Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Testing the sustainability and sensitivity to climatic change of terrace

agricultural systems in the Peruvian Andes: a pilot study
Nicholas P. Branch a,*, Rob A. Kemp a, Barbara Silva a, Frank M. Meddens a,
Alan Williams a, Ann Kendall b, Cirilio Vivanco Pomacanchari c
a

Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
b
2 Spinners Court, 55 West End, Witney, Oxon, OX8 6NJ, UK
c
San Cristobal de Huamanga National University, P.O. Box 220, Ayacucho, Peru
Received 15 November 2005; received in revised form 3 March 2006; accepted 16 March 2006

Abstract
The results of an integrated geoarchaeological and palaeoecological pilot study of a prehistoric agricultural terrace and nearby mire basin are
presented. They reveal two stages of terrace construction for the cultivation of Zea mays during the Middle Horizon (615e695 AD) and late,
Late Intermediate Period (1200e1400 AD). These stages were strongly associated with evidence for vegetation succession, destabilisation and
erosion of the surrounding landscape, and changes in mire surface wetness. The reasons for agricultural terrace abandonment and/or reconstruction are uncertain, with only circumstantial evidence for climatically induced agricultural change.
2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Peru; Agricultural terrace; Mire basin; Geoarchaeology; Pollen stratigraphy; Radiocarbon dating

1. Introduction
Palaeoclimatic reconstructions based upon ice-core data indicate that Periods of short-term climate change have occurred
over the past 2000 years in the Peruvian Andes [37,47e49].
These changes probably represent a response to variations in
those factors influencing the dominant weather system in
this mountainous region e.g. Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) and El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). According
to the ice-core records, they were extreme, spatially variable
events, which deviated markedly from the present-day coldsemi arid climate, the consequences of which were fluctuations between colder/wetter and warmer/drier conditions (see
also [10,16,24,42,43]). In the central Peruvian Andes, the impact of these extreme variations in precipitation and/or temperature on the terrestrial environment remains unclear, although
a small number of important palaeoecological studies of lakes

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 44 1784 443405; fax: 44 1784 472836.

E-mail address: n.branch@rhul.ac.uk (N.P. Branch).
0305-4403/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.011

and mire basins have started to record the possible response

of the landscape and vegetation cover (e.g. [9,11e15,21e
23,36]). To complement these studies, archaeological evidence
in Peru suggests that some prehistoric civilisations may have
developed subsistence strategies to ensure their survival during
Periods of aridity such as between 600 and 700 AD (Middle
Horizon, Table 1) when the Wari people created innovative
and highly efficient agricultural systems [17,51]. In contrast,
climate change may have caused the demise of some civilisations and their economy. For example, the decline of the
coastal Moche culture (near Trujillo) from 100e700 AD
(Early Intermediate Period, Table 1), and the Tiwanaku raised
field agriculture from 950 AD (Middle Horizon) in the Titicaca Basin [3,5,34,35,44,46] have both been attributed to
a failure to respond to short-term climatic deterioration. In
the Colca Valley, northwest of Arequipa, detailed investigations of terrace systems have identified three phases of abandonment, between (i) 540e730 AD (shift from non-irrigated
to irrigated systems due to regional aridity), 1040e1490 AD
(abandonment of some higher altitude irrigated terraces, reasons unknown though possibly in response to a drier climate),

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

Table 1
Generalised cultural chronology for the Peruvian Andes
Cultural Period

Approximate chronology

Republican Period
Colonial Period
Late Horizon
Late Intermediate Period
Middle Horizon
Early Intermediate Period
Early Horizon
Initial Period/formative
Pre-ceramic
Archaic

1826 ADepresent
1533e1826 AD
1438e1533 AD
1000e1438 AD
500e1000 AD
200 BCe500 AD
800e200 BC
2000e800 BC
4000e2000 BC
10,000e4000 BC

1530e1720 AD (demographic changes caused by disease and

social reorganisation) [17]. Although there were undoubtedly
social-political-economic reasons for the rise or fall of these
cultures [18,50], there is a body of multi-proxy data, from
both archaeological and geological archives, which demonstrate that climate change may have been one of the primary
forcing factors initiating cultural change [3]. These changes
probably included social unrest, political instability and economic collapse, which settlement and agricultural abandonment represent in the archaeological record [39].
1.1. Research rationale
Agricultural terraces are a highly visible landscape feature in
the Peruvian Andes, with some of the most notable examples
located within the Cuzco and Ayacucho regions (Fig. 1). Various individuals and non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
have advocated the need to rehabilitate these and other traditional farming methods in order to create a more sustainable agricultural system, and thus longer lasting socio-economic
stability [28,30,33,52]. Recent implementation of a trial programme of Inca terrace restoration and traditional farming in
the Cuzco and Ayacucho regions by the Cusichaca Trust, an
NGO with a long history of rural development in Peru, has
led to increased production of cash crops and personal wealth,
reduced hunger and improved individual prestige (e.g. [28]).
Technological information obtained from associated archaeological excavations of Middle Horizon (Wari; 500e1000
AD), Late Intermediate Period (1000e1438 AD) and Late Horizon (Inca; 1438e1533 AD) agricultural terraces has underpinned the development of this programme, and permitted
recording of their structural organisation and development, including irrigation and drainage characteristics, and the physical
properties and composition of the soil infilling the terrace. Single or multiple palaeosols within vertical sections of the terraces exposed during archaeological excavations suggested,
however, Periodic reconstruction possibly following abandonment and/or failure of the agricultural system. These observations stimulated a collaborative science-based investigation to
understand in detail the land-use and pedo-sedimentary history
of the terraces in the Ayacucho region, and to test the hypothesis
that the terrace agricultural systems were sometimes unsustainable during extended Periods of drought.

