Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-3
From the Editors Desk - Roads - Engine of Growth for Economy, Employment & Empowerment
4-5
15
26
34
Design, Construction and Performance of Porous Asphalt Pavement for Rainwater Harvesting
Prithvi Singh Kandhal and Sapan Mishra
50
53
69
73-79
80
81
82
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
EDITORIAL
level as well as in industrial units which may come up as a result of capitalizing /commercializing the
research results. There is a need to bridge the gap between the lab and the field in the road sector, which
may get addressed if the opportunities as existed are duly considered and captured. This may also require
corresponding skills development for the technicians and supporting manpower. This cascading generation
of employment opportunities by the road sector at different levels may help to some extent the absorption of
existing unemployed work force. A win-win situation for the economy.
There are number of similar openings which road sector has the potential to offer to the economy provided these
chances do not go wanting. The scepticism which is coming in the way of introducing and encouraging new
technology, methodology, technique and material through experimental pilot projects needs to be overcomed.
The road sector is not a short term investment sector. In the process of road building, the assets are created for
the society and for the nation. Such asset creating activities should not be perceived with a myopic vision but
with a vision of creating the asset which should serve the purpose over the design life period without carrying
out major augmentation/realignment. The two concepts namely life cycle cost of facility & technical audit
of financial decisions are the need of the hour which needs to be practiced in the road infrastructure sector
in todays context.
Do we have ever quantified the scope of adding into the GDP growth rate, if the rate of accidents as well
as the rate of road accidents deaths is reduced by 50% within the period of 3 years which is achievable and
not impossible. The creation of safer roads and safe road transport system may not only results in saving of
unwarranted expenditure but may also result into channelizing huge investment including surplus (resulting
from safe roads) into other productive segments of the economy. How much we are saving by curtailing the
safety features in the road & road transport segment(s) and how much we are losing in terms of GDP growth
by creating unsafe roads & road transport system based on myopic concepts needs a thorough review. The
safer roads on a broader assessment may result in positive contribution of 2 to 3 % in terms of GDP which
should be considered on top priority in the current scenario.
The road sector not only deserves a better consideration alongwith out of box thinking to overcome the
unwarranted impediments and bottlenecks, which are resolvable in a productive manner. The perception
about road sector requires a thorough overhaul, as it not only provides employment opportunities in the core
sector related activities but also has abundant scope of providing commercial opportunities and employment
in large number of allied areas including that of energy conservation which may also boost the economy
besides resulting into inclusive growth leading to empowerment of people at large.
Through effective and efficient road network connectivity to the remotest areas of the country, the dream of
having Panchayati Raj system along with inclusive growth & development of people can be achieved at a
faster pace.
Vision without action is a day dreaming
Action without vision is a nightmare
(A Japanese proverb)
18-02-2014
The Editor,
Indian Highways,
Delhi
What an amazing task! 74th annual session of IRC concluded on 24-1-2014 and its Report has appeared in
February 2014 issue of Indian Highways which is being published in the first week of every month. This
means that the compilation, editing, finalisation of the Report in all respects has been achieved in a record
time of mere 10 days. An impossible task has been accomplished by Secretary General and his supporting
staff. Besides the quality of Report is also not a sketchy one. It is complete and flawless covering the
proceedings of the entire session, from first to finish including photographs with their captions. This is an
onerous task almost beyond anybodys physical and mental capacity. Please accept my congratulations.
N.G. Vakharia
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
LM - 2922
E-mail: vakhariapatel@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Rutting is one of the most common type of failure observed on
high volume bituminous pavements in India and Viscosity Grade
bitumen (VG 30) is a most common binder used for construction
and these could not provide desirable performance. Modified
binders, both polymer and crumb rubber, have been also used in
the construction mainly to address rutting failures. Though these
binders have shown improved performance over VG 30 binders,
it is not clearly understood the effect of type and amount of
modified binder on the performance of mixes. Although rutting in
bituminous mix depends on many factors such as size, gradation,
surface texture of aggregates, type and amount binder etc, it is
important to find out the role of the binder in the performance of
the mixes.
Keeping the above in view, performance of three commonly used
modified binders were evaluated for binder rheological parameter
G*/sin associated with rutting behaviour using dynamic shear
rheometer. Bituminous mixes prepared at 0.5% incremental
binder contents either side of the optimum binder content were
evaluated to study the effect of type and quantity of binder on
rutting performance of the mixes. A mid-point aggregate gradation
of a wearing course of Indian highways, bituminous concrete, as
per Indian Roads Congress specifications was considered. Rut
tester was used to evaluate the relative rutting susceptibility of the
mixes. Correlation between rut depth measured and binder content
or air voids for each type of binder was developed. Relative rutting
performance of bituminous concrete mix at different binder
content for all types of binders was evaluated and presented.
Based on the study it was observed that Polymer Modified Binder
(PMB 40) performed better compared to other binders considered
in this study. Also with increase in binder content beyond certain
limit, rutting susceptibility of the bituminous mixes increased
irrespective of type of binder used but the effect was less in case
of PMB 40 mixes.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Permanent deformation or rutting in bituminous
mixes depends on numerous factors such as aggregate
gradation, shape and quality of aggregate, quantity and
Research Scholar
**
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(MS-2, 1994; SP-2, 2001). However the mix design
criteria practiced in India as per Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways guidelines (MoRT&H, 2001)
considers stability, flow and other volumetrics of mix
including air voids as the selection criteria for arriving
at Optimum Binder Content (OBC) expecting the mix
to perform better in resisting both fatigue and rutting
at OBC. However majority of the Indian highways,
designed and constructed under stringent quality
control, have shown premature failures such as rutting
and bleeding indicating the need of proper mix design,
including re-look into criteria for selection of optimum
binder content (Interim Report, Reddy, 2007). Use of
incorrect amount of binder that affects air voids in the
mix was the causative factor for failures of some of
the pavements in India (Rao, 2009). Limited studies
have been conducted to find out effect of binder
content on performance of Indian mixes. Awanthi
et al, 2008 evaluated fatigue and rutting performance
of mixes prepared with different binders under varied
compaction efforts to get different air voids. However
no studies have been reported on effect of different
modified binders and variable binder contents on
rutting susceptibility of mixes.
Variation in air voids in the mix is possible by
changing either binder content or compaction effort
(Brown, 1990). Limited studies have been carried on
tolerance limits of binders that vary air voids in the
mix. Therefore, the main focus of the present work
is to study the effect of binder content on rutting
characteristics of the mix as it addresses the use of
improper quantity of binder in the mix which is a
common problem in India.
