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Article history:
Received 5 May 2015
Accepted 4 July 2015
The refrigerator is an essential domestic appliance product and is available worldwide. Additionally, the
technologies on which the majority of refrigerators are based involve high energy consumption, and
environmental deterioration due to the type of energy input and the use of certain work uids.
Therefore, how refrigerators work is of great interest, and in recent years the development of diverse
research in this eld has intensied. As a consequence, in this article we present an exhaustive review of
the research with the greatest impact on domestic refrigeration, based on vapor compression such as
modeled, thermal stratication, control, environmentally innocuous refrigerants, thermal isolation, and
hybrid systems, among others. Based on the above, we present the principal trends in this area, of
interest to both industry and researchers.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Compression vapor
Energy consumption
Efciency
Optimization
Modeling
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
General modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Capillary tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.
Evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Other components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Magnetic door gasket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Defrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Thermal behavior compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Hybrid refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.
Charge refrigerant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.
Refrigerants with nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.
Refrigerants as a foaming agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Trends in domestic refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
Corresponding author.
Tel.: 52 464 6479940x2419; fax: 52 464 6479940x2311.
E-mail address: jfbelman@ugto.mx (J.M. Belman-Flores).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.003
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
1. Introduction
The refrigerator is among the home appliances that use the
most energy. The majority of these refrigerators are based on
vapor compression technology, constituting one of the principal
energy consumers whose incidence is increasing in less economically developed countries. In developed countries, the vapor compression systems are responsible for around 30% of the total
energy consumption [1], and this percentage can noticeably
increase when there are malfunctioning events in the systems.
At the same time, the refrigerator is one of the most manufactured
appliances due to being indispensable in homes. The food industry
has boomed due to the development of refrigeration, yet for more
than 100 years it has used the same technology. Tantamount to
this, more than 45% of world food production would spoil if it were
not for cold storage and distribution. This makes efcient equipment indispensable, meaning low energy consumption and a
prolonged useful life. The development of the world refrigerator
industry requires a wide study of all factors that in one way or
another, contribute to achieving greater energy efciency in
accordance with the application of and compliance with technical
norms regarding energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions,
environmental impact, and security, among others. The annual
production of these appliances worldwide in the year 2009 was
approximately 80 million units, a number which is fast increasing
[2]. Currently, there are around 1 billion domestic refrigerators in
use worldwide [3].
Mexico, has the potential to save 4.7 TWh/year in electricity
through the substitution of old and inefcient refrigerators with
modern, high performing models, this represents 33% of total
annual consumption in the domestic refrigeration sector [4].
Recent studies indicate that new refrigerators consume up to
60% less energy than older models of the same size and capacity
after eight or more years of use [5]. According to the Trust for
Saving Electrical Energy (FIDE in Spanish), the refrigerator is the
home appliance with the second greatest energy consumption (see
Fig. 1). It should be appreciated that in regards to national
electricity demand, the domestic sector has a demand close to
26%, and of this around 30% of the domestic demand corresponds
to electricity consumption by the refrigerator. For example, during
2012, the energy consumption of the residential sector rose 0.4%
when compared to 2011 consumption levels [6].
The annual average number of units made in Mexico in the last
4 years for volumetric capacities of up to 0.3 m3, have been
1,430,483 units per year, and approximately double for units with
capacities greater than 0.3 m3 [7]. Also, in Mexico 80% of homes
own at least one refrigerator, this adds up to more than 23 million
working domestic refrigerators. With this data, and without
disregarding the undoubtable increase in production, it is easy to
suppose that with any improvement in refrigerator performance it
is possible to achieve savings, and that any impact on energy
consumption will be multiplied. Additionally, the potential electricity consumed by a domestic refrigerator is considered a great
cost. Any reduction in electrical energy consumption may not only
generate competitiveness for a manufacturer, but also provide
benets in terms of nal energy savings and the reduction of the
environmental impact generated by the product. Initially, energy
consumption was not as relevant as it is now. This consumption
directly affects the quantity and means of energy production,
which leaves an environmental footprint and affects the economy.