Fig. 1. Location of the Chicha-Soras Valley and other locations mentioned in

the text.

2. Study area: Cultural and environmental context

The area chosen for the pilot study was the Chicha-Soras
Valley (near Andahuaylas in the Ayacucho region), centred
on the village of Pampachiri (S 14  110 W 73  320 ), which is
located 125 km southwest of Andahuaylas and 500 km northwest of the Colca Valley (Fig. 1). Pampachiri (3364 m asl) has
a mean annual precipitation of 1000 mm with April to November, and December to March, being the dry and wet season,
respectively. There are, however, substantial variations in precipitation from year to year [27]. Diurnal temperatures (mean
7e10  C) vary considerably with frequent frosts particularly
during the dry season. Although arable and pastoral agriculture is important for the local inhabitants, farming is only
a moderately significant component of the local economy at
present. Grazing and tuber (potato and ulloco) crops predominate above 3400 m asl, whilst maize, quinoa and tarwi are the
main crops cultivated on lower-altitude terraces irrigated from
natural sources (tributaries)eartificial irrigation channels are
rare [27]. The dominant rock types in the area are basalt and
tuffdmost of the soils appear to have formed in unconsolidated fluvial or mass movement deposits comprising mixtures
of these lithologies. The vegetation cover comprises sub-puna
grassland/shrubland (ca. 3300e3900 m asl), with isolated
Polylepis trees.
The earliest known evidence for human occupation of the
Chicha-Soras valley and its hinterland coincides with the start
of the Pre-ceramic (4000e2000 BC), followed by occasional

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

sites with ceramics related to the Muyu-Moqo C-D style of the

Initial Period (2000e800 BC). There is no archaeological
evidence for human occupation of the Chicha-Soras valley
during the Early Horizon (800 BCe200 AD) or Early Intermediate Period (200 BCe500 AD), although the possibility of
human activity in the valley during this time cannot be ruled
out [8,27,34]. The Middle Horizon (500e1000 AD) was characterised by the creation of extensive irrigated terrace agricultural systems within the Chicha-Soras valley mainly by the
Wari civilisation for the cultivation of Zea mays [26,31].
This occurred during a time of major military expansion
across the Peruvian Andes, which included the development
of major towns and villages. Settlement in the Chicha-Soras
valley was confined to small habitation sites located near to
the terraces, which were possibly occupied only on a seasonal
basis [27]. The collapse of the Wari in the Chicha-Soras valley
may have been associated with some demographic changes, as
suggested by ceramic styles; however, unlike other major valleys that were abandoned e.g. Ayacucho, Chicha-Soras settlements continued to be occupied, but it remains unclear what
effect these demographic changes had on the agricultural system. The onset of the Late Intermediate Period (1000e1438
AD) witnessed the continuation of terrace cultivation (Chanka
culture) associated with nearby small settlements that were
also probably only occupied on a seasonal basis; whilst at
higher altitude numerous corrals were constructed for pastoral
farming. These small sites were probably linked politically
and economically, at least at a local scale, with larger settlements, which comprised both towns and villages located
mainly on mountainsides and hilltops. Although there is ethnohistorical evidence to suggest conflict with Inca populations
towards the end of this Period, there is also some archaeological evidence indicating new terrace construction and increased production in more marginal agricultural areas, e.g.
steep slopes [27]. The Inca Empire (Late Horizon) imposed
its control on the area from 1438 to 1533 AD, which initiated
a Period of further terrace construction. In conclusion, the ethnohistorical and archaeological data suggest that the cultural
history of the Chicha-Soras valley was characterised by settlement continuity, with small habitation sites located near to
agricultural terraces from the Middle Horizon onwards.
However, due to the absence of a precise chronological model
for the timing and duration of settlement and agriculture practices, it remains unclear whether the number of settlements
and terraces increased or decreased during, or between, each
cultural Period as a response to political factors or shortterm environmental change.
3. Materials and methods
Using a combined palaeopedological/sedimentological,
palaeoecological and archaeological approach, the project
concentrated on a site where a number of buried palaeosols
were observed within terrace sections in close proximity to
a mire basin less than 2 km to the south of the village of Pampachiri. The terraces were provisionally dated to the Wari cultural Period (500e1000 AD) because of pottery typology and