In the present study, three types of commercially
available modifier binders PMB-40, PMB-70 (SBSpolymer with 4% content) and CRMB-60 (Crumb
Rubber Modified Binder- rubber content of 6%) were
considered. Rheological parameters such as complex
modulus (G*) and phase angle () of these binders were
evaluated using dynamic shear rheometer. Bituminous
Concrete (BC) samples for mid-point aggregate
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2014
Specifications
MoRT&H
(2001) (%)
12.0
Max 24
17.3
Max 30
Flakiness Index
23.5
Max 30
Elongation Index
24.4
Max 30
Water Absorption
0.90
Max. 02
2.8735
Property Tested
Specific gravity
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Properties of Binder Considered
Property Evaluated
Types of Binder
PMB40
PMB70 CRMB-60
Penetration @ 25C,
100 gm, 5 sec, (dmm)
Softening Point, (C)
41
58
43
74
63
65
Viscosity at 150C,
(Poise)
8.2
4.8
8.9
Table 3 Marshall Parameters and Optimum Binder Content for Mixes Prepared with Different Binders
Mix Type
(Binder Used)
PMB 40
PMB 70
CRMB 60
MoRT&H
Specification
2.5
Stability
(kg)
1780
1605
1495
9.0 (min)
Flow
(mm)
3.6
3.9
4.6
2 to 4
OBC
(%)
4.85
4.85
4.90
---
Bulk Density
(kg/m3)
2.550
2.541
2.530
----
Air Voids
(%)
5.1
4.8
4.6
3 to 6
VMA
(%)
15.6
15.8
16.4
14 (min)
VFB
(%)
66.3
70.0
68.1
65--75
TECHNICAL PAPERS
mix samples (Reddy, 2011). Mixes were prepared at
optimum binder content and other binder contents as
well with 0.5% intervals. The test was performed at
50C and a load of 2000 N was applied (back and forth)
through a steel wheel of 50 mm diameter for 5000 to
study the relative rutting performance of the mixes.
Three samples were prepared and tested to include the
sample variation for each type of bitumen.
3 Experimental
discussion
results
3.1 Superpave
(G*/sin )
Rutting
Binder
and
Parameter
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
CRMB 60
3.85
3.58
3.42
4.68
5.12
PMB 40
3.28
2.75
3.85
4.27
4.64
PMB 70
3.36
3.14
3.38
4.67
4.94
From the above figure, it was observed that PMB40 has highest G*/sin value as compared to other
modified binders (PMB-70; CRMB-60). Therefore,
PMB 40 binder showed higher resistance to rutting at
all temperatures. As per Superpave specifications, G*/
sin value for unaged binders should have a minimum
of 1 kPa. From the results on binders considered in
the present study, all binders are satisfying the above
requirement up to 76C.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
were prepared at this binder content and evaluated for
relative rutting susceptibility at 50C. Fig. 4 shows the
test results.
From the test results, mix prepared using PMB 40
binder found to be better than CRMB 60 mix.
12
TECHNICAL PAPERS
higher than that of lower binder contents for all types
of binders. At air void content, modified binders have
shown lower resistance to rutting implies that excess
binder leads to problems.
The rutting values for three mixes below 3% and
above 7% are shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
From Fig. 9 and 10, it is clear that the rut depth, for
air voids below 3%, rutting in the mixes was more
compared to air voids greater than 7% for all mixes
indicating that at lower air voids in the mixes leads to
higher rutting. However performance of the PMB 40
mix was found to be better at both lower and higher
air voids compared to other binders.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2014
4
Conclusions
An effort has been made in this study to find out the
effect of type of modified binder and quantity of binder
on relative rutting susceptibility of Indian bituminous
mixes. For three types of modified binders considered,
rutting characteristics were evaluated using Dynamic
Shear Rheometer. Bituminous concrete mixes were
prepared at varied binder content to obtain different
air voids in the mix and evaluated for their rutting
susceptibility. Correlations were developed for air
voids and resulting rut depth of the mix. From these
studies, following conclusions have been drawn.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jun, Y, Haibin Z., Juan, C., Guochao, Q., Weiyu, P., &
Yiwen, Y.( 2005). Study of Rutting Resistance of Asphalt
Surfacing Mixtures, Proc., of the 24th Southern African
Transport Conference (SATC2005), Pretoria, South
Africa, 768-777.
6.
7.
8.
Lynn, T., Robert, S., Peter, J, Wu, Y., & Jared, D. (2007).
Effect of Aggregate Gradation on Volumetric Properties
of Georgias Hot Mix Asphalt, Transportation Research
Record 1998, Transportation Research Board, Washington
D.C, 123-131.
Lundy, J, R., & Sandoval-Gil, J,A. (2004). Permanent
Deformation Characteristics of Oregon Mix Using the
Asphalt Pavement Analyzer, Report (340), Oregon
Department of Transportation, Research Unit 200,
Hawthorne SE, USA.
9.
10.
11.
12.
14
13.
Reddy, I.S., & Reddy M.A. (2011). Low Cost Device for
Evaluating Rutting Characteristics of Bituminous Mixes,
Journal of Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, Vol.39 (3),
51-62.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
ABSTRACT
Porous Friction Courses (PFCs) are open-graded
bituminous mixtures used as surfacing or wearing courses
over sound dense bituminous mix surfaces of highway and
runway pavements. These are provided to serve as surface
drainage layers to improve the pavement skid-resistance
and to mitigate hydroplaning effect during wet-weather
conditions, in addition to attenuation of vehicle tyre noise.
Number of research findings on characterization of PFC
mixes reported the use of Superpave Gyratory Compactor
(SGC). Major differences were observed in the design
gyrations (Ndesign) and the design aggregate gradations.
This paper summarizes the laboratory investigation on
effect of aggregate gradation on the mix design (with
regard to volumetric properties, permeability, unaged
abrasion loss, and drain down) and performance properties
(including aged abrasion loss, moisture susceptibility, and
rutting) of PFC mix with neat bitumen and waste plastic
as modifier.
INTRODUCTION
**
15
TECHNICAL PAPERS
problem of draindown, use of fibres or waste plastics
as modifiers (stabilizers) to the mixes are widely
recommended (Huber, 2000). This consequently
requires an increase in the binder content, which
further improves the durability of the mix. Further, it
increases the stiffness of bitumen-mastic minimizing
the amount of draindown.
