Professional Documents
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Last but not the least; I thank all those who directly or indirectly
helpful during my seminar preparation.
ANKIT PRASAD
V SEMESTER
DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGG
R.C.E.R.T, CHANDRAPUR
III
CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Mechatronics 1
1.2 Description 1
1.3 Application 2
2. SERVOMECHANISM 3
2.1 Introduction 3
3. CONTROL SYSTEM 6
3.1 Introduction 6
3.2 Logic control
6 3.3 On-off control
7 3.4 Linear control
7 3.5 Proportional control
8
4. SENSING 9
4.1 Introduction 9
4.2 Thermal 10
4.3 Electromagnetic 10
4.4 Mechanical 10
4.5 Chemical 11
4.6 Optical radiation 11
4.7 Biological sensors 11
5. AUTOMATION 12
5.1 Introduction 12
5.2 Social impact 13
5.3 Current emphases 15
5.4 Automation tools 15
6. ROBOTICS 16
6.1 Introduction 16
6.2 Etymology 17
6.3 Components of robots 17
6.3.1 Actuation 17
6.3.2 Manipulation 19
IV
6.4 Locomotion 20
6.4.1 Rolling Robots 20
6.4.2 Walking Robots 21
6.4.3 Other methods of locomotion 22
7.5 Conclusion 37
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1 Aerial Venn diagram describes the various fields that make up Mechatronics 1
Fig 2.1 Small R/C servo mechanism 4
Fig 5.1 KUKA Industrial robots engaged in vehicle underbody assembly 13
Fig 6.1 The Shadow robot hand system holding a light bulb. 16
Fig 6.2 A robot leg, powered by Air Muscles. 18
Fig 6.3 Segway in the Robot museum in Nagoya. 20
Fig6.4 iCub robot, designed by the RobotCub Consortium. 21
Fig6.5 RQ-4 Global Hawk Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. 23
Fig 6.6 Two robot snakes. 23
Fig 6.7 Kismet (robot) can produce a range of Facial expressions. 24
V
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Mechatronics
Mechatronics ( or Mechanical and Electronics Engineering) is the combination of
mechanical engineering, computer engineering and software
engineering. The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineering field is the
study of automata from an engineering perspective and serves the
purposes of controlling advanced hybrid system. The word itself is a
portmanteau of 'Mechanics' and 'Electronics'.
1.2 Description
Fig 1.1 Aerial Venn diagram describes the various fields that make up Mechatronics
Mechatronics is centred on mechanics, electronics, control engineering,
computing, molecular engineering ( from nanochemistry and biology) which,
combined, make possible the generation of simpler, more economical, reliable
and versatile systems. The portmanteau "Mechatronics" was first coined by
Mr. Tetsuro Mori, a senior engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa, in 1969.
Mechatronics may alternatively be referred to as "electromechanical system" or
less often as "control and automation engineering".
1.3 Application
• Servo-mechanics
• Sensing
• Control System
• Automation, and in the area of Robotics.
CHAPTER-2
SERVOMECHANISM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic
device which uses error-sensing feedback to correct the performance of a
mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or
error-correction signals help control mechanical position or other parameters. For
example an automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there
is no automatic feedback which controls position—the operator does this by
observation. By contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback,
which classifies it as a servomechanism.
Servomechanisms may or may not use a servomotor. For example a household
furnace controlled by thermostat is a servomechanism, yet there is no closed-
loop control of a servomotor.
RC servos
The servo is controlled by three wires: ground (usually black/orange), power (red)
and control (brown/other colour). This wiring sequence is not true for all servos,
for example the S03NXF Std. Servo is wired as brown(negative), red (positive)
and orange (signal). The servo will move based on the pulses sent over the
control wire, which set the angle of the actuator arm. The servo expects a pulse
every 20 ms in order to gain correct information about the angle. The width of the
servo pulse dictates the range of the servo's angular motion.
A servo pulse of 1.5 ms width will set the servo to its "neutral" position, or 90°.