terrace structure. This pilot study involved the recovery of core

samples from the basin, and the archaeological excavation of
an agricultural terrace (Tocotoccasa) located within 20 m of
the mire edge (Fig. 1).
3.1. Terrace excavation and pedo-sedimentary studies
The terrace form was described and a representative location chosen for excavation. A trench (ca. 1  10 m) at right angles to the terrace wall was excavated by hand from the front
towards the back of the terrace. A 1-metre wide profile within
the terrace section was described using the pedological terminology of Hodgson [25]. Bulk samples were taken at 5-cm
vertical intervals, air-dried and the <2-mm fraction analysed
for pH (water), percentage of organic carbon [1], total phosphate and available phosphate [29].
3.2. Mire basin sampling and palaeoecological studies
By traversing the mire basin with an Eijkelkamp gouge set
(3 cm diameter), records were made of the sub-surface sedimentary architecture. From the deepest point of the basin,
core samples were obtained using a Russian peat sampler
(semi-circular, 5 cm diameter), and then transported to Royal
Holloway, where they were stored at 2  C. The lithostratigraphy of the core samples was described in the laboratory using
the Troels-Smith method (summarised in [4]). Organic matter
estimations were made on samples at 1-cm intervals using the
loss-on-ignition method [2]. Samples for pollen analysis were
extracted at 20-cm and 10-cm intervals, and prepared using
a modified version of the procedure outlined in Moore et al.
[32], involving dispersion of the samples in 1% sodium pyrophosphate, sieving through 200-mm and 5-mm mesh sizes, heavy
liquid separation using sodium polytungstate (2.0 g/cm3) and
acetolysis [6]. For each sample, maximum pollen counts of
300 pollen grains and spores were attempted, although in several
samples the pollen preservation and concentration was very
poor, which prevented high counts being attained. The pollen
diagram was produced using TILIA and TILIA*GRAPH
[19,20], and subjectively divided into local pollen assemblage
zones based on the changes in pollen stratigraphy recorded.
The pollen results are presented as a percentage of total pollen
(including aquatics and spores because these form a minor component of the pollen assemblage). The category of other taxa
in the selected taxa pollen diagram comprise those pollen grains
and spores presently unidentifiable due to being corroded, amorphous, broken or folded, and those taxa of minor importance to
the this study, e.g. Escallonia, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae.
During the pollen analysis, microscopic charred particles were
counted and are presented on the pollen diagram as a percentage
of total pollen. It should be noted that pollen analysis was also
attempted on the pedo-sedimentary sequence uncovered within
the terrace. This would have possibly provided important additional information on the local vegetation cover and those cultivars grown on the terrace surface. Unfortunately, no pollen
grains or spores were preserved.

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

3.3. Radiocarbon dating

Table 2
Field description of the Tocotoccasa terrace profile

Seven peat samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating to

Beta Analytic Inc., USA and Waikato Radiocarbon Dating
Laboratory, New Zealand. Sub-samples from the terrace section
for radiocarbon dating were placed on a large sheet of clean
aluminium foil inside a laminar flow cabinet. Within this
ultra-clean environment (filtered air), the sub-samples
were then sorted with clean fine forceps, and fragments of charcoal isolated, weighed and then stored in clean glass vials. Each
charcoal fragment was checked using a low-power zoom-stereo
microscope with reflected light. Although minute amounts of
charcoal were isolated in most samples, only the Ah and bAh
horizons contained significant quantities. Samples of charcoal
from a single depth within the palaeosol A horizon were submitted to the NERC Radiocarbon Laboratory East Kilbride
for AMS dating. To minimise potential inaccuracies, every
effort was made to ensure that charcoal submitted for dating
was from sapwood, although due to the small size of the charcoal fragments there remains a possibility that heartwood was
submitted. All radiocarbon results were calibrated using procedures outlined in Stuiver et al. [41] and Bronk-Ramsey [7].

Depth (cm)

Horizon Macromorphology

0e10

Ah1

10e20

Ah2

20e28/33

AB

4. Geoarchaeology of the Tocotoccasa terrace

The profile comprises a surface soil at the current terrace
surface and two underlying palaeosols with clearly defined
bAh horizons marking: (1) the original sloping land surface
and (2) an earlier horizontal terrace surface (Table 2, Fig. 2).
The front terrace wall extends down into the top of the subsoil
(3bBw) horizon of the original sloping soil. Support for the
second palaeosol marking a previous terrace surface, rather
than a natural stabilised surface following deposition of
slope material, is provided by evidence for an earlier truncated
terrace wall foundation immediately in front of, and running
parallel to, its successor. Sandor and Eash [38] noted a similar
range of palaeosols in the Colca Valley terraces, although they

28/33e41/45 Bw1

41/45e53/59 Bw2

53/59e75

2bAh

75e85/113

2bBt

85/113e110/ 3bAh
base

110/basee
base

3bBw

Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy silt loam;

strong subangular blocky; many roots;
abrupt boundary to
Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy
silt loam; moderate fine subangular blocky
and moderate fine granular; abundant roots;
clear boundary to
Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy
silt loam; few very small stones; moderate fine
to medium subangular blocky; many roots;
abrupt boundary to
Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2)); clay loam; few very
small and small stones; moderate fine to medium
subangular blocky; common roots; abrupt
boundary to
Dark brown (7.5YR 3/2); sandy silt loam; few
very small and small stones; weak medium
subangular blocky; few roots; sharp boundary to
Very dark grey (10YR 3/1) with very dark greyish
brown (10YR 3/2) mottles; silty clay loam; strong
fine subangular blocky and strong fine granular;
few roots; one circular infilling (20 cm diameter)
of very dark greyish brown, sandy silt loam, strong
fine subangular blocky and strong fine granular;
abrupt boundary to
Dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2); sandy silt loam;
few very small and small stones; massive; few clay
coatings around channels; few roots; clear
boundary to
Very dark greyish brown (10YR 3/2); sandy silt
loam; few very small and small stones, common
large and very large stones (in central part);
massive; one ovoid pocket (30  10 cm) of very
dark grey
(10YR 3/1), sandy silt loam, moderate fine
subangular blocky; abrupt boundary to
Dark brown (10YR 3/3); sandy loam; common very
small stones, few large stones; massive; rare clay
coatings around channels

Fig. 2. Tocotoccasa terrace profile: results of the organic carbon (%), pH, total phosphate (mg/kg) and available phosphate (mg/kg).

