THE SPECIAL SENSES

THE SPECIAL SENSES

CHEMICAL SENSES: Smell and Taste
THE EAR: Hearing and Balance

THE EYE : Vision

OLFACTION: SENSE OF SMELL

Chemical sense

olfactory receptors are found in the roof of

the nasal cavity

sniffing intensifies the sense of smell
olfactory epithelium consists of:
olfactory receptors
supporting cells
basal stem cells

Anatomy of Olfaction
Olfactory receptors
first order neurons
bipolar neurons ( exposed tips are knobbed

dendrites)
site of olfactory transduction: olfactory
hairs

 Supporting Cells

columnar epithelial cells

provides physical support, nourishment
& electrical stimulation for
olfactory receptors
help destroy chemicals

 Basal Stem Cell

lie between bases of supporting cells

continuously undergo cell division

Olfactoy mucosa. Note the

thick layer of epithelium.
The underlying lamina
propria possesses many
glands

Olfactory system. 1. Olfactory bulb. 2. nasal cavity. 3.

Brain. 4. Olfactory epithelium 5. Vomeronasal organ. 6.
Ions. 7 Glomeruli. *. Axon. 9. To olfactory cortex

Physiology of Olfaction
1.odorants bind olfactory receptors that are
linked to G proteins
2.activation of the enzyme adenylate cyclase
3.Na+ channels open
4.inflow of Na+ ions
5.depolarization
6.generation and propagation of action
potential
7.nerve impulse

 Odor Thresholds and Adaptation

low threshold
decreasing sensitivity

Olfactory Pathway

Olfactory Nerve (CN I)

Olfactory Bulbs
Olfactory Tract ( Brain)
Anosmias

NASAL POLYP

NASAL POLYP

Gustation : Sense of Taste

Chemical sense

4 classes of stimuli

sweet
salty
sour
bitter
gustation is thousands of times less
sensitive than olfaction
colds block olfaction not gustation

Anatomy of Gustation
Receptors for gustation are located in taste

buds
10,000 receptors are distributed in the

tongue, soft palate, pharynx & larynx

number of taste buds decline with age

The tongue is covered with dozens of pimple-like

projections called papillae. These grip and move food
when you chew. Around the sides of the papillae are about
10,000 microscopic taste buds. Different parts of the
tongue are sensitive to different flavours: sweet, salt, sour
and bitter

 Taste buds consist of 3 kinds of cells:

supporting cells
50 gustatory cells
basal cells

fibers of CNs

gustatory hair
gustatory receptor
cell
supporting cell
basal cell

 Taste buds
Papillae

circumvallate
fungiform
filiform - no taste buds

Tongue-tie is a condition caused by a short lingual

frenulum that prevents the tongue from
protruding. Occasionally, it could interfere with
breast feeding

The horizontally incised frenulum is now pulled

vertically, allowing the release of the tongue. The
incision is sutured vertically with absorbable
stitches.

Post-operative appearance of the tongue that

can now protrude down to the chin.

Physiology of Gustation
1. chemicals are dissolved in saliva
2. Contact with plasma membrane of
gustatory hair
3. receptor potential stimulates exocytosis of
neurotransmittercontaining synaptic
vesicles
4. Nerve impulse arise in the 1st order
neurons that synapse with gustatory
receptor cells

Taste Threshold and Adaptations

Bitter:

lowest
sour: higher than that of bitter
sweet
about the same but higher
salty
than sour & bitter
complete adaptation occurs in 1-5 minutes
of continuous stimulation

 First order gustatory fibers include 3

cranial nerves:
Facial nerve: anterior 2/3 of tongue
glossopharyngeal nerve: posterior 1/3 of
tongue
vagus: throat & epiglottis

Gustatory Pathway
from taste buds, impulses propagate to
medulla oblongata
taste fibers

thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system

parietal lobe of cerebral cortex
TASTE

The Eye and Vision

Accessory structures of the eye:

eyelids
eyelashes
eyebrows
lacrimal apparatus
extrinsic eye muscles

Anatomy of the Eyeball

Eyelids

palpebrae
palpebral fissure
medial commissure
lateral commissure
lacrimal caruncle
meibomian glands
conjunctiva

 Eyelashes and Eyebrows

ciliary glands

sty

Ciliary Body

Lacrimal apparatus
lacrimal gland

excretory lacrimal
ducts
lacrimal puncta
nasolacrimal duct

 Extrinsic Eye Muscles

superior rectus
inferior rectus
lateral rectus
medial rectus
superior oblique
inferior oblique

Entrapment of the Inferior Rectus Muscle

of the Eye
in a Blow-out Fracture of the Orbit
Blunt trauma to the right eye, resulting in diplopia.
The right inferior rectus was caught between the
fragments of a blow-out fracture of the floor of the
orbit. This child was unable to move his right eyeball
up on upward gaze.

