Sequence Stratigraphic Distribution of Coaly Rocks:

Fundamental Controls and Paralic Examples1

Kevin Bohacs2 and John Suter3

ABSTRACT
Significant volumes of terrigenous organic matter can be preserved to form coals only when and
where the overall increase in accommodation
approximately equals the production rate of peat.
Accommodation is a function of subsidence and
base level. For mires, base level is very specifically
the groundwater table. In paralic settings, the
groundwater table is strongly controlled by sea
level and the precipitation/evaporation ratio. Peat
accumulates over a range of rates, but always with
a definite maximum rate set by original organic
productivity and space available below depositional base level (groundwater table).
Below a threshold accommodation rate (nonzero), no continuous peats accumulate, due to falling
or low groundwater table, sedimentary bypass, and
extensive erosion by fluvial channels. This is typical of upper highstand, lowstand fan, and basal
lowstand-wedge systems tracts. Higher accommodation rates provide relatively stable conditions
with rising groundwater tables. Mires initiate and

Copyright 1997. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All

rights reserved.
1Manuscript received September 7, 1995; revised manuscript received
November 25, 1996; final acceptance May 5, 1997.
2 Exxon Production Research Company, 3120 Buffalo Speedway,
Houston, Texas 77096.
3 Exxon Production Research Company, 3120 Buffalo Speedway,
Houston, Texas 77096. Present address: Conoco, Inc., P.O. Box 2197,
Houston, Texas 77252.
We benefited from the input and assistance of many people. Of special
assistance were the teams involved in collaborative studies with Esso
Australia and Esso Malaysia: P. Moore, M. Sloan, J. Emmett, B. Burns, A.
Partridge, S. Creaney, Hanif Hussein, R. Hill, R. Lovell, and M. Feeley. We
also thank the Rock Springs team: R. Beauboeuf, P. McLaughlin, W. Devlin,
A. Carroll, Y. Y. Chen, G. Grabowski, Jr., K. Miskell-Gerhardt, M. Farley, R.
Webster, and J. Schwalbach. Group members D. Curry and J. Yeakel were
always helpful.
We also enjoyed and profited from many discussions of these concepts
with our colleagues outside Exxon: C. Diessel, R. Boyd, K. Shanley, B.
Zaitlin, P. McCabe, M. Hendricks, A. Cohen, and M. Kirschbaum.
We thank the reviewers of company reports, whose careful comments on
several generations of this work improved it: S. Creaney, M. Feeley, J. Van
Wagoner, F. Wehr, J. Yeakel, and A. Young. F. Weber and J. Zullig provided
extensive management support. K. Linke translated our sketches into the fine
figures herein. We value all the help.

1612

thrive, quickly filling local accommodation vertically and expanding laterally, favoring accumulation of
laterally continuous coals in paralic zones within
both middle lowstand and middle highstand systems tracts. If the accommodation increase balances or slightly exceeds organic productivity,
mires accumulate peat vertically, yielding thicker,
more isolated coals most likely during of late lowstandearly transgressive and late transgressiveearly
highstand periods. At very large accommodation
increases, mires are stressed and eventually inundated by clastics or standing water (as in middle
transgressive systems tracts).
These relations should be valid for mires in all
settings, including alluvial, lake plain, and paralic.
The tie to sea level in paralic zones depends on
local subsidence, sediment supply, and groundwater regimes. These concepts are also useful for
investigating the distribution of seal and reservoir
facies in nonmarine settings.
INTRODUCTION
Coaly rocks can be important sources of liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons (Durand et al., 1983;
Powell and Boreham, 1991) and substantial reservoirs of gas (e.g., Rightmire, 1984). Predicting the
occurrence, distribution, and volume of coaly
rocks is key in many areas of current exploration
and exploitation.
Coaly rocks contain organic matter from both
aquatic and land plants that grow and accumulate
in most terrestrial environments. At present, thick
accumulations of terrigenous organic matter
(peats) occur in many areas, from the mountains of
Tierra del Fuego to the shores of the Sea of Galilee
(Gore, 1983). Coals are found in the deposits of
many environments in the rock record, from alluvial fans and braided streams to estuaries and
lagoons (Diessel, 1992).
This paper addresses two main points: (1) determining where significant volumes of terrigenous
organic matter accumulate and (2) how one can
predict their occurrence and geometry within a
AAPG Bulletin, V. 81, No. 10 (October 1997), P. 16121639.