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

did not provide a clear explanation of the distinction between

them.
Several authors have emphasised the difficulties of dating
the construction, or reconstruction, of agricultural terraces
due to re-working of pottery (typological dating) and charcoal
(radiocarbon dating) within terrace fills [17,27,38]. At Tocotoccasa, the only pottery found in the terrace section was of
late, Late Intermediate age (1200e1400 AD). Fifteen sherds
distributed throughout the Ah and Bw horizons of the surface
soil provide a minimum age for this phase of terrace construction. The only other sherd, found in the 2bAh horizon of the
upper palaeosol, conceivably translocated downward or became incorporated during reconstruction of the terrace, and
hence does not reflect the age of the first phase of terrace construction. The radiocarbon dating provides possible support for
this interpretation (Table 3). Although it was not possible to
obtain sufficient charcoal from the 3bAh horizon, a radiocarbon date from the 2bAh horizon of 615e695 AD suggests
that provided the charcoal is in situ, the first terrace surface
was established by the early part of the Middle Horizon.
In terms of the bulk analytical properties of the Tocotoccasa
profile, pH is lowest (6.0) in the Ah horizon with a progressive
increase with depth (7.4 in the 3bBw) reflecting the superimposition of a contemporary leaching profile across the palaeosols and covering materials. Maximum values of organic
carbon occur in the Ah horizon (6%) with expected lower
peaks in the 2bAh and 3bAh horizons. Total phosphate and
plant-available phosphate contents are highest in the Ah and
2bAh horizons, whilst the 3bAh horizon registers only background values. This pattern might reflect the effects of manuring (fertilising) on the two agricultural surfaces, and its
absence in the original natural soil, since it is generally assumed that the fertility of these terrace soils was maintained
by a combination of fallowing and manuring [17].
In conclusion, the geoarchaeological investigation of the
Tocotoccasa terrace has recorded two stages of terrace construction: (1) early Middle Horizon (615e695 AD), and (2)
late, Late Intermediate Period (1200e1400 AD). However, it
is unclear whether the later reconstruction of the terrace was
an ad-hoc event (i.e. repair during use), or part of a more systematic regional programme of terrace development following

a Period of decline and abandonment or de-intensification. The

geoarchaeological results indicate that any abandonment, if it
occurred, was unlikely to be due to soil fertility exhaustion;
other factors such as climate or social-economic change may
have been responsible.
5. Palaeoecological investigation of the mire basin
Mineral-rich sediment accumulation in the basin started before 2020e1535 BC and was characterised by the deposition
of silty sand (460e428 cm; Fig. 3). Impeded drainage due to
localised colluviation, which caused blockage of the basin outlet, seems the most likely cause. The pollen record at this time
indicates a vegetation cover dominated by Poaceae and Asteroideae/Cardueae, suggesting the formation of grassland and
shrubland (LPAZ 1; Table 4, Fig. 3). Herbaceous peat formation (428e406 cm) from 2020 to 1535 BC indicates the creation of semi-terrestrial, wetland conditions. The onset of peat
formation coincided with the colonisation of Chenopodiaceae/
Amaranthaceae on surrounding dry land (LPAZ 2). Peat accumulation was interrupted by a Period of mineral-rich sediment
accumulation (406e375 cm), probably brought about by destabilisation of the surrounding slopes and transportation of
sediment into the basin by fluvial or aeolian processes. The
pollen record indicates that this event corresponded once again
to the development of grassland and shrubland with areas of
disturbed ground (LPAZ 2).
The renewal of peat growth (375e273 cm) reflects a Period
of landscape stability between 400e160 BC and 210 BCe70
AD, which coincided with the expansion of grassland (Poaceae) and the colonisation of the mire surface by Cyperaceae
(LPAZ 2; 373e315 cm; Table 4, Fig. 3). There was then
a gradual increase in the proportion of mineral matter
deposited within the basin (315e273 cm), culminating in the
accumulation of a thick unit of sandy clay (273e242 cm) indicative of significant erosion of the adjacent catchment. The
increased input of mineral matter into the basin undoubtedly
contributed to the formation of open water on the mire surface,
which, according to the pollen data, formed suitable habitats
for the growth of Potamogeton, whilst the basin margin may
have had inflowing streams (LPAZ 3). Taxa indicative of

Table 3
Radiocarbon dates from the terrace palaeosol and mire basin
Depth (cm)

Material

Laboratory code

Conventional
age (BP)

Calibrated date
(BC/AD); 2 sigma

dC13 & wrt PDB

70
42e52

Charcoal
Peat

SUERC-1531
Wk-12220

1368  25
193  45

25.2
27.9  0.2

95e105

Peat

Wk-12221

388  40

194e204

Peat

Wk-12222

712  40

235e245
295e305
345e355
417e427

Peat
Peat
Peat
Peat

Wk-12223
Wk-12224
Wk-12225
Beta-142326

615e695 AD
1640e1710 AD
1720e1890 AD
1910e1960 AD
1430e1530 AD
1540e1640 AD
1220e1330 AD
1350e1390 AD
1150e1330 AD
210 BCe70 AD
400e160 BC
2020e1535 BC