 Tunics of the eye;

Fibrous tunic; sclera

Vascular tunic: choroid
Retina: rods and cones

 Uvea

choroid
ciliary body: ciliary body and ciliary muscles
iris: colored portion of eyeball
pupil: hole at the center of iris

 Retina

photoreceptors: rods and cones

macula lutea
fovea centralis
blind spot

Fovea

 Lens

cataract

 Chambers of the eye

anterior chamber: aqueous humor

posterior chamber: vitreous humor
Intraocular pressure
Glaucoma

Refraction of Light Rays

Images on retina

inverted

right to left reversal

brain coordinates visual images and
orientation of objects

 Accomodation
Near point of Vision

Presbyopia

Light enters the front of the eye through the pupil and is
focused by the lens onto the retina. Rod cells on the retina
respond to the light and send a message through the optic
nerve fiber to the brain.

 Emmetropia: Normal Vision

Refraction Abnormalities
Myopia: Near sightedness

 Hyperopia: Farsightedness

 Astigmatism

Nyctalopia
Binocular vision
Photopupillary reflex
Accomodation pupillary reflex

Physiology of Vision
Photopigments:

rhodopsin (rods)
opsin
retinal

The Cyclic Bleaching & Regeneration of

Photopigments
4. cis-retinal
binds to
opsin

1. Light causes
isomerization of
photopigments

trans
retinal

3. retinal isomerase
converts trans to
cis

2. Trans-retinal
separates from opsin

 Light Adaptation

emerging from a darkened room, visual system

decreases its sensitivity
Dark Adaptation

entering a darkened room, visual system

increases its sensitivity

The Visual Pathway

Cornea
pupil
iris
photoreceptors
ganglion cells
bipolar cells
thalamus
visual cortex ( occipital lobe)

 Keratitis

Mydriasis
Nystagmus
Strabismus

The EAR : Hearing & Equilibrium

3 Principal Regions of the Ear:

external ear
middle ear
internal ear

External Ear
auricle
pinna

external auditory canal

eardrum

Middle Ear
malleus
incus
stapes
oval window
round window
tensor tympani
muscles
stapedius
Eustachian tube

Inner Ear
2 main divisions

bony labyrinth
semicircular canal
(crista ampullaris & cupula)
vestibule
cochlea: receptors for hearing

membranous labyrinth
K+
utricle and saccule

contain
receptors for
equilibrium

 Cochlea

snail-shaped
spiral organ of Corti

coiled sheet of epithelial cells

16,000 hair cells ( receptors for hearing)

The Nature of Sound Waves

sound waves
pitch
decibels

conduction deafness
sensorineural deafness

The Physiology of Hearing

Auricle
External auditory canal
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Oval window
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani

Round window
vestibular membrane
endolymph in cochlea
basilar membrane
stereocilia
generation of action
potential

Auditory Pathway
External auditory canal
tympanic membrane
auditory ossicles
oval window
cochlea
organ of Corti

Mechanisms of Equilibrium

Vestibular Apparatus

arm for static equilibrium

arm for dynamic equilibrium

utricle, saccule, and the three semicircular canals.

The saclike utricle and saccule sense the body's
relationship to gravity, or its static equilibrium.
A person knows that the body is right side up because
these structures relay messages about the body's position
to the brain. Both sacs are hollow. Hairlike nerve endings
are anchored into the inner surface of each structure. The
free ends of the nerve endings project into the hollow
space.
Tiny particles of limestone, known as otoliths, rest against
the bottom of each sac.
If the head moves, the otoliths change position. In shifting,
they pass over sensitive nerve endings. These send
immediate impulses to the brain. Notified of a change in
body position, the brain triggers the reflex mechanisms to
correct the position of the body .