Technological advances tend to more efcient systems with lesser
environmental impact. In the last few years, researchers have
undertaken signicant efforts to improve the energy efciency of
home appliances. Some methods such as energy labeling take into
account the efciency of the product [810]. Adding to this, there
is a variety of mechanisms that may increase refrigerator energy
2. Modeling
In the face of the imminent need for a rational use of energy,
we visualize two general ways of improving energy efciency of a
vapor compression system: optimize the design of individual
components, and improve the operation of the refrigerator. Additionally, this should be sought without compromising the service
quality, in other words adequate temperatures in the refrigerator
compartments should be maintained. Therefore, the operation of a
refrigerator should move toward three objectives: (1) working free
of anomalies or deterioration, (2) energy efcient operation, and
(3) maintain the quality of operational conditions. However, this is
not entirely reected in refrigerators currently available on the
market. It is implied that models should approximate the real
behavior of the refrigerator so that they may improve the design
and operation of the domestic refrigerator in question. Said
models tend to be applied to the design and improvement of the
technological components in order to obtain optimum operation.
2.1. General modeling
The compression vapor cycle upon which domestic refrigerators are based consists of a compressor, a condenser, a capillary
tube, and an evaporator. Also, in order to achieve the cooling
effect, this system works with a refrigerant that undergoes phase
transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Fig. 2 shows a
schematic diagram of a domestic refrigerator representing the
main components.
The associated cost of research, manufacturing, and operation
of domestic refrigerators may decrease if the right model is
developed [12]. We found some simplied models in the literature. Hermes et al. [13] implemented a semi-empirical methodology for predicting the energy consumption of a typical top-mount
frost-free refrigerator. Their results were on track to nding
reductions in energy consumption through analysis of the inuence of each component, from the operational and geometric
points of views. Goncalves et al. [14] developed a model for
analysis of the cooling capacity and energy consumption. With
the model, they evaluated the effects of parameters such as the
capillary tube, compressor velocity, refrigerant charge, etc.
Mitishita et al. [15] modeled a top mount refrigerator; this model
was validated with experimental data and its application was
aimed at optimizing energy use. Negro and Hermes [16] developed a gray box model in the steady state. They found a conguration that reduced the cost of the refrigerator by 5% in
comparison to the original settings; the power consumption was
reduced by 14%. Gholap and Khan [17] developed a model for
understanding how the refrigerator works. They found an optimal
conguration representing a reduction of 8.92% of energy consumption from the baseline design. Hermes and Melo [18]
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
washer
steam iron
others
television
refrigerator
lighting
5% 6%
957
7%
40%
13%
29%
21.40%
25.70%
6.70%
5.40%
36.50%
4%
domestic
commercial
services
farming
medium company
large company
the energy consumption of 149 refrigerators through the application of multi-layer feed networks, MLFFN, with reference to
parameters such as capacity, door opening, and thermal charge,
etc. On the other hand, the refrigerator is the central axis within
energy management strategies that manage energy demand during peak hours [23]. Researchers have even proposed thermal
models for heat gain in residential buildings [24].
The dynamic model is very useful in domestic refrigeration as
opposed to the steady-state model, for example, for prediction of
air temperatures on refrigerator behavior, or prediction of the
effects of a new control algorithm. However, the steady-state
model offers greater information on the design eld, and both
models help engineers and researchers to make decisions.
2.2. Compressor
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
are dead times during which energy use is being wasted. Due to
this, other compression options should be fully explored to
simplify the working of the compressor and even diminish the
complexity of the fabrication and processing of the ensemble of
mechanical elements.
Another characteristic of current compressors is that they work
at the same speed at all times, despite changes in thermal load or
other operating conditions of the refrigerator, a circumstance that
may generate a waste of energy. In order to avoid this, a system is
required that processes and gives constant feedback with information obtained from the environment in real time that modify the
operation characteristics of the compressor, such as: speed, mass
ow rate or local temperature, etc.
In accordance with the above, we nd that it is important to
boost the development of technology in alternate compression
systems that minimize electrical energy consumption.