Bohacs and Suter

sequence-stratigraphic framework. We first discuss

the fundamental controls of terrigenous organic matter accumulation that are applicable to all environments and tectonic settings. We then concentrate on
paralic settings, the most important coal-forming
areas. These low-lying coastal terrains contain most
of the 480 million ha of peatlands formed in the
Holocene (Kivinen and Parkarinen, 1981). We examine the effects of relative sea level on paralic settings
and propose a model for the occurrence and distribution of coaly rocks within a depositional sequence
that integrates accommodation, groundwater and
surfacewater flow, and shoreline changes. These
concepts are useful also for investigating the distributions of seal and reservoir facies in these settings.
Coal distributions consistent with this model are
observed in multiple sequences in the Carboniferous
of the Black Warrior and Appalachian basins; the
Permian of the Sydney and Gunnedah basins; the
Cretaceous of New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming; the
Tertiary of the Gippsland basin, southeastern Asia,
and northern California; and the Holocene of the
Mississippi and Rajang river deltas (see, among others, Sears et al., 1941; Speiker, 1949; Young, 1955;
Fassett and Hinds, 1971; Levey, 1981; Ryer, 1981,
1984; Partridge, 1982; Thompson, 1985; Shanley,
1991; Tadros and Hamilton, 1991; Arditto, 1992;
Diessel, 1992; Roberts and McCabe, 1992; Gastaldo
et al., 1993; Hamilton, 1993; Kosters and Suter,
1993; Aitken and Flint, 1994, 1995; Staub and
Esterle, 1994; Beauboeuf et al., 1995; Heckel, 1995;
Sullivan et al., 1995; Tyler and Hamilton, 1995).
These observations, combined with considerations
of fundamental controls and depositional processes, yield a robust integrated model that predicts
broad patterns of coal distribution and character.
The model is not intended to explain all the details
of individual coal seams; such seams certainly
respond to the same controls, but are much more
sensitive to local variations in subsidence, sediment
supply, and flora.
ACCUMULATIONS OF SIGNIFICANT VOLUMES
OF TERRIGENOUS ORGANIC-RICH ROCKS
Ultimately, the accumulation of significant volumes of terrigenous, organic-rich rocks depends on
the production and preservation of terrigenous
organic matter from freshwater aquatic and land
plants. The accumulation of significant amounts of
terrigenous organic matter is analogous to the
accumulation of marine source rocks and is controlled by the very same primary elements of deposition: (1) primary organic productivity, (2) preservation of organic matter, (3) dilution by mineral
matter, and (4) subsidence. Table 1 summarizes
these major controls.

1613

Wetland environments with ecosystems that

accumulate significant amounts of land-plant debris
are generically termed mires (or peatlands)
(Moore, 1989). We use the term peat for concentrated accumulations of terrigenous plant material.
Although bedded peats or coals may not become
effective hydrocarbon source rocks, most of the
conditions that lead to peat accumulation also are
those that affect preservation of hydrogen-rich
components that yield liquid hydrocarbons (Curry
et al., 1992). In general, circumstances that generate significant coals will enhance preservation of
liquid-hydrocarbon-prone organic matter.
Influence of Accommodation on
Peat Accumulation
Significant volumes of terrigenous organic-rich
rocks (peats) can be preserved to form coals only
when and where the overall increase in accommodation approximately equals the accumulation rate
of peat (see discussions in Speiker, 1949; Young,
1955; Teichmller, 1962; Bloom and Ellis, 1965;
Rampino and Sanders, 1981; Tissot and Welte,
1984; Courel, 1989; Allen, 1990; McCabe, 1991).
Organic production just fills the space available for
sediments, preserving the plant material below the
water table. Clastics must be excluded, which may
occur in areas of stable fluvial channels or raised
mires. When the increase in accommodation greatly exceeds the peat production rate, the mires are
inundated by mineral debris or are drowned by
lake or sea water. When the increase in accommodation is much less than the peat production rate,
organic matter is more likely to be oxidized and
eroded by migrating channels (Figure 1).
Accommodation in paralic and nonmarine settings generally changes as base level and subsidence change. Base level is commonly discussed in
terms of hypothetical graded-stream profiles or
inclined peneplains (Powell, 1875; Wheeler, 1964;
Jervey, 1988), thereby perpetuating the confusion
among base level, stream grade, and landscape planation started by Powells (1875) original ambiguous description of base level. Strictly speaking,
base level in nonmarine settings is the lower limit
of subaerial erosion, which is effectively sea level
(Davis, 1902; Schumm, 1993). As used in many
recent works, the term base level is more synonymous with Twenhofels (1939, p. 8) definition of
the term as, base level of deposition: the highest
level to which a sedimentary deposit can build.
The existence of this theoretical equilibrium erosion surface is much debated and difficult to locate
in actual landscapes. For mires and the accumulation of peat, however, the base level of deposition
is very specifically the groundwater table: plants

1614

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Table 1. Basin to Local Controls on Accumulation of Terrigenious Organic Matter

Primary Element
Primary organic productivity

Preservation of organic matter

Major Controls

Explanation

Supply of water and nutrients

Nutrient supply is enhanced by

water supply from groundwater
and overland flow
Mires thrive in areas
of groundwater discharge