Many road agencies in the United States recommend
the use of these layers for safety (Huber 2000), while
many European countries widely use these as quiet
pavements. Road agencies in countries like Japan
(Nielsen et al. 2005), Australia (NAS 2004), New
Zealand (TNZ 2007), and South Africa (Sabita 1995)
recommend the open-graded mixes to achieve both
safety and tyre-noise-attenuation. OGFCs have been
experimented widely in the United States over the past
50 years (Huber 2000). European experiences with
porous mixes demonstrated its potential applications
on high-speed road facilities that also produced
exceptionally quiet pavements (Focus 2005). Porous
pavements of Japan are known for their structural and
acoustic durability (Nielsen et al. 2005). The Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) recommends PFCs
as one of the technique for improvement of runway
pavement skid-resistance and mitigation of potential
of hydroplaning (FAA 1997).
Research findings on open-graded mixes are rarely
reported from India (Suresha 2004; Jain et al. 2007).
The findings reported by Punith et al. (2004) and
Sridhar et al. (2005) seems to be foremost, which
are based on the studies conducted to characterize
polymer and fibre modified open-graded friction
course mixtures (Suresha 2004). Suresha (2008)
performed an extensive research on various aspects
of PFC mixes and findings of the same can be found
IS Sieve Size, mm
% Passing
16
19
100
13.2
90 - 95
9.5
25 - 65
4.75
10 - 17.5
2.36
7.5 - 11.5
0.075
2-5
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Properties of Coarse Aggregate and Bitumen
Material
Coarse
Aggregate
Bitumen
Properties
IS test method
Test results
2386 P(1)
28.1
2386 P(4)
20.1
2386 P(4)
26.6
Water absorption, %
2386 P(3)
0.15
2386 P(5)
0.2 1
1202
1.01
1203
89
1203
43
1205
46
Ductility at 27C, cm
1208
90
9382
62
3.2
TECHNICAL PAPERS
values in the range of 76 - 96, where the NLP values
were identified according to the recommendations
of Vavrik and Carpenter (1998). It may be observed
that in the present study, the Los Angeles Abrasion
(LAA) value of aggregates used was lesser than 30%,
Binder content, %
NLP of individual specimens
4.2
62
4.5
63
58
Volumetric Properties
G
Va = 100 1 mb
Gmm
VCAd =
66
... (1)
GCA w s
GCA w
... (2)
67
5.5
70
67
5.0
65
70
... (3)
Where,
w = density of water;
Gmb at
Va (%) at
VCAm (%) at
VCAm/VCAd
N50
NLP
N80
N120
N50
NLP
N80
N120
N50
NLP
N80
N120
N50
NLP
N80
N120
4.5
1.97
2.00
2.02
2.01
26.2
25.10
24.6
24.8
45.4
44.60
44.1
44.4
0.872
0.85
0.84
0.84
5.0
1.97
1.98
2.03
1.99
26.4
26.1
24.1
25.8
45.5
45.3
43.8
45.0
0.870
0.86
0.83
0.86
5.5
1.93
2.02
2.01
2.04
27.8
24.5
25.6
23.8
46.5
44.1
44.4
43.6
0.88
0.84
0.85
0.83
18
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.3
Permeability
... (4)
Where,
4.5
5.0
5.5
146
136
47
4.4
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
minute for 300 revolutions. The operating temperature
should be 25 5C. Fig 2 (a) and (d) shows how the
condition of specimen before subjecting to Cantabro
abrasion and after the abrasion respectively. Before
placing the specimen in Los Angles Abrasion drum
initial weight of specimen is taken (A) and later after
300 revolutions final weight of specimen is taken (B).
% Loss = (( A B ) / A ) * 100
... (5)
4.5
5.0
5.5
22.2
19.9
19.1
4.5
5.0
5.5
32.97
23.28
22.26
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.4.3 Wet Abrasion Loss (WAL)
Specimens were saturated by submerging in water
and kept at a temperature of 4C for period of
15 h (Fig. 3). These specimens were immediately
transferred into the hot water bath for thawing to a
temperature of 60C for a period of 24 h (Fig. 4).
This cycle of freeze-thaw was performed twice. After
two cycles of moisture-conditioning, the specimens
were kept in a cold water bath to bring down the
temperature to 25C before subjecting to the Cantabro
abrasion test. Table 8 indicates the mean wet abrasion
loss values of moisture-conditioned specimens.
4.5 Moisture-Susceptibility
The moisture-susceptibility of PFC mixes was also
evaluated using the retained tensile strength or Tensile
Strength Ratio (TSR) method. In total six replicate
specimens were prepared for each mix, compacted at
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2014
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 8 Results of Moisture Susceptibility Tests
BC (%)
ITSd (kPa)
Individual
ITSw (kPa)
Mean
151
4.5
5.0
133
Mean
137
146
Individual
154
144
98.8
142
136
151
29.0
153
148
Mean
126
139
94.5
142
26.5
--
28.4
29.6
Draindown Test
(%)
WAL (%)
153
154
4.6
Individual
TSR
Fig. 5 Sketch of
Wire-Basket
... (8)
Where,
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Rutting
Conclusions
2.
3.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
24
TECHNICAL PAPERS
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Kandhal, P.S., and Mallick, R.B. (1999). Design of NewGeneration Open-Graded Friction Courses. Report No.
99-3, National Center of Asphalt Technology, Auburn,
AL.
Mallick, R.B., Kandhal, P.S., Cooley, L.A. Jr., and Watson,
D.E. (2000). Design, Construction, and Performance
of New-Generation Open-Graded Friction Courses.
J. Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 69,
391-423.
Manual for Construction and Supervision of Bituminous
Works (MCSBW). (2001). Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India.
National Asphalt Specification (NAS). (2004). 2nd Ed.,
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association, Kew Victoria,
Australia.
Nicholls, J.C. (1997). Review of UK Porous Asphalt
Trials. Transport Research Laboratory: Report 264,
London, U.K.
Nielsen, C.B., Bendtsen, H., Andersen, B., Larsen, H.J.E.
(2005). Noise Reducing Pavements in Japan Study
Tour Report. Danish Road Institute: Technical Note 31,
Road Directorate, Denmark.
Pine, W.J. (1997). Superpave Gyratory Compaction
and the Ndesign Table. Internal Report to the Illinois
Department of Transportation.
Prowel, B.D., and Brown, E.R. (2007). Superpave Mix
Design: Verifying Gyration Levels in the Ndesign Table.
Report 573, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C.
Punith,V., S., and Veeraragavan, A. (2007). Behaviour of
Asphalt Concrete Mixtures with Reclaimed Polyethylene
as Additive. J. Materials in Civil Engineering, 19(6),
500-507.
Punith,V.,S., Suresha, S.N., Veeraragavan, A., Raju, S.,
and Bose, S. (2004). Characterization of Polymer and
Fiber Modified Porous Asphalt Mixtures. 83rd Annual
Meeting (CD-ROM), Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C.
