) means of supporting Jason and influencing the course of
events: she beautifies Jason (5.36372); she surrounds him with a protective mist (5.399
401); she increases his fighting power (6.6028); cf. Schubert (1991).
(42) For arguments against a symbolic interpretation of the gods, see Ferenczi (1998:
3446).
(43) The power of fata is an issue in Virgils Aeneid as well, and it is made explicit e.g. in
Aeneas answer to Dido when he is about to leave Carthage (Aen. 4.34047).
(44) Cf. esp. 7.2929, 7.30924, 7.3712, 7.446, 7.4612.
(45) The theory that these lines could be ignored because the poet would have revised
them before publication (Lthje 1971: 118 n. 1) is an easy solution, but there is no
evidence for such an assumption. Drger (2003: 423) again infers that Jason had sought
this oracle before departure; cf. also Gro (2003: 2289).
(46) On the consequences of this scene for Jasons characterization, see Adamietz (1976:
51).
(47) Lthje (1971: 1067) believes that Cyzicus bears some guilt for his death because
he had not taken the warnings seriously. The poet, however, emphasizes that this is not
Cyzicus particular fault, but rather the ordinary behaviour of humans; see also Gro
(2003: 1923).
(48) Gro (2003: 9, 123, 243) stresses that divine messages support the characters of
individuals and that humans have to act by themselves. The presentation in the epic
seems to suggest, however, that humans are happy to obey divine wishes, even though it
is often difficult to identify them.
(49) Fortuna is also mentioned several times as a cause for particular actions or events
(e.g. 2.594, 3.293, 5.113).
(50) Cf. Tuttle, Ch. 4 below, on augury.
(51 ) Cf. Jupiters words to Juno at Virgils Aen. 12.8006: she is aware that what has been
ordained by Jupiter and by fate must happen, and she only asks for concessions in an
area that has not been determined in order to satisfy her personal wishes (Aen. 12.807
28). To a certain extent Jupiter allows the fates to have their way without intervening
(Aen. 10.11113).
Page 16 of 17

(52) Ferenczi (1996: esp. 378, 46, 478) emphasizes that in Valerius there is less
scepticism and more harmony than in Lucan, and that there is hope for a basic order of
things. Valerius shows that there is an overall order, even though it may not be always
positive for the humans affected.
(53) For some preliminary thoughts on the gods and fate in Valerius, see Manuwald
(1999: 177224).
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Divine Messages and Human Actions in The Argonautica

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Ritual and Religion in Flavian Epic

Print publication date: 2013