Type of plants
in mire

Amount and hydrogen content of peat

is a strong function of local flora,
which vary with geological age,
climate, and nutrient supply

Location of groundwater table

Significant accumulations of
terrigenous organic matter occur
only below water table because of low
O2 supply (telmatic and
limnotelmatic settings)
Decomposition of plants generates
low pH and antiseptic compounds that
further enhance preservation

Dilution by mineral matter

Location of clastic
dispersal systems

Stable river channels and shorelines

and raised mires minimize
dilution of organics

Subsidence/accommodation

Space available for

mire formation and
peat accumulation

Accommodation rate must

closely match organic
accumulation rate to generate
peats or concentrated
terrigenous organic matter

that form mires that thrive in areas of groundwater

discharge; organic preservation requires a water
table at or very near the surface (as is summarized
in Table 1) (see Frenzel, 1983; Diessel, 1992). Peat
accumulation is most dependent on preservational
conditions where physical conditionsreduce
the rate at which detritovores and decomposers
can consume the available organic resource
(Moore, 1989, p. 89). Of the many factors that
retard consumption, the lack of oxygen is dominant (Gore, 1983; Moore, 1989). Oxygen diffuses
much more slowly in water than in air; hence, a
high, stable, or rising water table significantly
reduces oxygen availability. The importance of
waterlogging to peat accumulation has long been
noted. Davis (1911) focused on protection from
desiccation, regular and abundant rainfall, and consistently high humidity. Potoni (1920), Gore
(1983), Ingram (1983), Moore (1989), Diessel
(1992), and Winston (1994), among many others,
all indicated the importance of hydrology and high
water tables. The best environments for coal precursors have biomass accumulation, a continuously

rising water table within the mass, and minimum

inf lux of clay and silt (Cameron et al., 1989,
p. 105).
The location of the groundwater table in paralic
settings is controlled by sea level and the precipitation/evaporation ratio (Freeze and Cherry, 1979;
deMarsily, 1986). Farther inland, the groundwater
table is controlled by topography, type and stratification of surficial sediments, and the ratio of precipitation to evaporation. Note that a very high precipitation/evaporation ratio may generate a raised
mire with a local groundwater table perched above
the general topography and relatively insensitive to
regional groundwater conditions (see discussion in
Winston, 1994).
Base-level fall also may produce significant
accommodation on portions of the coastal plain
where incised valleys form via fluvial erosion and
groundwater sapping. The locations and sizes of
the incised valleys depend on the location and
strength of both preexisting fluvial systems and
coastal-plain drainages formed during base-level
fall. These valleys may be more than 100 m deep

Bohacs and Suter

1615

Figure 1Peat accumulation

requires that accommodation
balance peat formation. The areas
on the graph represent conditions
of accumulation for various forms
of terrigenous organic-rich rocks
(derived mainly from equation 1).
The limits for each field are set by
substituting the weight percent
(dry basis) of organic matter
required for coals (10075% as
defined by the American Society
for Testing and Materials) and
coaly shales (7525%; fundamental
changes in geochemical character
and behavior occur at approximately
2530% organic matter content).
The upper limit of coals with low
oil potential is set by empirical
observations on the bounding rates
of coal formation summarized in
Diessel and Boyd (1994), wherein
the minimum rate of peat
formation, on average, is one-half
of the maximum rate.

and tens of kilometers wide (Van Wagoner et al.,

1990). Incised valleys tend to have groundwater
tables very near the ground surface; hence, mires
preferentially initiate and thrive in these areas (e.g.,
Staub and Esterle, 1994; Aitken and Flint, 1995).
The other component of accommodation, subsidence, is a function of plate-tectonic setting,
basin type and local evolution, loading, and compaction. Subsidence varies much more slowly
than does the groundwater table and is thus commonly the major long-term control of accommodation in nonmarine settings.
Clastic sediment supply is also an important
control on peat accumulation. Clastic sediment
supply enhances plant growth by supplying nutrients and a stable substrate, but a large, rapid
influx dilutes the organic matter and can kill the
vegetation. Local clastic accumulation, however,
is influenced by the same factors as peat accumulation. At low accommodation rates, little or no
clastics accumulate. At larger accommodation
rates, clastics and peat compete to fill available
space. Clastics and peat are typically segregated
areally, commonly strongly influenced by the flora
itself (e.g., Staub and Esterle, 1994): the vegetation is not solely a passive element in the depositional system. Peat can accumulate in areas of relatively high clastic supply. Diessel (1992), among
others, reported braided-stream conglomerates
coeval with robust coal measures. At high rates of
accommodation, large shallow depressions develop that may contain standing water and accumulate large amounts of clastics due to gradient
advantage and trapping by standing water. Peat is