Shen, D.H., Kuo, M.F., Du, J.C. (2005). Properties of
Gap-Aggregate Gradation Asphalt Mixture and Permanent
Deformation. J. Construction and Building Materials, 19,
147-153.
Southern African Bitumen Association (Sabita). (1995).
The Design and Use of Porous Asphalt Mixes. Manual
17, Roggebaai, South Africa.
Sridhar, R., Suresha, S.N., Bose, S., and Veeraragavan,
A. (2005). Study of Polymer and Fibre Modified Open
Graded Friction Courses. J. Indian Roads Congress, 514,
66 (2), 291-318.
Suresha, S.N. (2004). Characterization of Polymer and
Fibre Modified Open-Graded Friction Course Mixtures.
M.E. Thesis, Bangalore University, India.
Suresha, S.N, Varghese George and Ravi Shankar, A.U.
(2007). Investigation of Porous Friction Courses (PFC)
and Mixes: a Brief Overview Indian Highways Vol. 35,
No.7, pp. 21-43.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
25
NEED
MECHANISTIC
PAVEMENT DESIGN
APPROACH
**
M.E. Student
26
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Stephen F Brown (1997), developed the concept of
effective stiffness deterioration to deal with fatigue
cracking in pavement design, Theyse et.al. (1953),
concluded subgrade permanent deformation based
on the data generated from a series of Heavy Vehicle
Simulator (HVS). Pavement performance data is
generated over the long-term that may be used to
investigate pavement behavior in general and calibrate
mechanistic empirical design models. The mechanistic
empirical method of design is based on the mechanics
of material that relates an input, such as a wheel load,
to an output or pavement response, such as stress or
strain. The response values are used to predict distress
from laboratory test and field performance data.
Dependence on observed performance is necessary
because theory alone has not proven sufficient to
design pavements realistically. With a view to have
unified approach for working out design of flexible
pavement in the country the IRC first brought out
guidelines in 1970 with the name of (IRC:37-1970).
Theses guide line further modified in 1984 and 2001
and published with the name of (IRC:37-1984) and
(IRC:37-2001). Now IRC:37-2001 is in use for design
of flexible pavements in India. This practice code
was developed from original CBR method given by
California Division of Highway in 1934.
Properties
Maximum Dry Density
Optimum Moisture Content
Specific Gravity
Liquid Limit (%)
Plasticity Index (%)
D50 (mm)
Fraction Passing 75 micron
CBR (%)
Initial Tangent Modulus (kg/cm2)
Classification as per AASHTO
Typical name
Soil - A
17.70
14.00
2.21
28.00
8.10
0.11
32.00
1.96
111.80
A2-4
Silty clay of
Low plasticity
Soil - B
19.30
11.30
2.40
---7.00
6.30
162.10
A-3
Sandy silt
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Value of Initial Tangent Modulus of other Pavement Layers
E value (kg/cm )
- value
Subbase
701.20
0.30
Base
992.00
0.30
DBM
2696.70
0.50
BC
4033.30
0.50
Subgrade
Soil
Soil A
Soil B
CBR
(%)
2
6
Subgrade
(mm)
500
500
Sub base
(mm)
460
260
Base
(mm)
250
250
DBM
(mm)
215
160
BC
(mm)
50
50
Total
(mm)
1475
1220
TECHNICAL PAPERS
combines the advantages of both the incremental and
the iterative schemes. The external load, here, is applied
incrementally, but after each increment, successive
iterations are performed to achieve equilibrium.
In general, for the jth load increment, the state of
deformation, stress and strain at the end of (j 1)th load
increment is known, i.e. {}j1, {}j1, {}j1 are known,
the subscripts (j 1) refers to the load increment. The
general procedure of this method is follows,
i)
j
j
j 1
{F }1 = K {}1
... (1)
j
j
j 1
{}1 = K {F }1
... (2a)
j
{}1
j
= [D ]{}1
... (2b)
... (2c)
{}1 = {}
j 1
+ {}1
... (3a)
j
{}1
j 1
j
+ {}1
... (3b)
j
{}1
iii)
= {}
j 1
= {}
j
+ {}1
0.5
Fj T Fj
{ 1 } { 1 }
0.5
... (6)
j
j
j 1
{}i 1 = K {}i
... (7a)
j T j
{ 1 } { 1 }
... (3c)
j
{ p }1 and then,
j
j
j 1
{}i = K {}i
{}i = [B ]{}i
{}i = [D ]{}i
...(7b)
... (7c)
... (7d)
j
j 1
j
{}i = {} {}i
{}i = {} {}i
... (8b)
j
j 1
j
{}i = {} {}i
... (8c)
j 1
... (8a)
j
Et1j and vt1 = f ({ p }1 ,{ p }1 )
... (4a)
and
j
j
[D ] = D (Et1 , vt1 )
... (4b)
iv)
{Feq }1 = [B ]
j
[D ][B ]{}1
dv
... (5a)
j
j
[D ] = D (Eti , vti )
... (9)
... (10)
j
{}1
v)
{Feq } )
1
... (5b)
... (11)
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
j T j
{ i } { i }
0.5
j T j
{ i 1} { i 1}
0.5
... (12)
30
1
N20 = 4.1656 10
z
4.5337
... (13)
Where,
5.1
Pavement Response
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Variation of Pavement Response at the Top of Subgrade Soil - A
Base = 250 (mm), DBM = 215 (mm)
Subbase
z
z
(mm)
(Micron)
(kg/cm2)
460
450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
1212.40
1219.50
1238.10
1258.50
1280.60
1304.80
1331.20
1360.20
1391.90
1429.60
1465.40
0.1399
0.1390
0.1418
0.1438
0.1461
0.1485
0.1511
0.1541
0.1573
0.1607
0.1646
z
(mm)
0.556
0.558
0.563
0.568
0.574
0.580
0.586
0.593
0.601
0.610
0.618
1212.40
1231.30
1252.10
1274.90
1300.10
1328.10
1359.20
1394.00
1433.10
1477.00
1528.40
0.1399
0.1412
0.1433
0.1455
0.1481
0.1509
0.1541
0.1576
0.1616
0.1661
0.1713
0.556
0.561
0.566
0.573
0.579
0.586
0.594
0.604
0.614
0.625
0.638
z
(mm)
0.473
0.477
0.489
0.501
0.515
0.530
0.547
0.566
0.587
TECHNICAL PAPERS
varied to 200 mm, 100 mm and 50 mm. the number of
the cycles taken by the pavement reduced to 599.945
msa, 413.533 msa and 325.699 msa respectively.