For example a servo pulse of 1.25 ms could set the servo to 0° and a pulse of
1.75 ms could set the servo to 180°. The physical limits and timings of the servo
hardware varies between brands and models, but a general servo's angular
motion will travel somewhere in the range of 180° - 210° and the neutral position
is almost always at 1.5 ms.
Servo motors are often powered from nickel-cadmium battery packs common to
most RC devices. Voltage ratings vary from product to product, but most servos
are operated at 4.8 V or 6 V DC from a 4 or 5 cell battery.
CHAPTER 3
CONTROL SYSTEM
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations and
combinations: logic or sequential controls,and feedback or linear controls. There
is also fuzzy logic, which attempts to combine some of the design simplicity of
logic with the utility of linear control. Some devices or systems are inherently not
controllable.
The term "control system" may be applied to the essentially manual controls that
allow an operator to, for example, close and open a hydraulic press, where the
logic requires that it cannot be moved unless safety guards are in place.
In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop, including sensors, control
algorithms and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a
variable at a setpoint or reference value. An example of this may increase the
fuel supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops. PID controllers are
common and effective in cases such as this. Control systems that include some
sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and
so can, to some extent, adapt to varying circumstances. Open-loop control
systems do not directly make use of feedback, but run only in pre-arranged ways.
3.2 Logic control
Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex
operations. Some aspects of logic system design make use of Boolean logic.
The output from a linear control system into the controlled process may be in the
form of a directly variable signal, such as a valve that may be 0 or 100% open or
anywhere in between. Sometimes this is not feasible and so, after calculating the
current required corrective signal, a linear control system may repeatedly switch
an actuator, such as a pump, motor or heater, fully on and then fully off again,
regulating the duty cycle using pulse-width modulation.
At low gains, only a small corrective action is applied when errors are detected:
the system may be safe and stable, but may be sluggish in response to changing
conditions; errors will remain uncorrected for relatively long periods of time: it is
over-damped. If the proportional gain is increased, such systems become more
responsive and errors are dealt with more quickly. There is an optimal value for
the gain setting when the overall system is said to be critically damped. Increase
in loop gain beyond this point will lead to oscillations in the MV; such a system is
under-damped.
CHAPTER 4
SENSING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
10
4.2 Thermal
4.3 Electromagnetic
• metal detectors
• RADAR
4.4 Mechanical
• gas and liquid flow sensors: flow sensor, anemometer, flow meter, gas meter,
water meter, mass flow sensor
• gas and liquid viscosity and density: viscometer, hydrometer, oscillating U-
tube
11
4.5 Chemical
• All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those
of the mechanical devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that
are sensitive to:
• light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration,
pressure, electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external
environment;
CHAPTER 5
AUTOMATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
13
14
In general, automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy
from agrarian to industrial in the 19th century and from industrial to services in
the 20th century.
15
The old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity and reduce
costs was seen to be short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a
skilled workforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover,
the initial costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by the
time entirely new manufacturing processes replaced the old. ( Japan's "robot
junkyards" were once world famous in the manufacturing industry.)
CHAPTER 6
ROBOTICS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
17
6.2 ETYMOLOGY
6.3.1 Actuation
The actuators are the 'muscles' of a robot; the parts which convert stored energy
into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors, but there
are many others, some of which are powered by electricity, while others use
chemicals, or compressed air.
• Motors: By far the vast majority of robots use electric motors, of which there
are several kinds. DC motors, which are familiar to many people, spin rapidly
18
when an electric current is passed through them. They will spin backwards if
the current is made to flow in the other direction.
• Stepper motors: As the name suggests, stepper motors do not spin freely
like DC motors, they rotate in steps of a few degrees at a time, under
the command of a controller. This makes them easier to control, as the
controller knows exactly how far they have rotated, without having to use a
sensor.Therefore they are used on many robots and CNC machining centres.
Fig 6.2 A robot leg, powered by Air Muscles.
• Air muscles: The air muscle is a simple yet powerful device for providing a
pulling force. When inflated with compressed air, it contracts by up to 40% of
its original length. The key to its behavior is the braiding visible around the
outside, which forces the muscle to be either long and thin, or short and fat.