not likely to accumulate under such conditions,

due to deep standing water or burial by clastics.
In all these cases, the mire responds to local space
available for accumulation; this local space integrates clastic influx into the accommodation, as
do our model formulations.
Peat production rate is controlled by water and
nutrient supply, mire type, vegetation type, and floral community successions (Frenzel, 1983; Ingram,
1983; Teichmller, 1989). These factors are controlled at a larger scale by geological age (through
plant evolution), paleolatitude, and climate.
All these factors can be combined in a mathematical expression that describes conditions for
peat accumulation. Using a frame of reference that
moves with base level, one may calculate the
changes in elevation of mire using this Lagrangian
formulation for the change in local elevation with
time (after Allen, 1990).
dE dSmin dSorg dBL dC dSub
=
+

dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

(1)

where dE/dt = change in elevation of local sediment surface with time; for the sediment input
rate, dS min /dt = mineral sedimentation rate and
dS org /dt = organic sedimentation rate; for the
accommodation rate, dBL/dt = change in base level
(upward = positive), dC/dt = long-term compaction rate (greater than seasonal), and dSub/dt =
regional subsidence.
By definition, when the system is in dynamic equilibrium, with all accommodation filled, dE/dt = 0

1616

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Table 2. Defining Limits for Coaly Rock LithotypesOrganic Matter Content and Normalized Accommodation Rate

Lithology

Wt. %
Organic Matter

Limit of
Accommodation/Peat Production

100
75
25

0
0.18
0.53

1:1
1:1.18
1:1.53

Lithology

Upper Bound
Acc/PPR**

Source of Relation

Coal
Coal
Coaly Shale
Lower Bound
Acc/PPR**
0.5
1
1.18
1.53

Coal + coaly shale (poor preservation)

Coal
Coaly shale (good preservation)
Terrigenous shale

1
1.18
1.53
>1.53

Empirical*
Equation 1
Equation 1
Equation 1

*After Diessel and Boyd, 1994. Empirical relation is based on observations that minimum rate of peat formation, on average, is one-half of the maximum
rate (average = 0.55, n = 31).
**Acc/PPR = accommodation/peat production rate.

because the frame of reference moves with the sediment surface. Then
dSmin dSorg dBL dC dSub
+
=
+
+
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

(2)

Based on the American Society for Testing and

Materials definition, peat contains a set maximum amount of mineral matter (ash) per dr y
weight, so
dSorg
dSmin
=k

dt
dt

(3)

where k may be defined as [(1 wt. % total organic

carbon)( min / org )()]. Note that k depends on
weight percentage of organic matter required by
definition (75%), density of organic matter and
minerals, and porosity of deposited material before
long-term compaction. Typical peats have organicmatter contents of between 75 and 100%, quartzdensity mineral matter, and an average porosity of
0.4; thus, k = 0 to 0.18.
Substituting this identity (equation 3) into the
previous equation, we get
dSorg
dt

1 dBL dC dSub
+
+

1 + k dt
dt
dt

(4)

Because the value of k is small, the coefficient is

approximately equal to 1. Thus, to deposit a peat,
dSorg
dt

1
Accommodation Rate
1+k

(5)

Equation 5 quantifies the widely made statement

that peat production must be balanced with subsidence if coal is to form.
Other important insights can be gained from this
formulation. By substituting the various limiting
conditions of organic matter content into this equations constant, k, we may determine the exact
ratio of accommodation to peat production for the
equilibrium deposition of coals, coaly shales, and
terrigenous shales. Table 2 summarizes the results
from these substitutions for the various lithotypes,
and Figure 2 diagrams the results.
Data from Holocene peat-forming environments
(Boyd and Diessel, 1995) indicate that peats accumulate at rates of from less than 1 to about
7 mm/year; hence, peats may thrive in areas
with total subsidence rates of approximately
1177 m/m.y. (thickness of rock divided by the
duration in m.y., uncorrected for time-interval differences, as discussed in a following section).
These rates include environments such as passive
margins, foreland basins, some strike-slip basins,
and extensional basins in prerift, rift, and thermal
phases (P. Rumelhart and E. Goodman, 1992, personal communication).
The peat production rates, reported in millimeters per year, are derived from Holocene mires
with cool, warm-temperate, and tropical climates
(based on data for the last 120 yr). In contrast,
reported accommodation rates from a variety of
tectonic settings reflect mainly long-term subsidence rates. These rates are usually reported in
meters per millions of years. Such rates must be
adjusted to a time interval equivalent to the peat
production rates because of the significant effect
of time interval on rate calculations [see extensive
discussions in Sadler (1981), Gardner et al. (1987),
and Algeo (1993)]. This adjustment is significant

Bohacs and Suter

1617

Figure 2Relation of
peat production rate to
accommodation rate with
ranges of rates for major
climate zones and tectonic
settings. Peat production
rates from Diessel and
Boyd, 1994.