Similar variation was observed for pavement section
resting on subgrade soil B and presented in Table 7. It
indicates if the pavement is modelled by mechanistic
Table 6 Variation of Vertical Compressive Strain at Top of Subgrade and Number of Cycle Taken by Pavement
Resting on Subgrade Soil-A
Base = 250 (mm), DBM = 215 (mm)
Subbase
z
(NR)
(mm)
(Micron)
(msa)
460
1212.40
694.301
450
1219.50
676.169
425
1238.10
631.322
400
1258.50
586.237
375
1280.60
541.747
350
1304.80
497.664
325
1331.20
454.460
300
1360.20
412.157
275
1391.90
371.280
250
1429.60
328.913
225
1465.40
294.023
Table 7 Variation of Vertical Compressive Strain at top of Subgrade and Number of Cycle Taken by Pavement
Resting on Subgrade Soil-B
Base = 250 (mm), DBM = 160 (mm)
Subbase
z
(NR)
(mm)
(Micron)
(msa)
260
1184.80
770.714
250
1202.60
720.331
225
1250.50
603.433
200
1303.70
499.570
175
1363.10
408.196
150
1429.30
329.226
125
1503.50
261.724
100
1586.60
205.078
75
1679.80
158.317
CONCLUSION
32
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.
4.
5.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
33
ABSTRACT
Multi-storied commercial and residential buildings, which
significantly increase the demand for water supply, are increasingly
being constructed in urban India. In many states of India such as
Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamilnadu,
the ground water is plunging at an alarming rate. Responsible
town planners, architects and civil engineers must be proactive
and integrate rainwater harvesting techniques in the design of
all types of buildings, parking lots and low-trafficked roads/
streets. For example, Public Works Department (Buildings and
Roads) engineers can integrate government buildings with porous
asphalt parking lot. This would recharge the ground water in overexploited/critical areas of India. The revolutionary technology
presented in this paper addresses that very need.
The porous asphalt pavement which can be used for parking lot
or low-trafficked roads/streets works like this. The top 75 mm
asphalt layer is specially designed to make it porous. Rainwater
goes through it rapidly without any ponding. The water is then
stored in an underlying open-graded stone bed, which is about
225 mm thick. From there, water percolates slowly into the
underlying soil. The porous parking lot or street can be integrated
with a roof rainwater harvesting system in the buildings adjacent
to it by diverting the roof water to the stone bed. Recently, the
Jaipur Development Authority has constructed the first ever
porous asphalt parking lot in India. This paper gives the details of
its design, construction and performance.
INTRODUCTION
Associate Director Emeritus, US National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, Alabama, USA
E-mail: pkandhal@gmail.com
**
34
TECHNICAL PAPERS
management3. The State of California has built over
150 projects since 1980. About 95% of rainwater
falling on a porous asphalt parking lot goes to recharge
ground water. Even in case of open ground with
vegetation in rural areas, only about 33% of rainwater
goes to recharge ground water primarily due to evapotranspiration losses. This percentage is believed to be
significantly lower in hot climate of Rajasthan.
This proven concept of building porous asphalt
pavements was declared Outstanding Engineering
Project in 2000 by the American Society of Civil
Engineers.
Responsible town planners, architects and civil
engineers must be proactive and integrate rainwater
harvesting techniques in the design of all types of
buildings, parking lots and low-trafficked roads/streets.
For example, Public Works Department (Buildings and
Roads) engineers can integrate government buildings
with porous asphalt parking lot4,5. This would recharge
the ground water in over-exploited/critical areas of
India. The revolutionary technology presented in this
paper addresses that very need.
2
CONCEPT OF POROUS
PAVEMENT TECHNOLOGY
ASPHALT
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Uncompacted
(bed)
natural
soil
subgrade
1.
2.
3.
36
DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION
MAINTENANCE
GUIDELINES
POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
AND
FOR
TECHNICAL PAPERS
This would ensure that water at the bottom of stone
reservoir layer does not flow; rather it percolates
downwards. If the slope is steeper, a terraced parking
lot can be considered.
The thickness of compacted stone course (containing
about 40% voids) should be designed to accommodate
intensity and amount of rainfall prevailing in the
region. Typical designs are made for 6 months/
24-hour rain storms. Conservative designs are based
on 20-year/24 hour rain storms, which can range
from 35 mm to 400 mm in 24 hours. Typically, stone
reservoir is about 225 mm (9 inches) thick, which can
store 40% of 225 mm = 90 mm (3.7 inches) of rainfall
temporarily. Obviously, the thickness is increased if
additional water (from rooftop or adjacent dense road
surface) needs to be accommodated.
The structural design of the pavement including the
compacted stone reservoir course and porous asphalt
wearing course should be based on traffic using the
facility. Normally, porous asphalt pavements are
recommended for parking lots, recreational areas,
and low-trafficked roads (with limited truck use).
Both the porous asphalt course and the stone bed are
structurally strong to withstand car and occasional
truck traffic. This is because both derive their strength
from stone-on-stone contact6.
Work site should be protected from heavy equipment
so that the natural soil subgrade (bed) is not compacted
otherwise its permeability may be reduced. Before
placing the stone reservoir layer, place a filter fabric
over the soil bed so that soil particles do not migrate
upwards and clog the stone reservoir layer. As an
alternate, a stone filter course consisting of 12.5 mm
stone particles has been found quite suitable. Place the
porous asphalt course last on the entire project so that
it is protected from construction debris. It should also
be protected from soil laden runoff.
Before placing the 50-100 mm thick porous asphalt
course, place 25 to 50 mm thick layer of 12.5 mm size
stone to stabilize the surface of the stone reservoir
course and facilitate paving operation.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2014
TECHNICAL PAPERS
It is absolutely clear that the porous asphalt technology
works. Ninety-five percent of the rainwater falling
on porous asphalt pavement goes to recharge the
ground water. Therefore, its effectiveness in capturing
rainwater is very close to paved catchment areas.
4
DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION
AND
PERFORMANCE OF POROUS ASPHALT
PARKING LOT IN JAIPUR
38
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The porous asphalt parking lot for rainwater
harvesting was designed and constructed as follows.
Subgrade
The existing subgrade was tested for its average water
infiltration capacity, which was determined to be
46.5 mm/hour (1.83 inches/hour) which is well above
the minimum reasonable water infiltration rate of
12.5 mm/hour (0.5 inch/hour).
After removing the garbage, excess soil was excavated
to the required level and grade keeping about 150 mm
(6 inches) soil to be excavated last. This was done to
keep the final subgrade relatively uncompacted from
the construction equipment.