755  64
2075  60
2228  58
3460  90

28.3  0.2
27.5  0.2
27.0  0.2
28.2  0.2
28.1  0.2
24.1  0.2

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

Fig. 3. Radiocarbon-dated pollen stratigraphy, organic matter content and microscopic charred particles for the mire basin.

disturbed ground are also abundant, including Plantago sp.,

whilst dominating the dryland vegetation were Asteroideae/
Cardueae and Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae (especially between 270 and 242 cm). Pollen-stratigraphic indicators of human activity are present in the record for this Period e.g. Zea
mays, and therefore it is tempting to suggest that the mineral
sedimentation and pollen-stratigraphic changes may be due
to activities such as irrigated terrace construction, cultivation,
animal husbandry, and possibly burning (see microscopic
charred particles; Fig. 3) by the Wari people in the valley during the Middle Horizon (600e1000 AD).
Peat formation at 1150e1320 AD indicates the renewal of
semi-terrestrial conditions on the basin surface and the stabilisation of vegetation cover on surrounding slopes with expansion of Poaceae (LPAZ 4; Table 4, Fig. 3). Further erosion of
the surrounding slopes (211e204 cm), however, occurred prior
to 1220e1330 AD, possibly correlating with archaeological
evidence for the construction, or reconstruction, of irrigated terraces during the Late Intermediate Period (1000e1430 AD).
The pollen stratigraphy provides support for this interpretation,
with a temporary phase of Zea mays cultivation occurring

during a Period of renewed peat accumulation between 204e

198 cm. This event also corresponds to an increase in disturbed
ground indicators, namely Plantago sp. A shallow freshwater
lake formed subsequently with deposition of organic-rich sediment (gyttja) (198e175 cm). This development may have been
the consequence of abandonment, albeit temporary, of the Late
Intermediate Period irrigated terrace agricultural system, causing reduced interception of surface water and increased water
depth within the basin, or short-term climate change to wetter
conditions. Following lake drainage, peat accumulation has
continued in the basin to the present day, though interspersed
with phases of mineral sediment accumulation. Unfortunately,
the poor pollen preservation between 175 and 140 cm restricts
the ability to build upon the sedimentological data. Succeeding
this Period, the pollen data record an expansion of Asteroideae/
Cardueae, followed by the colonisation of Poaceae, Cyperaceae
and Plantago sp. during a Period of renewed peat formation,
and a temporary phase of Zea mays cultivation prior to the onset
of the Late Horizon (LPAZ 5). The presence of mineral sediment from 50 cm indicates further disturbance of the surrounding slopes, which resulted in an increase in the representation of

Table 4
Summary of the pollen-stratigraphic data from the mire basin
Depth
(cm)

LPAZ
No.

Local pollen assemblage

zone (LPAZ)

Summary of main taxa

470e425
425e315

1
2

315e235

PoaceaeeAsteraceae
CyperaceaeeAsteraceaeChenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae
PoaceaeeCyperaceaeeAsteraceae

235e145

PoaceaeeAsteraceaeeZea mays

145e0

PoaceaeeCyperaceae-Asteraceaee
Zea mays

Poaceae ca. 55%; Asteroideae/Cardueae ca. 38%; Podocarpus ca. 16%; Solanaceae ca. 35%
Cyperaceae ca. 45%; Asteroideae/Cardueae ca. 30%; Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae ca. 10e36%;
Poaceae ca. 25%; Plantaginaceae ca. 3%; Cruciferae ca. 10%; Potamogeton ca. 4%
Poaceae ca. 25e55%; Cyperaceae ca. 35e10%; Asteroideae/Cardueae ca. 20e30%; Plantaginaceae
ca. 5%; Caryophyllaceae ca. 5%; Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae ca. 10e20%; Solanaceae ca. 15%
Poaceae ca. 60%; Asteroideae/Cardueae ca. 10e100%; Zea mays ca. 3%; Cyperaceae ca. 5e15%;
Plantaginaceae ca. 5e15%; Solanaceae ca. 3e40%
Poaceae ca. 50e30%; Cyperaceae ca. 20%; Asteroideae/Cardueae ca. 30%; Zea mays ca. 15%;
Plantaginaceae ca. 5%