and necessary when the measured time intervals

of the two processes differ by more than 10 3 to
104 yr.
We adjusted the subsidence rates by using the
relation derived by Gardner et al. (1987) for rates of
tectonic movement:
Corrected Rate = (Reported Rate) (Time
Interval in Years)0.255
Measured process rates follow a fractal power
distribution and statistically depend on the time
intervals of measurement; apparent rates decrease
as the time interval of measurement increases. For
example, sedimentation rates apparently may slow
by a factor of 30 or more when mm/y to m/m.y.
measurements are compared; however, this difference is due to the different time intervals of measurement. This apparent slowing is also due, in
part, to averaging in many more periods of process
inactivity (hiatuses) and unconformities (McShea
and Raup, 1986; Gardner et al., 1987).
Control of Accommodation on Peat
Thickness, Geometry, and Continuity
Recognizing the balance between accommodation and production required for the creation of
peat, we now examine how accommodation controls peat thickness and continuity. Peat thickness
is not directly controlled by accommodation rate or
by the absolute amount of peat produced, but by
the ratio of the rates of accommodation and peat
production. This relative balance determines
whether a local depositional environment will

accumulate peat and how thick the peat will be.

This ratio may be considered a normalized or relative accommodation rate, making the relations
shown in Figures 3 and 6 nondimensional and universally applicable; therefore, in a given environment with a particular flora, peat may accumulate
over a range of rates, but always with a definite
maximum rate set by two factors: original organic
production capacity and space available below
depositional base level (the water table).
Figure 3 shows the expected general relation
among peat thickness, geometry, continuity, and
the normalized accommodation rate (accommodation rate/peat production rate). Figure 3 contains
four important regions.
(1) Below a threshold (nonzero) normalized
accommodation rate, continuous peats do not accumulate, due to falling or low groundwater table, sediment bypassing, and the potential for extensive
erosion and reworking of sediments by fluvial channels, making the preservation of any fine-grained
sediments problematic. Some isolated, relatively
thin, oxidized peats or coals may accumulate at
accommodation rates just below this threshold.
(2) Above a critical threshold, mires can initiate and thrive because of relatively stable conditions and a rising groundwater table. The mires
quickly fill the local accommodation vertically
and then extend laterally into suitable areas (away
from significant clastic deposition) for room to
grow (analogous to case 1 of Winston, 1994).
Continuous coals accumulate. [The vertical limit
of accommodation space may cause the widely
observed evolution of mires from ever-wet (telmatic) to prolonged dry conditions, which yields
the commonly observed dulling-upward trends

1618

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 3(A) Relation of the ratio of accommodation

rate/peat production rate (normalized accommodation) with peat thickness. Peat accumulates with maximum thickness when the two rates are approximately
equal. (B) Relation of ratio of accommodation rate/peat
production rate to coal geometry. The most widespread
coals accumulate at low to moderate values of this ratio.

in coal seams; e.g., Smith (1962), Teichmller

(1962), Smyth and Cook (1976).]
(3) At higher increases of accommodation rate,
when and where accommodation balances or
slightly exceeds the peat production rate, the mire
can accumulate peat to its full capacity in place,
and does not need (and may not be able) to extend
laterally. These conditions favor relatively thick but
isolated coals.
(4) Above these rates of accommodation, mires
are stressed and eventually inundated by clastics or
standing water (as discussed in the previous section); preservation also decreases. A few isolated

peats may accumulate, most likely in areas of high

rainfall (domed mires).
These four relations should be valid for mires in
alluvial, lake-plain, and paralic setting.
Figure 4 shows an example of these changes
within a single coal seam (zone) as accommodation
changes laterally. This figure clearly illustrates the
relation of accommodation to coal thickness and
quality, because only accommodation varies significantly and most other variables remain constant
(f lora, climate, environment, etc.). Analogous
examples occur in many settings; for example, the
Permian of New South Wales (Warbrooke, 1981),
the Carboniferous of the Cumberland basin, Nova
Scotia (Calder, 1993), and the Holocene Mississippi
delta (Fisk, 1958; Frazier and Osanik, 1969). These
examples clearly show that coal accumulation has
definite lower and upper bounds.
Figure 5 illustrates these changes in a vertical
section where accommodation increases with
time; this section has braided streams at the base,
interbedded fluvial sandstones and coals in the
middle, and lacustrine mudrocks at the top. Note
the thickest coals are in the middle of the section,
at intermediate rates of accommodation.
The general, nondimensional relation shown on
Figure 3 illustrates overall trends for all mires. The
exact values of accommodation and peat production depend on floral assemblages, their production capacity, and the nature of the depositional
systems surrounding the mire (availability of clastics, size and sorting of clastics, and seasonal water
supply); however, all mire ecosystems demonstrate
definite lower and upper limits to the formation
and accumulation of peats. Peats and coals do not
continue to thicken indefinitely with increasing
accommodation rates.
Other workers have observed similar classes of
coal distributions that have been attributed to

,,,,,
,,


,,

,

,,



Increase in Subsidence Rate
toward fault

10

High Ash

Low Ash

High Ash

250 m

Carb. Mudrock

Coal
Thickness

Channel Belt

Crevasse Splays

Flood Basin - Lake

Paleosol

Figure 4Relation
of accommodation
(subsidence) and coal
thickness, Brunner seam,
New Zealand. Coal peaks
in thickness and quality
at intermediate values
(after Titheridge, 1993).