Stone Filter Course
It was necessary to provide a stone filter course between
the finished subgrade and the stone reservoir course so
that fines from subgrade do not migrate upwards into
the stone reservoir course thereby reducing its storage
capacity.
The thickness of the stone filter course was 75 mm
(3 inches). The gradation of the aggregate actually
used in this course is given in Table 1; it met the
AASHTO 57 gradation. The filter course was
compacted lightly with a 2-ton steel wheel roller to
maintain its integrity and avoid compacting the natural
subgrade.
Table 1 Gradation of Stone Filter Course
Sieve Size,
mm
37.5
25
12.5
4.75
2.36
Recommended %
Passing
(AASHTO 57)
100
95-100
25-60
0-10
0-5
Actual %
Passing
100
95
36
4
2
Actual
Percent
Passing
100
92
48
8
2
1.5
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The sampled bituminous mix was analyzed for bitumen
content and gradation by conducting extraction test.
Both dry and washed gradations were determined.
Test results are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Gradation of Porous Asphalt Mix Produced
Sieve
Size,
mm
Required
Percentage
Percentage
Percentage
Passing
Passing
Passing As Per Actual, Dry Actual, Wash
NAPA IS-115 Gradation
Gradation
19.00
100
100
100
12.5
85-100
82
96
9.5
55-75
60
86
4.75
10-25
18
25
2.36
5-10
10
0.075
2-4
1.3
3.2
Specification Measured
Value
30-50
45
60
60.3
75
66.5
220
285
1.7
Separation , difference in
softening point, C, max
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Specification Measured
Value
Properties
Test of residue
Increase in softening
point, C, max
1.5
Reduction of penetration at
25 C, max.
35
33
50
57
Viscosity at 150C,
Poise, min
3.9
5.4
Mix Sample
No.
Mould
Number
I
I
I
II
II
II
1
2
3
1
2
3
TECHNICAL PAPERS
emptied the mix on to paver, it was observed that there
was no bitumen drainage at the bottom of the truck.
The porous asphalt was laid in one lift to obtain
compacted thickness of 75 mm. It was compacted
with 8-ton steel wheel roller in static mode. Only four
passes were made and there were no roller marks.
Stone reservoir was provided with an overflow outlet
by extending this course beyond the porous asphalt
course (Fig. 14). This was done so that water does
not exert any pressure underneath the porous asphalt
course in case stone reservoir course gets choked
and its storage capacity is reduced from unforeseen
circumstances.
42
TECHNICAL PAPERS
After the compacted porous asphalt mat cooled to
ambient temperature, its general permeability was
tested by pouring water on it from a bucket. Water
disappeared almost instantly.
The parking lot was completed in October 2012. In
absence of rain at that time, a water tanker was brought
in to check the relative permeability of the porous
asphalt and the conventional dense graded asphalt
pavements. As expected, water from the hose pipe
was rapidly penetrating the porous asphalt surface
and was just flowing on the dense asphalt surface. The
comparison can be seen in Figs. 16 and 17.
43
TECHNICAL PAPERS
It is estimated that this porous asphalt test section
measuring only 85 m by 4 m would recharge the
groundwater by over 2 lakhs liters per year considering
average annual rainfall of 640 mm in Jaipur. If the
whole JDA parking lot (3,545 sq m area) was built
with porous surface it would have recharged the
groundwater by over 22 lakhs liters per year9.
It is hoped public and private agencies in India would
construct porous asphalt parking lots/low-trafficked
streets and roads, in areas where the groundwater
level is depleting.
5
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
44
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Fig. 1 through 6 are courtesy of US National Asphalt
Pavement Association (NAPA). Permission given
by Mr. Kuldeep Ranka, Commissioner, Jaipur
Development Authority for constructing this first ever
porous asphalt parking lot in India is appreciated.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
APPENDIX
GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTING POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENT FOR PARKING LOTS
AND LOW TRAFFICKED ROADS OR STREETS FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING
1
Introduction
Note :
2 Subgrade
Subgrade should be allowed to remain natural
and uncompacted to maintain its permeability. No
excessive construction traffic should be permitted on
the subgrade. It is advised to excavate for the desired
subgrade level (at least the last 150 mm or 6 inches)
when all preparations have been made for laying the
stone filter course and the stone reservoir course.
If there are any depressions in the subgrade which
need to be filled and levelled, use permeable sand and
compact it lightly.
The slope of the finished subgrade should not
exceed 5 percent. In case of steeper slope, terraced
parking lots need to be considered. Subgrade soil
should be such that it can drain water within 48 to
72 hours. Infiltration capacity of subgrade soils used
in the past in the US has ranged from 2.5 mm/hour to
76 mm/hour (0.1 inch/hour to 3 inches/hour). A rate of
0.5 inch/hour is considered very reasonable. Subgrade
with clayey soils is not desirable.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, March 2014
Sieve Size, mm
37.5 mm (1.5)
25 mm (1)
12.5 mm (1/2)
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
Percent Passing
100
95-100
25-60
0-10
0-5
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Gradation of Stone Reservoir Course
(AASHTO No. 2)
Sieve Size, mm
75 mm (3)
63.5 mm (2.5)
50 mm (2)
38 mm (1.5)
19 mm (0.75)
0.150 mm
Percent Passing
100
90-100
35-70
0-15
0-5
0-2
Sieve Size, mm
12.5 mm (1/2)
9.5 mm (3/8)
Percent Passing
100
0-5
Sieve Size, mm
37.5 mm (1.5)
25 mm (1)
12.5 mm (1/2)
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
6
Percent Passing
100
95-100
25-60
0-10
0-5
Gradation
Sieve Size, mm
19 mm
12.5 mm
9.5 mm
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
0.075 mm
Percent Passing
100
85-100
55-75
10-25
5-10
2-4
TECHNICAL PAPERS
6.2
TECHNICAL PAPERS
is something wrong in terms of mix composition
(bitumen content and gradation) and/or compaction.
Until this test is successful, paving work shall not
proceed any further.
Do not allow any traffic on the paved surface at least
for 24 hours.
3.
4.
5.
6.
48
1.
2.
ANNEXURE B of APPENDIX
Outline of ASTM D 6390, Determination of Drain
Down Characteristics in Uncompacted Asphalt
mixtures
A. Scope and Summary of Test
This method determines the amount of drain down
in an uncompacted asphalt mixture sample when the
sample is held at elevated temperatures, which are
encountered during the production, transportation,
and placement of the mixture. This test is especially
applicable to open-graded asphalt mixtures (such as
open-graded friction course and porous asphalt) and
gap-graded mixtures such as stone matrix asphalt
(SMA).