Since it behaves in a very similar way to a biological muscle, it can be used to
construct robots with a similar muscle/skeleton system to an animal. For
example, the Shadow robot hand uses 40 air muscles to power its 24 joints.
19
• commercial robots, as they tend to have low efficiency or are not robust.
Indeed, all of the entrants in a recent competition to build EAP powered arm
wrestling robots, were beaten by a 17 year old girl.
6.3.2 Manipulation
• Vacuum Grippers: Pick and place robots for electronic components and for
large objects like car windscreens, will often use very simple vacuum
grippers. These are very simple astrictive devices, but can hold very large
loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.
20
6.4 Locomotion
For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels. However, some researchers
have tried to create more complex wheeled robots, with only one or two wheels.
• Two-wheeled balancing: While the Segway is not commonly thought of
as a robot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot. Several real
robots do use a similar dynamic balancing algorithm, and NASA's
Robonaut has been mounted on a Segway.
21
22
• Hopping: Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg
Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot
with only one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply by hopping.
The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot
falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.
Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot
was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults. A quadruped
was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace and bound. For a full list of
these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.
23
Fig6.5 RQ-4 Global Hawk Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Fig 6.6 Two robot snakes. Left one has 32 motors, the right one 10.
24
• Skating: A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of
which is a multi-mode walking and skating device, Titan VIII. It has four legs,
with unpowered wheels, which can either step or roll. Another robot, Plen, can
use a miniature skateboard or rollerskates, and skate across a desktop.
25
• Speech recognition: Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from
a human (speech recognition), in real time, is a difficult task for a computer,
mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by
the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume,
the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes
even harder when the speake has a different accent. Nevertheless, great
strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek
designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by
a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952. Currently, the best systems can
recognise continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an
accuracy of 95%.
• Gestures: One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to
make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. On both of
these occasions, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In
the first case, the robot would be recognising gestures made by the human,
and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot
police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is
quite likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between
humans and robots. A great many systems have been developed to
recognise human hand gestures.
• Personality: Many of the robots of science fiction have personality, and that
is something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of
the future. Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear
to have a personality: i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions and body
language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness or
fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit
several apparent emotions.
CHAPTER 7
APPLICATION OF ROBOTICS IN
NUCLEAR INDUSTRIES
7.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Inspection and maintenance is essential in the nuclear industry. Failure to carry
out proper maintenance could increase the chance of accidents which could
result in severe casualty not only inside the nuclear plant but also in the near-by
community. However, it is not easy to carry out such maintenance tasks since
the environments are usually highly radioactive and are unsafe for human
workers to work in such locations. The usual way of carrying out inspection and
maintenance tasks in these hazardous environments is using long reach fixed
base manipulators. However, these manipulators suffer from low payload
capacity and relatively large end point deflections. Also, the installation and the
storage of these long manipulators could be costly. An alternative solution is to
use walking-climbing robots, which overcome the problems encountered by the
long reach manipulators. Over the years, a number of climbing robots has been
27
Developed for various applications. However, most of these robots are only
engineering prototypes and have not been used for any extensive inspection and
maintenance operations . In this paper, we describe a number of teleoperated
walking-climbing robots developed by authors, which include NERO series and
SADIE series. These robots have been designed for remote inspection and
maintenance applications, especially for the nuclear industry. All of these robots
have been applied successfully in practical applications.
NERO were designed to work on the outside surface of an RPV. The RPV was
an 18.7m diameter welded steel sphere structure. The vehicle had to cope with
this curvature and with any local variations. A cooling hood was situated over the
top of the vessel to direct a flow of cooling air over the crown of vessel. The gap
between the cooling hood and the vessel was approximately 250mm. This gap
restricted the height of the mobile vehicle. There were a number of
thermocouples installed on the surface which were up to 25 mm high and which
the mobile vehicle was required to step over. Due to the prohibited access to the
RPV because of the radiation hazard, the vehicle had to be driven remotely by an
28
operator at the end of a 50m umbilical cable. Since the RPV surface was
potentially covered with contaminated substances, it was an important design
constraint that the feet did not collect loose material in order to allow the
operators service the vehicle. The surface preparation tools were heavy and
together with the weight of the umbilical power and communication cable, NERO
had to be powerful.