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

Poaceae, Asteroideae/Cardueae and Cyperaceae, and coincided

with a phase of Zea mays cultivation sometime after 1720e
1890 AD (Colonial Period).
In conclusion, the litho- and pollen-stratigraphic records indicate three significant phases of landscape instability, each
characterised by the deposition of mineral-rich sediment: (1)
after 70 AD, (2) just prior to 1220e1330 AD, and (3) after
1720e1890 AD. The precise reason, or reasons, for these
events remain uncertain, although the overwhelming evidence
for widespread human occupation of the Chicha-Soras Valley
during the Middle Horizon (600e1000 AD), Late Intermediate
Period (1000e1430 AD) and Colonial Period clearly suggests
that human activities, such as agricultural terrace construction,
would clearly have had a marked impact on the landscape.
Supporting this interpretation is the direct pollen evidence
for Zea mays cultivation during the Wari Period, Late Intermediate Period and Colonial Period, presumably on terraces surrounding the mire basin.
6. Discussion and conclusions
Although there is a paucity of detailed radiocarbon-dated
lithological and pollen-stratigraphic records from mire basins
in the central Peruvian Andes, those in existence indicate
marked sub-regional variations in their sedimentological and
vegetation histories [23,40]. Key factors that account for these
variations include fluctuations in the nature of dominant
weather systems across the Andes, and also the influence of
localised variations in altitude and aspect, soil status and
geology, and for the Late Holocene in particular, human activity. Providing unequivocal evidence for the influence of shortterm climate change on the landscape of the central Peruvian
Andes using predominantly sedimentological and pollen data
from mire basins is problematical therefore, especially in those
areas with a long history of human occupation. At those sites
where this approach has been successful, the absence of direct
archaeological evidence for human activity in the area during
the Period of the climatic event undoubtedly permitted a positive signal to be identified, providing an important terrestrial
palaeoclimatic signature independent of, but supported by,
the ice core records [15,40]. In contrast, the long history of
human occupation and landscape disturbance (e.g. agricultural
terrace construction) in the Chicha-Soras Valley may explain
the difficulties in recognising an unequivocal signal of shortterm climate change in the mire, despite having radiocarbondated palaeoenvironmental records. At this site, the multiple
phases of sedimentological and vegetation change indicating
landscape instability or changes in mire surface wetness/dryness cannot be confidently correlated with known climatic
variations recorded in ice cores [45,49] and the other palaeoenvironmental archives. Indeed, the evidence provided by
the mire basin records suggest a stronger correlation between
known periods of human activity based on the archaeological
record, and phases of landscape stability/instability and cultivation based on the palaeoecological records. In particular, the
archaeological evidence for continuity of occupation of small
settlements located adjacent to terraces suggests that human

impact on the surrounding landscape was both intensive and

extensive from the Middle Horizon onwards. This does not negate the possibility, however, of a linkage between stages of
agricultural terrace construction, abandonment and/or reconstruction and short-term climate change. However, the evidence from both the mire basin and geoarchaeological study
of the Tocotoccasa terrace is equivocal in this respect, which
suggests that the evidence for any climatic-induced agricultural crises [35] is circumstantial, and cannot be correlated
with certainty to a post-Wari Period of terrace abandonment
in the Colca Valley of Southern Peru [17]. Indeed, confidently
linking the multiple phases of sedimentological and vegetation
change in the mire and stages of terrace construction, abandonment and/or reconstruction with the wider archaeological
record requires an improved chronological model for settlement in the valley as a whole. This will enable an integrated
cultural and landscape model for the Chicha-Soras valley to
be truly assessed in terms of regional events, such as demographic changes, due to political, social and economic factors.
Nevertheless, integration of the pedo-sedimentary record
from the Tocotoccasa terrace and the sedimentological and
vegetation records from the adjacent mire basin has permitted
the compilation of a provisional model of landscape change
that should be further tested. Construction of the Tocotoccasa
terrace occurred during the early Middle Horizon (615e695
AD) with reconstruction taking place during the late, Late
Intermediate Period (1200e1400 AD). This history is in
agreement with the mire basin archive, which records landscape disturbance and cultivation during the Middle Horizon
(600e1000 AD), and a further period of landscape disturbance
during/immediately prior to a period of Zea mays cultivation
in the Late Intermediate Period (sometime between 1150e
1330 AD and 1220e1330 AD). However, the absence of
maize pollen in the mire record at other times should not negate the possibility that different crops were being cultivated
in the Chicha-Soras Valley, e.g. Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae and Solanaceae. It is unclear, however, whether abandonment of the terraces occurred prior to reconstruction and, if so,
the reasons involved (e.g. short-term climate change). Similar
uncertainties surround the Period since reconstruction. Was the
terrace abandoned soon after reconstruction (as suggested by
the absence of Zea mays pollen in the mire), or were other
crops grown and the terrace continued in use, albeit possibly
in a less intensive episodic manner, until the Spanish arrived?
There is certainly clear evidence in the mire basin for landscape disturbance during the late, Late Intermediate and Inca
Periods (1220e1330 AD to 1430e1530 AD), which continued
after 1720e1890 AD, when there was a renewal of Zea mays
cultivation. Finally, there remains a possibility that, because
of the sub-sampling resolution adopted in this study, maize
pollen may be present in other horizons of the mire basin sequence, which would suggest greater continuity of cultivation.
Examination of further terrace sections and mire cores in
the Chicha-Soras Valley is under way to test the tentative linkages identified in this pilot project. In particular, since it is
possible that the reconstruction of the Tocotoccasa terrace
reflected an ad hoc repair during usage, rather than a more