Disorders of the Ear

Menieres disease

due to increased amount of endolymph

fluctuating hearing loss
roaring tinnitus
spinning or whirling vertigo

Otitis media

acute infection of middle ear

PICTURE OF TYMPANIC MEMBRANE

PERFORATION

AURICLE KELOID

AURICULAR ABSCESS

Auricle Perichondritis

Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

vestibular apparatus

functional components of the

membranous labyrinth involved in
the sensations of static and dynamic
equilibrium are a system of thinwalled intercommunicating tubes
and ducts situated within the petrous
part of the temporal bone at the
base of the skull;
there are five vestibular structures,
each containing a specialized
mechanoreceptor, a maculae, within
the utricle and saccule, and a cristae
within the ampullae of the superior,
horizontal, and posterior
semicircular canals.

vestibule
The central cavity of the bony
labyrinth of the ear containing the
functional components of the
membranous labyrinth involved in
the sensations of static
equilibrium which are two
vestibular structures, each
containing a specialized
mechanoreceptor, a maculae,
within the utricle and saccule.

saccule - The smaller of the two

membranous sacs in the vestibule
of the inner ear; it contains a
specialized mechanoreceptor, a
maculae, for the detection of static
equilibrium.
.

utricle - The larger of the two

membranous sacs in the vestibule
of the inner ear; it contains a
specialized mechanoreceptor, a
maculae, for the detection of static
equilibrium.

static equilibrium - The special sense

which interprets the position of the
head permitting the CNS to maintain
stability and posture when the head
and body are not moving; it is detected
by mechanoreceptors in the vestibule
of the inner ear, the utricle and
saccule, which each contain a macula
with the receptors for static
equilibrium; when the head moves with
reference to gravity, the otolithic
membrane shifts and the
mechanoreceptors (hair cells) in the
macula detect this movement and send
the information along the vestibular
nerve to the brain for interpretation
("which way is up").

maculae - The specialized

mechanoreceptors within the
utricle and saccule for the
detection of static
equilibrium; they make use
of hair cells to detect
movements of the otolithic
membrane; the nerve
impulses thus generated are
transmitted along the
vestibular branch of cranial
nerve VIII to the CNS.

otolithic membrane - The gelatinous covering of macula of the utricle

and saccule of the vestibular apparatus which has many crystals of
calcium carbonate (otoconia or otoliths); their movements in response to
changes in the position of the head with reference to gravity stimulate the
hair cells to send nerve impulses to the CNS which are interpreted as
information about static equilibrium.

Dynamic Equilibrium

dynamic equilibrium
The special sense which interprets balance when one is moving,
or at least the head is moving;
the semicircular canals contain the receptors for dynamic
equilibrium; within each semicircular canal is a complex
mechanoreceptor called a crista ampullaris which contains the
mechanoreceptors (Hair cells) for dynamic equilibrium;
when the perilymph in one of the semicircular canals moves, the
hair cells in the crista ampullaris are stimulated to send nerve
impulses to the brain;
this advises the brain of whether or not a person has their
balance during body movements or if their body is in motion,
e.g, riding in a car or turning one's head from side to side.

semicircular canals - The functional components of the membranous labyrinth, a series of three
interconnected perilymph-filled tubes with enlarged ends, involved in the sensations of dynamic
equilibrium; the contain the cristae ampullaris which detect acceleration in the three
perpendicular planes (superior, horizontal, and posterior); these accelerometers make use of hair
cells similar to those on the organ of Corti, but these hair cells detect movements of the fluid in the
canals caused by angular acceleration about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the canal; tiny
floating particles aid the process of stimulating the hair cells as they move with the fluid; the nerve
impulses thus generated are transmitted along the vestibular branch of cranial nerve eight to the
CNS.

ampulla - The dilation or expanded

end of each of the semicircular
canals of the vestibular apparatus
which contains the specialized
mechanoreceptor structure, the
crista, which detect acceleration in
the planes of the canal; these
accelerometers make use of hair
cells to detect movements of the
fluid in the canals caused by
angular acceleration about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the
canal; the nerve impulses thus
generated are transmitted along the
vestibular branch of cranial nerve
eight to the CNS.

crista ampullaris - Within the

ampulla of each semicircular canal
is a complex mechanoreceptor
structure, the crista ampullaris; the
ampulla has a ridge covered by
neuroepithelium consisting of
sensory hair cells and supporting
cells; the hair cells attached to a
gelatinous mass, the cupula, which
rests on top of the crista ampularis;
when the perilymph in one of the
semicircular canals moves, the hair
cells in the crista ampullaris are
stimulated to send nerve impulses
to the brain; this advises the brain of
whether or not a person has their
balance during body movements or
if their body is in motion, e.g, riding
in a car.

vestibular nerve - The division of

the vestibulocochlear (eighth)
cranial nerve which conducts
sensory information regarding static
and dynamic equilibrium from the
vetibular apparatus of the inner ear
to the various centers of the CNS
which process and integrate that
information with visual and
proprioception.

THE SENSE OF TOUCH

The sense of touch is the name

given to a network of nerve
endings that reach just about
every part of our body. These
sensory nerve endings are
located just below the skin and
register light and heavy
pressure on the skin and also
differences in temperature.
These nerve endings gather
information and send it to the
brain