29
The translation movement of the structures were achieved by a double acting
pneumatic cylinder. The end of the cylinder rods were attached to Frame whilst
the cylinder body was attached to a metal plate on the Shuttle. This metal plate
was connected to the Shuttle rotary centre column. Rotary actuation was
achieved by a further double acting cylinder which was mounted on the Shuttle
plate and linked to the Shuttle rotary centre column. Both translation and rotation
pneumatic cylinders were controlled by solenoid valves. A Pulse Width
Modulation method was used to drive the cylinders in a force and position servo
control system. The choice of pneumatic actuation gives the vehicle the high
power to weight ratio and inherent compliance which had been found essential
for climbing vehicles.
30
In order to avoid picking up contaminated substances from the surface, the
gripper foot developed its vacuum from a compress air ejector pump. By
reversing the flow, the air ejector cleaned the filter in the foot and at the same
time clears loose material on the surface prior to gripping. Safety was one of the
important issues in the design of NERO system. The pneumatic control valves
were arranged so that in the event of electrical power failure, the system would
failsafe by lowering the vehicle on to the surface so that it griped with all eight
feet in its lowest profile mode. The pneumatic supply system used two
compressors and an automatic selection valve to protect the NERO system from
pneumatic supply failure. Wherever possible a safety wire was taken up to avoid
damaging force in the event of a fall. Three NERO type vehicles were built.
NERO I carried a special tape feeder for installing additional thermocouples.
NERO II had a rotating wire brush for removing loose materials from the RPV
surface. NERO III (see Figure 4) had a 1.3HP rotary disc grinder fitted on a swing
arm and was mainly used for removing unwanted studs and weld splatter from
the surface.
Due to the limited access to the RPV, all the mobile vehicles had to enter the
void containing the RPV from the 4 entrances at the base of the biological shield.
31
Fig7.4 RPV Cooling Hood
Vehicles had to be hoisted up around the equator of the RPV before it was
possible to place them onto the RPV surface. The 250 mm diameter Vessel
Viewing stand-pipe was found suitable for feeding a steel cable from the Charge
Face to hoist the vehicles. The umbilical cable of each vehicle was also fed
through the Vessel Viewing stand-pipe. This arrangement allowed the operator to
manoeuvre the position of the umbilical cable on the RPV surface and reduce the
weight of the cables that the vehicle had to carry. Because the convenience of
hoisting NERO from this position, the vehicle control stations were placed on the
Charge Face. Since the radiation level at the entrance of the void was high,
conveyor belts were set up at each entrance for transporting the vehicles into the
void. Several ground mobile vehicles were also used to assist vehicle launching.
Flat metal plates were installed on top of these ground mobile vehicles and the
wall climbing vehicle was placed on this plate during launching. The whole unit
was then placed onto the conveyor. Once the ground mobile vehicle was
transported inside the void by the conveyor, it carried the wall climbing vehicle to
a suitable location inside the void and the wall climbing vehicle was then hoisted
up onto RPV. Wires were attached at the rear side of the wall climbing
vehicle. These wires were also connected to ground mobile vehicles and were
used to manoeuvre the wall climbing vehicles onto the surface.
32
In-circuit television cameras and lights were placed inside the void to monitor all
the launching operations. Cameras could also be inserted through the Vessel
Viewing standpipe. However, all these cameras could only provide pictures
around the equator area. As soon as the wall climbing vehicle climbed above the
Vessel Viewing stand-pipe, it was solely dependent on its onboard cameras.
Once the vehicle had been launched onto the RPV surface, one operator was
required to drive the vehicle, one worker was needed to handle the umbilical
cable and one supervisor to oversee the operation. All the actions were
conducted with extreme care to ensure the safety of the operations.
During the initial design of the SADIE robot it was identified that some of the weld
which required inspection where obscured by ladder brackets welded on or
adjacent to them. A requirement of SADIE was to carry a specially designed
grinding package to remove the ladder bracket. It was important that the ladder
brackets were recovered from the duct and a grab mechanism was incorporated
on to the cutting tool.
