Varieties of life forms

Figure 1.4C-F
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Clown, Fool, or Well Adapted?

All organisms have evolutionary adaptations
Inherited characteristics that enhance their
ability to survive and reproduce

blue-footed booby
Large, webbed feet help
propel the bird through
water at high speeds

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 A streamlined shape, large tail, and nostrils that

close are useful for diving
Specialized salt-secreting glands manage salt
intake while at sea

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Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life

Charles Darwin synthesized the Theory of

Evolution by natural selection
Theory vs hypothesis

Evolution is the core theme

of biology

Figure 1.6A
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 The voyage of the Beagle

Great
Britain

Europe

North
America
Pacific
Ocean

Atlantic
Ocean
Africa

Galpagos
Islands

Equator

South
America

Australia
Cape of
Good Hope
Tasmania
Cape Horn
Tierra del Fuego

New
Zealand

Figure 13.1B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Prevalent ideas at Darwins time

species are fixed

Earth is about 6,ooo yrs old

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New ideas proposed

Fossils indicated the earth was very old
Lyell, a geologist, argued that land forms
changed constantly.
Lamarck proposed that organisms changed
and these changes were passed to progeny.

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Darwin became convinced that the Earth was

old and continually changing

Mex. marine snail shells on high mtns

He concluded that living things also change, or

evolve over generations
He also stated that living species descended from
earlier life-forms: descent with modification

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Darwin proposed natural selection as the

mechanism of evolution

Darwin observed that

organisms produce more offspring than the
environment can support
organisms vary in many characteristics
these variations can be inherited

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 natural selection
explains the
mechanism of
evolution

Pesticide-resistant
insects

(1) Population with varied inherited traits

(2) Elimination of individuals with certain traits

Antibiotic-resistant
bacteria

Figure 1.6B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(3) Reproduction of survivors

 Charles Darwin, 1874

Figure 13.1x2
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Alfred Wallace

 Darwin cartoon

Figure 13.1x3
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Evolution happens when populations of

organisms with inherited variations are
exposed to environmental factors that
favor the reproductive success of some
individuals over others

Natural selection is the editing mechanism

Evolution is based on adaptations

Figure 1.6C
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Fossils provide strong evidence for evolution

Hominid skull

Petrified trees

Figure 13.2A, B
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 Ammonite casts

Fossilized organic
matter in a leaf

Figure 13.2C, D
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 Scorpion in amber

Ice Man
acid bogs

Figure 13.2E, F
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 Mammoth tusks

Figure 13.2x4
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 fossils show that organisms

have appeared in a historical
sequence

Many fossils link

early extinct species
with species living
today
hind leg bones of
fossil whales
Figure 13.2G, H
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Other evidence for evolution

Biogeography
Comparative
anatomy
Comparative
embryology

Human

Cat

Whale

Bat

Figure 13.3A
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Molecular biology - protein clocks

Human

Rhesus monkey

Last common
ancestor lived
26 million years
ago (MYA),
based on
fossil evidence

Mouse

Chicken

Frog

Lamprey

80 MYA
275 MYA

330 MYA

450 MYA
Figure 13.3B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Populations are the units of evolution

Figure 13.6
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

1. What is evolving?
gene pool, microevolution
2. Four agents of evolution
3. Types of natural selection

Populations are the units of evolution

A population is a group of
interbreeding individuals
A species is a group of populations
whose individuals can interbreed
and produce fertile offspring

Figure 13.6
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

What is evolving?
gene pool = total collection of genes in a
population at any one time
Microevolution is a change in the relative
frequencies of alleles in a gene pool

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Four agents of microevolution

1. Mutation changes alleles
2. Genetic drift = random changes in allele
frequency
Bottleneck
Founder effect

Genetic drift - effects of population size:

LARGE POPULATION = 10,000
1,000
allele frequency = 10,000 = 10%

50% of population survives,

including 450 allele carriers

450
allele frequency = 5,000 = 9%
little change in allele frequency
(no alleles lost)

SMALL POPULATION = 10
allele frequency =

1
10

= 10%

50% of population survives,

with no allele carrier among
them

allele frequency =

0
5

= 0%

dramatic change in allele frequency

(potential to lose one allele)

Bottleneck effect

Founder effect

Figure 13.11B, C

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Gene flow can change a gene pool due to the

movement of genes into or out of a population
ex. Migration
4. Natural selection leads to differential
reproductive success

Nonrandom mating changes genotype frequency

but not allele frequency.

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Natural selection
- results in the accumulation of traits that adapt
a population to its environment
- the only agent of evolution that results in
adaptation.

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

What is an organisms evolutionary fitness?