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

systematic regional restoration following a period of abandonment or de-intensification, it will be important to establish
whether its pedo-sedimentary record can be replicated in other
terrace sections.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the staff of The Cusichaca
Trust for logistical support, and the inhabitants of the village
of Pampachiri for their hospitality, during the field investigations. The project was funded by NERC small research grant
no. NER/B/S/2001/00256, and NERC Radiocarbon Dating Allocation 991.1002. The authors would like to thank ArchaeoScape, Royal Holloway Geography Department, for a grant
to purchase the radiocarbon dates from Beta Analytic INC
and Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory. B.S. contributed
information to this paper during her NERC/ESRC studentship
(award no.: R42200034003).
References
[1] B.W. Avery, C.L. Bacombe, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods, in: Soil
Survey Technical Monograph 6, Soil Survey of England and Wales, Harpenden, 1974.
[2] L. Bengtsson, M. Enell, Chemical analysis, in: B.E. Berglund (Ed.),
Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology, Wiley Publications, Chichester, 1986, pp. 423e454.
[3] M.W. Binford, A.L. Kolata, M. Brenner, J.W. Janusek, M.T. Seddon,
M. Abbot, J.H. Curtis, Climate variation and the rise and fall of an Andean civilisation, Quaternary Research 47 (1997) 235e248.
[4] H.J.B. Birks, H.H. Birks, Quaternary Palaeoecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980.
[5] S. Bourget, Children and Ancestors: Ritual Practices at the Moche Site of
Huaca de la Luna, North Coast of Peru, in: E.P. Benson, A.G. Cook
(Eds.), Ritual Sacrifice in Andean Peru, University of Texas Press, Austin, 2001, pp. 3e18.
[6] N.P. Branch, S. van der Kaars, Pollen extraction procedure for unconsolidated sediments and peat using Sodium polytungstate, Centre for Quaternary Research, Royal Holloway University of London, Department
of Geography, 2000, Technical Guide.
[7] C. Bronk-Ramsey, Development of the radiocarbon program OxCal,
Radiocarbon 43 (2001) 355e363.
[8] R.L. Burger, Unity and heterogeneity within the Chavn horizon, in:
R.W. Keatinge (Ed.), Peruvian Prehistory, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1996, pp. 99e144.
[9] M.B. Bush, M.R. Silman, D.H. Urrego, 48,000 years of climate and forest change in a biodiversity hotspot, Science 303 (2004) 827e829.
[10] R.S. Cerveny, Present climates of South America, in: J.E. Hobbs,
J.A. Lindesay, H.A. Bridgman (Eds.), Climates of the Southern Continents,
Present, Past and Future, Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1998, pp. 35e60.
[11] A.J. Chepstow-Lusty, K.D. Bennett, V.R. Switsur, A. Kendall, 4000 years
of human impact and vegetation change in the central Peruvian Andese
with events paralleling the Maya record? Antiquity 70 (1996) 824e833.
[12] A.J. Chepstow-Lusty, K.D. Bennett, J. Fjeldsa, A. Kendall, W. Galiano,
A. Tupayachi Herrera, When two worlds collide: comparing human impact on fragile ecosystems before and after the Inca, Tawantinsuyu 3
(1997) 127e134.
[13] A.J. Chepstow-Lusty, K.D. Bennett, J. Fjeldsa, A. Kendall, W. Galiano,
A. Tupayachi Herrera, Tracing 4000 years of environmental history in
the Cuzco area, Peru from the pollen record, Mountain Research and
Development 18 (1998) 159e172.
[14] A.L. Chepstow-Lusty, M. Winfield, Inca agroforestry: lessons from the
past, Ambio 29 (2000) 322e328.

[15] A. Chepstow-Lusty, M.R. Frogley, B.S. Bauer, M.B. Bush, A. Tupayachi

Herrera, A late Holocene record of arid events from the Cuzco region,
Peru, Journal of Quaternary Science 18 (2003) 491e502.
[16] C. Clapperton, Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of South America, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1993.
[17] W.M. Denevan, Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes, Oxford University Press, 2001.
[18] C.L. Erickson, The Lake Titicaca Basin: a Precolumbian built landscape,
in: D.L. Lentz (Ed.), Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in
the Precolumbian Americas, Columbia University Press, New York,
2000, pp. 311e356.
[19] E.C. Grimm, TGView, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, 1991.
[20] E.C. Grimm, TILIA and TILIAGRAPH, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, 1991e1993.
[21] B.C.S. Hansen, G.O. Seltzer, H.E. Wright Jr., Late Quaternary vegetation
change in the central Peruvian Andes, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109 (1994) 263e285.
[22] B.C.S. Hansen, D.T. Rodbell, A late-glacial/Holocene pollen record from
the eastern Andes of Northern Peru, Quaternary Research 44 (1995)
216e227.
[23] B.C.S. Hansen, D.T. Rodbell, G.O. Seltzer, B. Leon, K.R. Young,
M. Abbott, Late-glacial and Holocene vegetational history from two sites
in the western Cordillera of Southwestern Ecuador, Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194 (2003) 79e108.
[24] A.J. Hartley, Andean uplift and climate change, Journal of the Geological
Society, London 160 (2003) 7e10.
[25] J.M. Hodgson, Soil Survey Field Handbook, in: Technical Monograph 5,
Soil Survey, Harpenden, 1976.
[26] W.H. Isbell, City and state in Middle Horizon Huari, in: R.W. Keatinge
(Ed.), Peruvian Prehistory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1996, pp. 164e189.
[27] H.C.M. Keeley, F.M. Meddens, Prehispanic agricultural terrace systems
in the Chicha-Soras Valley, Peru, Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology
29 (1993) 121e138.
[28] A. Kendall (Ed.), The restoration of Pre-Hispanic agricultural systems:
archaeology and indigenous technology and rural development, Cusichaca Trust, Belbroughton, nr. Stourbridge, 1997.
[29] G. Leonardi, M. Miglavacca, S. Nardi, Soil phosphorous analysis as an
integrative tool for recognising buried ancient ploughsoils, Journal of
Archaeological Science 26 (1999) 343e352.
[30] L. Masson, C. Felipe-Morales, P. Morlon, Hacia la reconciliacion de lo
antiguo y de lo nuevo. La rehabilitacion de los andenes, in: P. Morlon
(Ed.), Comprender la agricultura campesina en los Andes Centrales,
Institut Francais dEtudes Andines - Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolome` de las Casas, Lima, 1992, pp. 120e130.
[31] F. Meddens, A provincial perspective of Huari organisation viewed from
the Chicha/Soras Valley, in: W.H. Isbell, G. McEwan (Eds.), Huari
Administrative Structure, Dumbarten Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington DC, 1991, pp. 34e42.
[32] P.D. Moore, J.A. Webb, M.E. Collinson, Pollen Analysis, second ed.,
Blackwell, Oxford, 1991.
[33] A. Morris, The Agricultural Base of the pre-Incan Andean Civilizations,
The Geographical Journal 165 (1999) 286e295.
[34] M.E. Moseley, The Incas and their Ancestors, Thames and Hudson, London, 2001.
[35] C.R. Ortloff, A.L. Kolata, Climate and collapse: agro-ecological perspectives on the decline of the Tiwanaku State, Journal of Archaeological
Science 20 (1993) 195e221.
[36] G.M. Paduano, M.B. Bush, P.A. Baker, S.L. Fritz, G.O. Seltzer, The late
Quaternary vegetation history of Lake Titicaca, Peru/Bolivia, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194 (2003) 259e279.
[37] E. Ramirez, G. Hoffmann, J.D. Taupin, B. Francou, N. Ribstein, P. Caillon,
F.A. Ferron, A. Landais, J.R. Petit, B. Pouyaud, U. Schotterer, J.C. Simoes,
M. Stievenard, A new Andean deep ice core from Nevado Illimani (6350
m.), Bolivia, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 212 (2003) 337e350.
[38] J.A. Sandor, N.S. Eash, Ancient agricultural soils in the Andes of
southern Peru, Soil Science Society of America Journal 59 (1995)
170e179.