The ladder bracket removal package (LBRP) was mounted on the front frame of
the vehicle and consisted of two main elements. An air powered disk grinder
mounted on a cross feed, and a pneumatically operated grab mechanism.
The grinding tool and cross feed was hinged about the axis of the cross feed. A
pivot allowed the cross feed to rotate on about axis perpendicular to the cross
feed axis. These degrees of freedom allowed the grinder to follow the curves in
the duct, providing compliance with the contours of the surface. This compliance
was stabilised by ball transferr units on either side of the grinder disk and a
34
Centrally positioned pneumatic cylinder applying a steady force ensuring the
transfer balls stayed on the surface.
The pneumatic cylinder also provided lift to allow the grinder to be raised off the
surface when manoeuvring in to position. The cross feed was driven by a force
controlled pneumatic cylinder.
The grab mechanism was positioned above the cross feed. The ladder bracket
was held in a U bracket with a spring return piston actuating a bolt through the
hole in the ladder bracket. The arm was actuated using additional pneumatic
cylinders to provide a lift/lower and extended/retract functions.
To allow more than one ladder bracket to be removed per deployment a ladder
bracket box was designed. This box was mounted on the deployment scoop. Its
design incorporated a hinged lid which was kept shut with a spring. The lid traps
the ladder bracket within the box.
Robots are being used to clean humanity’s worst messes. At Hanford Nuclear
Reservation in Washington State, where plutonium for Cold War nukes was
made, robots are on the front line of the cleanup effort. The job is to empty about
150 basketball-court-sized tanks of nuclear and chemical waste before their
contents reach the Columbia River. Exposure to the material would kill a human
within moments. Sounds like a job for robots.
35
Fig 7.7 Real-Life WALL*E Robots Cleaning Up After Nuke Waste
Since there won’t be any attention from Pixar, we again salute the little guys
going a bit beyond the iRobot Looj in their daring damage control.
The only way in or out of most of the tanks is through foot-wide pipes in their
roofs, so engineers at Hanford use this robotic dozer, which opens into a string of
pieces that fit through the inlets. Once inside, Fold track reassembles like a toy
Transformer. The robot uses a 3000 psi water stream to blast at sludge from up
to 20 ft. away. A remote driver directs the robot as it uses a dozer blade to push
the waste toward a pump for transfer to safer, double-shelled tanks. Once its job
is done, the $500,000 robot is sealed, forever, in the empty tank.
36
7.4.3 Salt Mantis
This robot may not look like much but a glorified fire hose, but it’s hiding a
valuable secret. The Salt Mantis can shoot water at up to 35,000 psi to blast
tough toxic salts that build up inside nuclear waste tanks. The water jets from a
tiny orifice made of gems, including sapphires—the only material that can
(literally) stand up to the pressure. The robot’s crosslike body scissors together to
squeeze into the narrow opening of the sludge tanks. While inside it moves
around by remote control, since onboard electronics would fry from the exposure
to radiation.
7.4.4 Possum
It used to be that human cleaners had to just guess if the radioactive area they
were cleansing was, indeed, clean. Like a faithful retriever, the Possum rolls to
the far, dark reaches of waste tanks, scooping up samples with its bulldozer like
37
blade so engineers can tell exactly what, and how much, is left inside. The
Possum comes equipped with a camera so operators can locate target waste
and control the device.
7.5 CONCLUSION
Mechatronics is the vast field of mechanical engineering
which provide the idea, principles and design parameter for the mechatronics
application. After the revolution in the industrial sector the demand for machines
has been increased tremendously which lead to the development of the various
machines which working mechanism is mostly influenced by the electronics
and mechanical principles of working of machinery.
Robots are mainly used in nuclear industries for various applications. In nuclear
industries various work can not be done by humans because of the radioactive
materials and radiations which damage human seriously and causes mutations
lethal disease . Also various repair and maintenance work is done by robots
where human invasion can not be possible.
38
BIBLIOGRAPHY
5. www.mit.org
6. www.popularmechanics.com
7. www.howstuffworks.com
8. Wikipedia.