2.3. Condenser
As we mentioned in the previous section, one of the critical
zones of a refrigerator is located in the occupied space of the
compressor, where elevated temperatures are registered due to its
operation. Close to this zone, in the majority of refrigerators, we
nd the condenser, a component that is responsible for expelling
the heat absorbed by the refrigerant into the environment. The
condenser is an important component of the domestic refrigerator,
and its design has a signicant effect on the performance of the
global system. Therefore, in this area, the improvements go hand
in hand with energy efciency, reducing manufacturing costs, and
introducing new heat exchanger designs (functional, compact,
etc.). A good design of the condenser should not only improve
energy efciency, it should also reduce the space and material
according to certain cooling capacities. Condensers commonly
employed in domestic refrigeration are wire-and-tube [41] and
hot-wall [42], shown in Fig. 4.
The wire-and-tube condensers are mainly located in the rear
part of the refrigerator and are cooled via natural air convection.
Normally, a condenser of this type consists of a at copper coil, or
carbon steel tubes and steel wires that are soldered to the tubes
(see Fig. 4a) and act as extended surfaces. The designs of these
exchangers are oriented towards including enough heat dissipation under peak load conditions. An insufcient air ow that
circulates through a condenser may have repercussions for the
performance of the exchanger and consequentially on the refrigerator itself. Therefore, Ramadan [43] made an analytical model to
research the effect of the available space around the condenser
based on the heat dissipation capacity. The author concluded that
with enough space (more than 20 cm) between the condenser and
the back wall (for example the kitchen wall) the heat transfer
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startup
80
60
ON
OFF
40
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
Time [h]
Fig. 3. Onoff cycle of a small conventional capacity compressor.
2.5
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Fig. 4. Typical condensers in domestic refrigerators: (a) Wire-and-tube, (b) spiral wire-and-tube, and (c) hot-wall.
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Fig. 5. Typical evaporators in domestic refrigerators: (a) egg-crate and (b) roll bond.
frost
ice
defrost heater
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
designs called ow accelerated, varying the geometrical conditions. The characteristic of this heat exchanger is that the crosssectional area decreases with distance from the entrance of air
ow (the freezer oor) up to the higher section. Thereafter,
Waltrich et al. [69] increased the COP of the refrigerator by 1%,
and reduced the quantity of the material of the evaporator by 5.1%,
with regards to the baseline. Other works on domestic evaporators
have to do with the analysis of ow boiling heat transfer, where
ow maps were used to indicate the path of ow and to analyze
the heat transfer coefcient [70].
As shown in Fig. 5, the other type of evaporator that is also
widely used is roll-bond. This kind of evaporator consists of a plate
formed by two aluminum sheets within which canals are stamped
where the refrigerant circulates and where evaporation takes
place while air circulates externally. Hermes et al. [71] developed
a mathematical model based on fundamental physics with the aim
of investigating the behavior of a roll-bond evaporator. Righetti
et al. [72] compared the performance of a roll-bond through the
use of thermography and experimental analysis for the refrigerants R134a and R1234yf, exhibiting similar behavior for the same
mass ows. Visek et al. [73] experimentally evaluated the energy
consumption of a refrigerator designed by a dual sequential
evaporator (roll-bond and n-tubes) achieving the reduction of
energy consumption by 8.1%. On the other hand, Yoon et al. [74]
studied different effects such as the charge of the refrigerant and
the diameter of the capillary tube on the performance of a parallel
cycle (parallel evaporators), optimizing the system by achieving
energy savings between 1.8% and 7.8%.
Therefore, improving the efciency of the heat exchangers,
particularly the evaporator, may result in considerable energy
savings. A low temperature difference between the evaporator
and the air inside the cabinet provokes a high evaporation
temperature, resulting in better performance of the refrigerator.
3. Other components
Other components or accessories found in domestic refrigerators may also affect the thermal and energy performance of a
domestic refrigerator. As such, they are areas of interest and
development that have worked with the idea of achieving
improvements. Therefore, in this section we widen the information on advances in this area.
3.1. Magnetic door gasket
The consumption of electricity in a domestic refrigerator is
principally related to sensible and latent heat gains of perishable
foods stored in compartments, such as heat transfer through the
walls of the cabinet and inltration of the air. All of these gains
should be removed in the evaporator of the refrigeration system.