Bohacs and Suter

1619

all of these workers generally attribute the ultimate control of coal distribution to autocyclic
processes and not to the more general control of
accommodation due to both autocyclic and allocyclic processes.
Thickness and Geometry of Peats Within One
Accommodation Cycle

Figure 5Control of accommodation rate on coal

thickness, Permian Patchawarra Formation, central
Australia (after Wehr and Johnstone, 1990, personal
communication).

various causes. Ferm (1974) recognized three typical coal distributionsrelatively thin but
widespread, thick but lenticular, and thin and
erratically distributedwhich he related to deposition in various deltaic depositional environments.
Horne et al. (1978) and Ferm and Staub (1984),
among others, also noted the importance of optimum balance. Horne et al. (1978) suggested the
site of thickest coal occurrence is a transition zone
between the lower and upper delta plain. Ferm
and Staub (1984, p. 275) suggested that The sites
of maximum peat accumulation appear to be delicately balanced between areas which are topographically low andthose which are topographically too high. They remarked that topography
appears to be controlled by sediment compaction
and contemporaneous faulting, both of which are
important components of accommodation (as
noted in terms 2 and 3 in the right side of equation
2). The work of Ferm and Staub (1984), along with
that of their colleagues in the Appalachian plateau,
underscores the strong control of local accommodation on coal thickness and continuity. However,

Combining all these processes helps us understand how peat thickness and geometry may vary
through one cycle of accommodation. Figure 6
illustrates the changes in peat thickness and
geometry expected during a cycle of low to high
to low accommodation rates. Note that the upper
cur ve is a cycle of aggradation rate, the first
derivative or rate of change of the position of
base level. Mires should respond mainly to rate of
change and not be as sensitive to the direction of
change, so we predict symmetrical pairs of thicknessgeometry attributes throughout the cycle. Table 3
describes the nature of coal occurrence during
each portion of the accommodation cycle, relative rates, and ke y processes. Note that the
accommodation rates are nondimensional and are
scaled to the peat production rate; thus, these
relations should apply to any mire or setting. We
derived the numbers in Figure 3 by assuming an
active clastic depositional system that fills any
leftover accommodation to regional base level
of deposition, which is the defining assumption
of nonmarine base level of deposition (Powell,
1875; Barrell, 1917; Twenhofel, 1939; Wheeler,
1964). For example, the upper limit of peat formation is set by the definition of peat as containing less than 25% mineral matter. Substituting this
value into equation 4 indicates that the upper
limit of peat production occurs when the ratio of
accommodation to peat production equals 1.18.
As ever, the exact timing of peat formation and
the nature of peat accumulation during an accommodation cycle are functions of the local f lora,
climate, physiographic setting, and so on.

EXAMPLES
We highlight four examples of coal distribution
within a sequence framework: the Rock Springs
Formation (Cretaceous, Wyoming), the Ferron
Sandstone (Cretaceous, Utah), the Illawarra Coal
Measures (Per mian, New South Wales), and
the Mississippi delta (Holocene, Louisiana). These
are just a few of many examples that span various tectonic and climatic settings from the
Carboniferous to the Holocene.

1620

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 6Relation of rate of change of base level to coal thickness and geometry for a given peat production rate.

Rock Springs Formation: Lowstand to

Highstand Systems Tracts
The Rocks Springs Formation accumulated during the Campanian at about 48N in a warmtemperate climate (Hendricks, 1981; Levey, 1981;
Beauboeuf et al., 1995). The upper portion of the
Rock Springs Formation (Figure 7) contains the
no. 1 and Brooks-McCourt depositional sequences
having significant coal seams. Coals are moderately bright, high-volatile bituminous C, ranging from
1 to 4 m thick in a zone 527 km wide behind
their contemporary shorelines (Levey, 1981). The
strata accumulated in a foreland basin that was
tectonically active during deposition (Devlin et
al., 1994). Depositional environments ranged from

coastal-plain streams and mires, through waveand river-dominated shorelines, to a shallowmarine shelf.
The lower sequence is informally termed the
no. 1 sequence because it encloses the Rock
Springs no. 1 coal seam (Beauboeuf et al., 1995).
This sequence comprises an aggradational stack of
two parasequences, a retrogradational stack of two
parasequences, and an aggradational to progradational stack of three parasequences. Together, they
constitute a complete depositional sequence: lowstand, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts.
The occurrence and distribution of coals are
strongly tied to the shoreline-stacking patterns.
Table 4 and Figure 8 detail the distribution of coals
within the no. 1 sequence. A relatively thick and