Darwinian fitness is an individuals contribution
to the gene pool of the next generation
compared to other individuals; i.e., number of
progeny
Production of fertile offspring is the only score
that counts in natural selection

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

There are three general outcomes of natural

selection
Frequency of
individuals

Original
population

Phenotypes (fur color)

Original
population

Evolved
population

Stabilizing selection

Directional selection

Diversifying selection
Figure 13.19

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

80

beak depth
1976

Number of individuals

60

40

Average
beak depth,
1976

20

Average
beak depth,
1978

1978
0

10

11

12

13

Beak depth (mm)

Shift of average beak
depth during drought

14

20
70

Infant
deaths

60

Infant
births
15

50
Percent
of infant
deaths

Percent of
births in
10
population

40
30
20

10
0

10

11

Birth weight in pounds

Natural selection tends to reduce variability in populations.

Why doesnt natural selection eliminate all genetic

variation in populations?
1. The diploid condition preserves variation by
hiding recessive alleles (Bb)
2. Balanced polymorphism (2+ phenotypes
stable in population) may result from:
a. heterozygote advantage Aa > aa and AA
b. frequency-dependent selection
c. variation of environment for a population

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Many populations exhibit polymorphism and

geographic variation

Figure 13.13
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Not all genetic variation may be subject to natural

selection
3. Some variations may be neutral, providing no
apparent advantage or disadvantage
Example: human fingerprint patterns

Figure 13.16
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Endangered species often have reduced variation

Low genetic variability may reduce their
capacity to survive as humans continue to alter
the environment
cheetah populations have extreme genetic
uniformity

Figure 13.17
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Why do male and female animals differ in appearance?

Sexual selection leads to the evolution of
secondary sexual characteristics
Sexual selection may produce sexual
dimorphism

Figure 13.20A, B
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Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms

This is due to:
historical constraints
adaptive compromises
chance events
availability of variations

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

What is a species?
appearance alone does not always define a
species
Example: eastern and western meadowlarks

Figure 14.1A
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What is a species?
Naturally interbreeding populations
- potentially interbreeding
- reproductively isolated from other species
What about asexually reproducing organisms?
Extinct species?
Shy species?
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION
When does speciation occur?
When geographically isolated, species evolution
may occur
gene pool then changes to cause reproductive
isolation
= allopatric speciation

Figure 14.3
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 A ring species may illustrate the process of

speciation

1
OREGON
POPULATION

Sierra
Nevada

COASTAL
POPULATIONS

Yelloweyed

Yellowblotched

2
Gap in
ring

Monterey

INLAND
POPULATIONS

Largeblotched

Figure 14.1C
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Reproductive barriers between species

Habitat - different locations
Timing - mating, flowering
Behavioral - mating rituals, no
attraction
Mechanical - structural differences
Gametic - fail to unite
Hybrid weak or infertile
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 Hybrid sterility is one type of postzygotic

barrier
A horse and a
donkey may
produce a hybrid
offspring, a mule
Mules are sterile

Figure 14.2C
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Sympatric speciation
No geographical isolation
Mutation creates reproductive isolation
Polyploidization
Hybridization

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When does speciation occur?

Specialists - Galapagos finches

Generalists - horseshoe crabs, cockroaches
New environments
- ecological niche

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 Adaptive radiation on an island chain

- specialization for different niches
1
A

Species A
from mainland

B
C

B
4

C D

C
C

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 14.4B

Cactus
ground finch

Medium
ground finch

Large
ground finch

Small
Large cactus
ground finch ground finch

Small
tree finch

Vegetarian
finch

Medium
tree finch

Large
tree finch

Woodpecker
finch

Mangrove
finch

Green
Gray
warbler finch warbler finch

Sharp-beaked
ground finch
Seed
eaters

Cactus flower
eaters

Ground finches

Bud
eaters

Insect
eaters

Tree finches

Warbler finches

Common ancestor from

South America mainland

Figure 15.9

No
predestined
goal of
evolution

Figure 15.8

Continental drift has played a major role in

macroevolution
Continental drift is the slow, steady movement
of Earths crustal plates on the hot mantle

Eurasian
Plate

North
American
Plate
African
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Nazca
Plate

South
American
Plate

Split
developing
Indo-Australian
Plate
Antarctic Plate

Edge of one plate being pushed over edge of

neighboring plate (zones of violent geologic events)

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Figure 15.3A

CENOZOIC

influenced the distribution

of organisms

Eurasia
Africa

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MESOZOIC

Antarctica

PALEOZOIC

Separation of
continents caused the
isolation and
diversification of
organisms

Millions of years ago

Continental mergers
triggered extinctions

India

South
America

Laurasia

Figure 15.3B

Speciation - how much change is needed?

Gradual vs. jerky

Evidence:
Fossil record
Genetic differences between species
Homeotic genes

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 homeotic genes control body development

Single mutation
can result in
major
differences in
body structure

Fly chromosomes

Mouse chromosomes

Fruit fly embryo (10 hours)

Mouse embryo (12 days)

Adult fruit fly

Adult mouse

Figure 11.14
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