A fresh sample of the asphalt mixture (either made in
the laboratory or from an asphalt plant) is placed in a
wire basket. The wire basket is hung in a forced draft
oven for one hour at a pre-selected temperature. A
catch plate of known mass is placed below the basket
to collect material drained from the sample. The mass
of the drained material is determined to calculate the
amount of drain down as a percentage of the mass of
the total asphalt mix sample.
B.
Testing Equipment
1.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.
3.
4.
C.
Testing Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
ANNEXURE C of APPENDIX
The Schellenberg Binder Drainage Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
49
INTRODUCTION
50
Tx = TAN
i.e.
(hx/2)
Ty = TAN
Resultant Tilt : T =
(hy/2)
R
2
(Tx ) + (Ty )
General Manager (Structures), GMR Project of Hunugund, Hospet, Karnataka. E-mail: kamraj65@gmail.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS
If there is any tilt in the well, the plumb line will not
touch at the bottom of well at centre O. In other
words the distance between the plumb line and the
inner periphery of the well on either side will not be
equal.
Based on above principle, an innovative Idea has been
developed to calculate the tilt.
4
Fig. 1
3
PRINCIPLE
This works on the principle that normal drawn at the
centre of the cross section of the well at top always falls
at the centre of the bottom of the well as long as there
is no tilt in the well. i.e. If we hang a plumb bob QP
from the top at the centre of the well, it will touch the
bottom at the centre O as shown Fig. 2 as long as
there is no tilt in the well. In other words the distance
between the plumb line and the inner periphery of the
well on either side should be the same.
Fig. 2
INNOVATIVE
PROCEDURE
TO
CALCULATE TILT OF WELL
Dewater the well for at least 3 m of depth from top
of well, if required. Two threads are to be tied along
X-X axis and Y-Y axis dividing the well in 4 equal
sectors along cross section of well as shown in plan of
Fig. 2. Let us call them as Top Thread lines. Tie two
more threads as explained above at approximately two
metre below from the top thread lines with the help of
sticking tape or by any other means. Let us call them
as bottom thread lines. (We can insert steel spikes/
steel rings at the time of casting of steining at every
2 m interval to tie these threads).
Take plumb bob having thread length approximately 3
m. Put a mark on thread line of plumb bob just above
plumb ball as shown in Fig. 3. Now release the plumb
from the centre of the well, which is the intersection
point of top thread lines. The plumb bob will touch at
the intersection point of bottom thread lines, if there
is no tilt in the well. But because of the tilt, it will not
touch the intersection point of bottom thread lines at
centre and hence match the mark on the thread line
of the plumb bob with bottom thread lines along X-X
axis at point R and measure the difference x from
the centre as shown Fig. 2. Similarly, we can measure
the difference along Y-Y axis as y.
Fig. 3
51
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Find out the distance L between the top and bottom
thread lines tied along cross section. This can be
measured along the length of plumb-bob also.
Now the calculation is very simple. The formula is
Tx = TAN =
Ty = TAN =
CALCULATION
Resultant tilt : T =
(Tx ) + (Ty )
52
ABSTRACT
Acceleration and Deceleration (A/D) characteristics of vehicles
are important for intersection design, acceleration deceleration
lane design, traffic simulation modeling, vehicular emission
modeling, instantaneous fuel consumption rate modeling, etc.
Heterogeneous traffic stream consists of vehicles with wide
variation in their physical dimensions, weight to power ratio
and dynamic characteristics which affect their acceleration and
deceleration behaviour in traffic stream. Truck is the major
component of traffic composition on Indian highways. The present
study aims to analyze the acceleration and deceleration behaviour
of trucks which are approximately 20% in composition on Indian
roads. This study was conducted on Nagpur-Mumbai Express
Highway at Wardha, India. Drivers were asked to accelerate
their vehicles from stop to their maximum speed and then to zero
speed in shortest time and their speed profiles during acceleration
and deceleration profiles are collected using Global Positioning
System at 1 second time interval. Various A/D parameters like
A/D distance, A/D time, mean and maximum A/D rates and speed
at maximum A/D are reported in study. A negative exponential
model for acceleration and dual regime model for deceleration
are proposed. Various statistical tools are used to validate the A/D
models.
INTRODUCTION
**
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2
1.
2.
... 1
TECHNICAL PAPERS
increase in speed. Gary Long13 reported
that values of (slope) are similar
for each type of vehicles and value
increases with decrease in weight to
horse power ratio. This indicates that the
maximum accelerating capacity increase
with decrease in weight to horse power
ratio.
... 2
1.
2.
3.
... 3
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.2
Deceleration Models
= a a0at2
... 4
56
... 5
TECHNICAL PAPERS
difficult and impossible. In India, traffic stream being
heterogenous with weak lane discipline, it is difficult
to observe consistent acceleration and deceleration
behaviour at intersections. Moreover, the presence of
variety of vehicles with variation in their sizes and
operating characteristics, impact the movement of
other neighboring vehicles. Data collection in such
situation is difficult. Most often the exercise results
in an inconsistent data14. An alternative is to observe
vehicle behaviour over a selected short stretch and
under controlled conditions16. Data collection in
present work is undertaken in controlled manner
and efforts are made to ensure that A/D behaviour
of vehicles is not affected by any external factors.
Drivers were told that collected data will be used
only for study and research purpose and not for
enforcement purpose to reduces the possible bias in
drivers speeding behaviour.
3.1
Data Collection
1.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 3 Scatter and Idealized Plot of Speed During acceleration and Deceleraion
2.
3.
4.
58
5.
6.
7.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.2
Data Analysis
Deceleration
Maximum
Maximum
Speed Range
Speed
(km/h)
(m/s)
Mean
Speed
(m/s)
A/D*
Time
(sec)
A/D*
Distance
(m)
Speed at
Maximum
A/D* (m/s)
Maximum
A/D* Rate
(m/s2)
Mean
A/D* Rate
(m/s2)
20-30
8.18
5.18
11
56.98
2.77
0.75
0.28
30-40
11.05
5.78
17
98.26
1.53
1.01
0.29
40-50
13.24
7.62
34
259.08
1.27
0.96
0.24
50-60
15.95
10.32
35
361.2
1.08
0.87
0.24
20-30
7.51
4.43
13
57.59
4.20
1.02
0.47
30-40
10.46
5.84
18
105.12
3.01
1.01
0.40
40-50
13.26
7.32
18
131.76
4.33
0.92
0.32
50-60
14.55
7.92
25
198.00
5.80
0.88
0.35
* Acceleration/Deceleration
1.