Bohacs and Suter

1621

Table 3. Relation of Accommodation and Coal Thickness

Accommodation
Rate

Acc/PPR*

Coal Thickness

Coal Geometry

Negative or
low increase

~0.5

No significant coal
(0.5 m)

Restricted,
isolated

Low to moderate
increase

~1.0

Relatively thin to
moderately thick
(13 m)

Widespread,
continuous
(100s of km2)

Moderate to high
increase

~1.18

Thick to very thick

(3 m)

High to very high

increase

~1.53

Relatively thin
(~1 m)

Relatively restricted;
relatively isolated
to isolated
(100 km2)
Restricted, scattered

Very high increase

1.53

No significant coals

Possible scattered
plant fragments

Processes
Low or falling groundwater table;
oxidation and degradation of
organic matter; extensive erosion
and channel amalgamation
Peat** accumulation exceeds
local capacity, so mire
spreads out under relatively
stable conditions and rising
water table
Peat accumulated matched or
slightly exceeded by
accommodation, so mire grows
vertically in place
Organic matter is immediately
buried and greatly diluted by
clastics
Clastic input dominates system;
no mires formed

*Acc/PPR = accommodation/peat production rate.

**Peat, by definition, contains more than 75% carbon on a dry basis (ASTM, 1989).
Coaly mudrocks show fundamental changes in geochemical character and behavior at ~2530% organic-matter content.

widespread coal occurs at the top of the lowstand;

thin, discontinuous coals are in the transgressive systems tract; and relatively thick but isolated coals form
in the basal highstand systems tract.

The upper sequence is composed of the

Brooks sandstone, Coulson shale, and McCourt
sandstone members. In the area of the cross section, this upper sequence contains three major

Figure 7The upper portion of the Cretaceous Rock Springs Formation contains two major depositional sequences
with significant coal seams: no. 1 and Brooks-McCourt. The best developed and most widespread coals occur at the
top of the lowstand systems tracts. Stratigraphic cross section is along east side of Rock Springs uplift, southwestern Wyoming.

1622

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Table 4. Sequence Stratigraphic Distribution of Paralic Coaly Rocks

Systems Tract

Parasequence
Stacking

Coastal Plain
Sedimentation

Late highstand,
lowstand fan,
early lowstand wedge

Strongly progradational,
bypass and erosional
truncation

Amalgamated channels, No significant

Restricted,
subaerial exposure
coals (0.5 m)
isolated

Middle to late
lowstand wedge

Moderately
aggradational

Valley fill, low to

moderate overbank
flow

Relatively thin
Widespread,
Moderately
to moderately
continuous
good
thick (13 m)
(100s of km2)

Late lowstand to
early transgressive

Strongly aggradational
to moderately
retrogradational

Frequent overbank
flow, floodplain
aggradation

Thick to very
thick (3 m)

Relatively
scattered

Good to
excellent

Middle
transgressive

Strongly
retrogradational

Frequent overbank
flow, ponding, some
erosion by retreating
shoreface

Relatively thin
(1 m)

Restricted,
scattered

Late transgressive
to early highstand

Slightly retrogradational
Frequent overbank
to strongly aggradational flow, floodplain
aggradation

Thick to very
thick (3 m)

Relatively
restricted;
relatively
isolated to
isolated
(100 km2)

Moderate to
poor;
potentially
high sulfur
content
Good to
excellent

Early to middle
highstand

Aggradational

Relatively thin
Widespread,
to moderately
continuous
thick
(100+ km2)
(13 m)

Moderate overbank
flow, floodplain
aggradation, soil
formation

parasequences, one each in the lowstand, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts. The most
widespread, moderately thick Rock Springs no. 3
coal zone occurs at the top of the Brooks sandstone, at the change in stacking from aggradational
to retrogradational just beneath the major flooding
surface interpreted as the top of the lowstand systems tract. Locally thick, but isolated, coals are
found behind the shoreline of the retrogradational
parasequence (transgressive systems tract). Thin,
isolated, generally dull, and poorly preserved coals
occur behind the strongly progradational parasequence at the top of the package (highstand systems tract).
Ferron Sandstone: Lowstand to Transgressive
Systems Tracts
The coals in the Ferron Sandstone member of the
Mancos Shale accumulated during the late Turonian
in a foreland basin at about 46N in a warm-temperate
climate on a river- to wave-dominated delta plain
(Cotter, 1976; Ryer, 1981, 1984; Thompson, 1985).