The greater the heat gain, the greater the work for the compressor,
leading to greater energy consumption. We emphasize here the
transfer of energy related to air inltration that principally occurs
through the magnetic seals of the doors. The seals are designed
with a certain thickness that allows us to easily open the
compartment doors, thereby avoiding problems with the differential pressure that occur between the internal and external space.
Heat loss through magnetic seals can reach up to 30% of the total
thermal loss of a domestic refrigerator. This is due to the low
density insulation is these zones where the door is embedded.
Also, there is the possibility of air inltration given through the
walls of the cabinet due to incorrect foam, which causes cavities.
Due to the frequent use of the refrigerator that comes with
opening and closing doors, the magnetic seals are losing their
capacity and are subject to allowing air inltration. The most
961
common causes in which the magnetic seal loses its capacity are
due to cracks in the plastic and lack of adherence. Last but not
least, besides heat loss, there are also kinds of bacteria that are
found in the inltrated air, which leads to food deterioration.
There is a way to quantify the percentage of energy consumed
by the compressor in removing or overcoming the gains by air
inltration through magnetic seals. Afonso and Castro [75] compared experimentally through the tracer gas technique, the inuence of the magnetic seals on the thermal, and energy
performance of the refrigerator. They showed that an old, used
seal subject to inltrations implies greater energy consumption
than a new one. When the seals are new, 3.6% of the energy used
by the compressor is due to air inltrations, and 96.4% is due to
gains through the walls, for an old seal that has started to lose its
properties, this percentage increases to 18.5%. This causes signicant increases in the energy consumption of the compressor, and
thus, in the economic cost and its environmental implications.
Hyung Seok et al. [76] presented a study where the characteristics
of heat transfer were predicted around magnetic seals.
So, magnetic seals represent an opportunity to improve this
kind of appliance. It should be highlighted that there is little or no
information in the literature found on this kind of system, as the
design of seals is secret and or are patented by manufacturers, and
are therefore not published.
3.2. Defrost
Domestic refrigerator users generally seek greater convenience
in the management of their appliance. Therefore refrigerators that
are able to defrost automatically are more generally acquired than
manual defrost appliances.
Frost is a porous medium composed of humid air and ice
crystals; it is a transitory process between heat and mass transfer.
It basically depends on parameters such as temperature and
humidity relative to the air, speed, cleanliness, the supercial
temperature of the metal, as well as its properties. The growth of
frost is formed by the deposition of water vapor contained in air
currents that mean that it strongly depends on the inltration of
humid and warm air during the opening of doors and through
magnetic seals. There are various experimental works focused on
the parameters that inuence the formation and growth of frost
[7779]. A refrigerator free of frost represents certain energy
problems depending on the defrosting method employed. When
the frost accumulates on the surface of the evaporator, it acts as
thermal resistance by reducing the ow of heat and increasing the
pressure drop on the air side. Therefore, the performance of the
evaporator deteriorates and the energy consumption of the system
increases by up to 20% [80].
In order to avoid the obstruction of the evaporator due to the
formation of frost and blocks of ice, periodic defrosting should be
implemented. Among the most common methods we nd a
bypass through hot gas, an inverse cycle, and electric heaters.
The rst two methods use less energy when applied to refrigerators, however, they require cycle modications, which make them
unviable for domestic refrigeration, thus they are mainly used in
heat pumps [81] and in showcase refrigerators [82].
Defrost through electric heaters is more commonly used in
domestic refrigerators (see Fig. 6). Due to its simple operation and
structure, electric heaters are positioned as the best method of
frost and ice melting. However, electric heaters use considerable
amounts of energy, which is why studies related to the analysis of
diverse congurations are aimed at improving the efciency of
these heaters, and, therefore, achieve energy savings.
Electric heaters are controlled by a timer and a thermostat so
that they periodically start defrosting. The heat required to start is
determined by the quantity of frost on the evaporator and its
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Q melt
Q melt Q losses
where Qmelt is the energy required to melt the frost and Qlosses is the
energy lost during defrost. According to the above, Bansal et al. [84]
analyzed the thermal behavior of the defrost cycle to design a more
efcient mechanism. They quantied the consumption of energy
used in defrost and researched how this energy dissipates in various
parts of the freezer beyond the evaporator. The authors estimate the
defrost efciency to be around 30%, while the increase in energy
consumption is above 17% due to automatic defrost. Other experimental research on the efciency of diverse electric heater congurations including distribuited, glass tube, and carold heaters have
been explored by Melo et al. [85], who obtained a maximum
efciency of 48% for the glass tube conguration. Kim et al. [86]
evaluated electric heaters of diverse forms, materials, and power,
nding greater performance in conventional heaters.