N.P. Branch et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007) 1e9

[39] G.O. Seltzer, C.A. Hastorf, Climatic change and its effect on prehistoric
agriculture in the central Peruvian Andes, Journal of Field Archaeology
17 (1990) 397e414.
[40] B.N. Silva, Lateglacial and Holocene Environmental Changes in the
Peruvian Andes: Implications for Human Society, Thesis submitted for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Royal Holloway University of
London, 2005.
[41] M. Stuiver, P.J. Reimer, E. Bard, J.W. Beck, G.S. Burr, K.A. Hughen,
B. Kromer, G. McCormac, J. van der Plicht, M. Spurk, INTCAL98
radiocarbon age calibration 24,000e0 cal BP, Radiocarbon 40 (1998)
1041e1083.
[42] P.M. Tapia, S.C. Fritz, P.A. Baker, G.O. Seltzer, R.B. Dunber, A late
Quaternary diatom record of tropical climatic history from Lake Titicaca
(Peru and Bolivia), Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
194 (2003) 139e164.
[43] L.G. Thompson, Ice core evidence for climate change in the Tropics:
implications for our future, Quaternary Science Reviews 19 (2000)
19e36.
[44] L.G. Thompson, E. Mosley-Thompson, J.F. Bolzan, B.R. Koci, A 1500
year record of tropical precipitation in ice cores from the Quelccaya
ice cap, Peru, Science 229 (1985) 971e973.
[45] L.G. Thompson, E. Mosley-Thompson, W. Dansgaard, P.M. Grootes, The
Little Ice Age as recorded in the stratigraphy of the tropical Quelccaya
ice cap, Science 234 (1986) 361e364.

[46] L.G. Thompson, M.E. Davis, E. Mosley-Thompson, K.-B. Liu, Pre-Incan

agricultural activity recorded in dust layers in two tropical ice cores,
Nature 336 (1988) 763e765.
[47] L.G. Thompson, E. Mosley-Thompson, M.E. Davis, N. P-Lin,
K.A. Henderson, J. Cole-Dai, J.F. Bolsan, K.-B. Liu, Late glacial stage
and Holocene tropical ice core records from Huascaran, Peru, Science
269 (1995) 46e50.
[48] L.G. Thompson, M.E. Davis, E. Mosley-Thompson, T.A. Sowers,
K.A. Henderson, V.S. Zagorodnov, P.N. Lin, V.N. Mikhalenko,
R.K. Campen, J.F. Bolzan, J.A. Cole-Dai, 25,000 year tropical climate
history from Bolivian ice cores, Science 282 (1998) 1858e1864.
[49] L.G. Thompson, E. Moseley-Thompson, K.A. Henderson, Ice core palaeoclimate records in tropical South America since the Last Glacial Maximum, Journal of Quaternary Science 15 (2000) 377e394.
[50] P.R. Williams, Rethinking disaster-induced collapse in the demise of the
Andean highland states: Wari and Tiwanaku, World Archaeology 33
(2002) 361e374.
[51] B. Winterhalder, The ecological basis of water management in the Central Andes: rainfall and temperature in Southern Peru, in: W.P. Mitchell,
G. Guillet (Eds.), Irrigation at High Altitudes: The Social Organization of
Water Control Systems in the Andes, Society for Latin America Anthropology Publication Series, 1994, pp. 21e68.
[52] K.S. Zimmerer, The origins of Andean irrigation, Nature 378 (2000)
481e483.