59
TECHNICAL PAPERS
that drivers use higher acceleration
during startup. Similar observation is
also reported by other researchers11;8;9;20.
2.
1.
2.
4 ACCELERATION MODELING
60
TECHNICAL PAPERS
which can be described by single regime models.
Therefore, two single regime models - (i) linear
decay model and (ii) negative exponential model
are proposed to described the observed accelerationspeed behaviour. Both models are calibrated for
present data set and predicted acceleration values are
compared with acceleration values computed from
observed speed values (refer Fig. 6). Residual Sum
of Squares (RSS) and various other error tests, such
as Root Mean Square Percent Error, Mean Percent
Error (MPE), Positive and Negative Percent Errors
(PMPE and NMPE) and Maximum Absolute Error
were used to asses the suitability of both models for
present acceleration data set8. The error tests are used
to assess the suitability of models since error tests do
not need assumption of independence of variables
on each other. Also the assumption of normality of
variables, which forms the basis of many statistical
tests, is not applicable to error tests. The errors are
computed using following formulae8;
... 6
where,
is predicted value from model,
is
observed value and N is number of observations.
Percent error provides the deviation of model
values from observed values in percentage and is a
a = k 1 e k2
... 7
RMS
RMS %
% Mean Error
PMPE
NMPE
Absolute
Maximum Error
Linear Model
0.016
22.84
0.12
24.85
14.49
0.22
Negative Exponential
Model
0.011
9.17
0.087
11.23
6.15
0.17
1.
2.
61
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Residual analysis is conducted to detect the violations
of independence of errors and quantile plots are used
to detect violation of normality of errors22. Residuals
(difference between acceleration values calculated
from observed speed values and calculated using
model) are computed and plotted against predicted
acceleration values (see Fig. 7a). The plot shows that
residuals are uniformly spread over predicted values
and do not show any trend. This depicts uniform
variance of errors over predicted values, indicating
independence of error terms. Since the data is observed
over time, the residuals are also tested over time.
Fig. 7b presents plot of residuals against time. The
plot shows no trend over time depicting no dependence
of errors over time.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The idealized modeled speed and position are then
computed from above equations and compared with
observed idealized speed and position. Figs. 9a and
9b presents the observed idealized position trajectory
(obtained by averaging the position values of different
trips obtained from GPS over every 1 second time
interval) and idealized speed profile (obtained by
averaging speed of different trips over every 1 second
time interval) of a vehicle observed in this study.
Modeled position trajectory and speed profile is also
plotted in Figs. 9a and 9b. Kolmogorov-Smirnov two
sample test is performed to compare the observed
and modeled position trajectory and speed profile.
The test result indicates that both samples come from
populations having identical cumulative frequency
distribution and match with respect to location,
dispersion and skewness.
DECELERATION MODELING
TECHNICAL PAPERS
set. Later, observed speed values are compared with
computed speed from the Wang et al.10 model. A two
sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is applied to check
whether observed and predicted speeds are from same
continuous distribution23. Test results indicates that two
sets (observed and predicted) of speed have different
cumulative distribution. This implies that Wang et al.10
model is not sufficient to describe the present data set.
Therefore, a new model is required to describe the
observed deceleration-speed relationship.
On observation of deceleration-speed relationship,
it is felt that a dual regime model may be suitable
for observed deceleration speed relationship (refer
Fig. 10). Regime I can be referred to the region with
speed > critical speed and regime II can refer to the
region with speed critical speed. Dual regime model
offers computational simplicity and reduces simulation
time as compared to polynomial model model8;10).
Hence the dual regime model is explored in detail in
present study. The regimes are separated at critical
speed (in present data set the critical speed is 3.49 m/s)
where deceleration is maximum. Only limitation with
the the dual regime model is that it has one point of
discontinuity at critical speed. The Pearson correlation
values are computed to ascertain the strength of linear
relationship between deceleration and speed for both
regimes. The Pearson correlation values are 0:92
for regime I and 0:961 for regime II. This indicates
that linear relationship (with opposite slopes) may
exist between deceleration and speed in both regimes.
The strength of linear relationship in regime I is
weaker than that of regime II. Further, to ascertain the
form of the model in both regimes, Residual Sum of
Squares (RSS) are calculated for various decelerationspeed model like linear, second order polynomial
and negative exponential for both regimes. The
appropriate model is one which yields minimum value
of RSS. The RSS values for different model forms are
shown in Table III. It is observed from Table III that
for Regime I, RSS values are minimum for negative
exponential model and for Regime II for linear
model. Hence, negative exponential and linear models
are opted for regime I and regime II respectively.
64
Regime I
0.066
0.031
0.038
Regime II
0.006
0.100
0.036
... 9
TECHNICAL PAPERS
at beginning of deceleration maneuver with fair
accuracy and with only one point of discontinuity. In
other multiregime models the points of discontinuity
are more.
5.1
TECHNICAL PAPERS
... 10
... 11
CONCLUSIONS
TECHNICAL PAPERS
suitability and new accurate and simple A/D models
are proposed to describe the observed acceleration
speed and deceleration-speed relationships of trucks
on Indian highways. The main findings of this study
are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
67
TECHNICAL PAPERS
H. Li J.Wang, Karen K D. and J.Ogle. Normal Acceleration
Behaviour of Passenger Vehicles Starting from Rest at
all Way Stop Controlled Intersections. Transportation
Research Record, Journal of Transportation Research
Board., 1883:158186, 2004.
18.
19.
12.
20.
13.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
11.
14.
15.
16.
17.
68
ii)
iii)
iv)
Delay/failure in:-
Arranging power
permits etc.
Certification of Bills/Payments
connections,
2
A construction project, over the years, has been
characterized by:-
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
2.1
i)
v)
3
Dispute avoidance practices can be divided into
two stages:-
Pre-award stage
Post-award stage
Pre-award stage
Tendered stage
69
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.1
Availability of Site
Contract
documentsGeneral Conditions and
Special conditions etc.
Risk management
Dispute
mechanism
Availability of Funds
3.2
Tendered Stage
Resolution
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Contract Administration
4.1
Site Management
*
*
70
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Contractors Breaches
5.1
Misappropriation
through
extra
consumption of stipulated materials
and failure to account for or return such
materials.
5.2
TECHNICAL PAPERS
for according permission to cut the trees. The clause
regarding the machinery advance as contained in the
contract stipulated that the machineries could not be
disposed of by the contractor and exemption in the
event of custom duty was given under the express
condition. Since the machinery was idle in the face
of availability of site, the contractor suffered losses.
Even the manpower was idle.
5.3
Conclusion
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Preplanning,
Planning,
Execution,
Closure of the contract.
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82