Due to the aforementioned problems originating from the
formation of frost, Xiao et al. [87] presented an innovative photoelectric technique for frost detection. The results indicate that this
technology may be considered an effective control criteria and
therefore achieve energy savings.
Considering the fact that users are more inclined towards acquiring frost-free refrigerators, defrost technologies that are adequate to
the refrigerant capacity and allow for the reduction of energy
consumption of the refrigerator should be developed. Therefore,
improvements to defrost mechanisms and heat exchangers may
result in increases in the energy efciency of the refrigerator. This
may be achieved through the use of an electric eld sensor to
improve frost detection, or through pulses of defrosting.
3.3. Fans
Fans located in the household refrigerator play an important role
in energy system performance. The fans that circulate air across the
condenser and the evaporator contribute signicantly to the overall
power consumption. Typical power motors used in condenser and
evaporator fans are 9 W and 12 W, respectively. At steady state, the
air crossing the evaporator determines the evaporating pressure and
thus impacts overall energy consumption. Historically, research has
been focused on three objectives: design and construction of fans
with low power consumption, high internal ow rate and low noise,
among others such as weight, dimensions and cost. Recently, Hermes
and Melo [18] developed an experimental model to determine the
power consumption of the fan, they reported that fans consume from
1 W to 25 W. Kim et al. [88] proposed a discrete gray box model to
evaluate the effect of certain design factors such as: tip clearance,
inner fence and motor-box struts. In order to increase the performance of the centrifugal fan, the effects of these factors on the
volume ow rate were analyzed using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). Typically, approximately 10% of the overall refrigerator energy use is attributable to fan energy [11]. In the literature,
there are also works related to the reduction of noise caused by fans
[89,90]. Thus, the trend of research is to achieve fans for household
refrigerators with a large range of volumetric ow without impacting
energy indicators such as COP, and also provide comfort for users by
reducing overall noise. In addition to better fan motors, improvements to the controls can also lead to signicant energy savings.
4. Thermal insulation
One of the areas of importance in terms of energy savings has
to do with adequate insulation, which helps reduce heat losses in
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
963
freezers where temperature is controlled by single-chipmicrocontroller. This intelligent thawing saves energy compared with
normal thawing. In this context, Piedrahita-Velsquez et al. [120]
found that a variable speed compressor refrigeration unit gives 15%
energy savings with respect to an equivalent conventional refrigerator
system, therefore also ensuring more stable temperature control.
6. Hybrid refrigerator
As we mentioned previously, one disadvantage of refrigerators
based on vapor compression is that the compartments (fresh food
and freezer) oscillate in their thermal behavior. One of the causes is
due to the characteristics of the stop and start of the compressor
when there are oscillations of the air temperature inside the
compartments, which to a certain extent worsens food conservation.
Currently, thermoelectric technology represents an attractive application in competition with systems based on vapor compression
[121]. In addition to the above, this technology is featured as an
alternative to achieving more precise temperature control systems
for domestic refrigerators. In this way, Vin and Astrain [122]
developed a prototipe of a hybrid refrigerator that combines thermoelectric technology and compression vapor technology, this with the
aim of obtaining better COP and adequate control temperature. The
framework in Fig. 7 shows the proposed hybrid system, which
contains a chilled compartment for thermoelectricity that maintains
a temperature of 0 1C, with oscillation lower than 70.5 1C. This
design reduces energy consumption by a total of 20%.
Later, the authors optimized their original prototype by analysing three refrigerator congurations, and with it providing a nal
design based on a computational model developed for that
purpose [123]. The combination of these technologies represents
a viable alternative for domestic refrigerators that takes into
account the competitive values of electrical energy consumption
of hybrid refrigerators.
964
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
7. Refrigerants
In general, refrigerants are well known as uids that absorb heat
during evaporation. When concerns regarding the deterioration of
4th Generation
3rd Generation
2nd Generation
Protection of the
ozone layer
R134a, R152a, R413a
1st Generation
Any substance
CO , NH , H O, CCl
Fig. 9. Refrigerants over the generations.
the ozone layer became apparent, the most used refrigerants were
the chlorouorocarbons R12 and R22. The rst was used for automotive air conditioning and small refrigerators, while the second had
a role in various applications, domestic refrigeration among them.
These refrigerants and some others presented high levels of potential
ozone layer destruction, ODP, and global warming potential, GWP. So,
faced with this precarious situation and according to the Kyoto [129]
and Montreal protocols [130], scientists began to look for new
alternatives. In Fig. 9, we illustrate the evolution of refrigerants over
the generations, where present day usage is focused on refrigerants
with low global warming potential. Emphasizing domestic refrigeration, we highlight the hydrocarbons, R134a, and its medium-term
substitutes such as R1234yf.
We nd in the literature several works on the evaluation of
refrigerants and what this uid inuences on the global behavior
of the refrigerator. Thus, natural refrigerants such as R290
and R600a have been widely researched due to their low GWP,
and analyzed for compatibility with diverse lubricants [131].
Another refrigerant such as R430a has been studied as a possible
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
substitute for R134a, this is without needing to make any modications to the refrigerator [132].
On the other hand, exergetic analysis has been extended to the
evaluation of various refrigerants, such as the effect of the
incorporation of nanouids and nanolubricants to reduce the
exergetic losses within the compressor [133]. Another exergetic
study of a refrigerator that looked at R600a and R134a [134] was
able to observe that a greater quantity of destruction exergy is
observed in the compressor; furthermore, under the same conditions they were able to identify that the charge of refrigerant
R600a is less than that of R134a. Guarav and Kumar [135]
compared the following refrigerants: R134a, R152a, R290, and
R600a for certain working conditions where R152 had a hiher COP
and better exergetic performance.
Recently, refrigerants such as R1234yf and R1234ze have emerged
as alternative uids for low GWP (46) and low levels of toxicity
[136]. These refrigerants are compatible with traditional lubricants
but require a longer suction line in order to lightly compensate
higher velocities as compared to systems using R134a [11]. A
theoretical study evaluates R1234yf as compared to refrigerants such
as R152a and R134a in refrigeration systems [137]. But at the level of
domestic refrigeration there are still no studies on experimental
reports of R1234yf, which may be due to the high cost of the
refrigerant. Analysis such as pressures rate, performance, input
power of the compressor and the output temperature of refrigerants
R290, R1270, R600, R600a, and R152a, allow us to nd that the
behavior of the last is closer to R134a [138]. In short, Table 1 shows
examples of the principal refrigerants used in domestic refrigeration
and the most relevant properties.
26.1
25
29
34.3
11.6
0.5
42.09
33
Critical
temperature (1C)
Critical pressure
(kPa)
ODP GWP
101.1
113.5
95
130.1
135
152.0
96.70
98.5
4060
4492
3400
3390
3645
3794
4248
4169
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1200
120
4
3
20
20
20
1775
965
966
J.M. Belman-Flores et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 955968
normativity
improve in
components
conservation
Trends in
refrigeration
control
eco friendly
compression. Showing the main trends in the last few years in the
development of cold generation systems that use energy in a more
efcient and rational way. Therefore, in this work we have
commented on a variety of options that may increase the energy
efciency of a domestic refrigerator. These include cabinet
improvements (insulation, magnetic seals), improvements to the
refrigeration system (adequate performance of components, use of
innocuous refrigerants), mechanism improvements (defrosting,
temperature control), and minimal thermal stratication in
compartments.
From our point of view, with this article we try to divulge
recent results with the purpose of motivating and increasing
research interest in this eld, as a refrigerator is based on
compression vapor that will stay on the market and remain in
use for consumers for the foreseeable future. Research is heading
in the direction of more efcient and reliable refrigerators.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Directorate for Research Support
and Postgraduate Programs at the University of Guanajuato for
their support in the translation and editing of the Englishlanguage version of this article.
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