Coaly Rock
Thickness

Coaly Rock
Geometry

Organic
Preservation
Minimal

Moderately
good

In the Emery coalfield of central Utah are five significant seams of moderately bright to moderately dull,
high-volatile bituminous C coal, ranging from 1 to 10
m thick, in zones 625 km wide behind contemporaneous shorelines (Doelling, 1972; Ryer, 1981, 1984).
Distributions of coal similar to those in the Rock
Springs Formation occur in analogous positions in
the Ferron Sandstone, illustrated here in Figure 9.
Ryers (1981) maps of the extent and thickness of
the coals associated with the Ferrons river-dominated parasequences clearly showed the controls
of accommodation. No significant coals are associated with the strongly progradational stack of
parasequences at the base of the unit, just above
the major sequence boundary we interpret to be
there. The superjacent weakly progradational
parasequence contains relatively thin, but continuous, coal (seam A, Figure 9). The overlying strongly
aggradational stack of parasequences corresponds
to seams that increase in thickness but decrease in
lateral extent (seams C, G, I, Figure 9). This stack
culminates in the thickest seam (I), which occurs
in what we interpret as the top of the lowstand
wedge, just as the parasequences begin to stack

Bohacs and Suter

Early Highstand
80
60
40

<-Sea

Coal

LC21-35

LC209

LC12-25

LC205

LC213

LC203

LC200

LC15-29

LC42

LC198

LC193

LC39

LC19-27

LC82-2

LC67-35

LC90-1

LC10412

LC167

LC119-7

SP43

SP135

SP53

20
SP54

% of Systems Tract

100

Land->

Mudrock
~20 km

Transgressive
80
60
40

<-Sea

Coal

LC21-35

LC12-25

LC209

LC205

LC213

LC203

LC200

LC15-29

LC198

LC42

LC193

LC39

LC19-27

LC67-35

LC82-2

LC90-1

LC10412

LC167

LC119-7

SP135

SP43

SP53

20
SP54

% of Systems Tract

100

Land->

Mudrock

Late Lowstand

(Bowman, 1970; McMinn, 1985; Arditto, 1992).

Figure 10 shows the upper portion of the Illawarra
Coal that contains three complete depositional
sequences with both well-developed, widespread
coals and thin, dirty, discontinuous coals. Coal
seams vary from generally bright to rather dull, and
range in thickness from 1 to 12 m, covering up to
3000 km2 (Bunny, 1972).
Sequence boundaries are erosion surfaces overlain by sharp-based coarse to pebbly sandstones in
fining-upward packages, representing basinward
shifts of fluvial/estuarine environments (Arditto,
1992). Widespread, uniform coals up to 12 m thick
occur above the fining-upward packages and below
the first superjacent coarsening-upward packages
(parasequences), and are interpreted to have
formed within the upper lowstand and basal transgressive systems tracts. Very little coal is associated
with retrogradationally stacked shoreline parasequences, and was probably deposited within middle transgressive systems tracts. The midsequence
downlap surface is placed at the change from retrogradational to progradational parasequence stacking. Only thin, discontinuous, and dirty coals are
found within the progradationally stacked parasequences interpreted as the highstand systems tracts.

80

Mississippi Delta: Late Transgressive to Early

Highstand Systems Tracts

60
40

LC21-35

LC12-25

LC209

LC205

LC213

LC203

LC200

LC15-29

LC198

LC42

LC193

LC39

LC19-27

LC67-35

LC82-2

LC90-1

LC10412

LC167

LC119-7

SP135

SP43

SP53

20
SP54

% of Systems Tract

100

1623

Core Holes/Measured Sections

<-Sea

Coal

Mudrock

Land->

Figure 8Lateral distributions of coals within the no. 1

Rock Springs depositional sequence. The late lowstand
contains relatively thick and widespread coals; the
transgressive systems tract holds thin, discontinuous
coals; and the early highstand contains relatively thick
but isolated coals.

retrogradationally. The next-younger seam (J) is distinctly thinner and associated with marked retrogradation (basal transgressive systems tract). No significant
coals are found in the strongly retrogradational stack
of parasequences at the top of the Ferron unit in this
area (middle transgressive systems tract).
Illawarra Coal Measures: Middle to Late
Transgressive Systems Tracts
The Illawarra Coal accumulated during the Late
Permian at about 60S in a cool, humid climate

The Mississippi delta accumulated significant

peat beds during the Holocene on a passive margin
at about 30N in a warm-temperate climate on a
river-dominated delta plain (Fisk, 1958; Frazier and
Osanik, 1969). The peat beds range from 1 to 4 m
thick across a zone up to 60 km wide (Kosters and
Suter, 1993).
Sediments of the Teche, St. Bernard, and Lafourche complexes of the Holocene Mississippi
delta were deposited around the transition from
retrogradation to progradation. Marine reworking
of distributary sands of retrogradational delta
complexes formed backstepping shorelines.
The youngest and most landward of these, the
Teche shoreline, overlies the Teche complex.
This shoreline represents maximum transgression.
Subsequently, younger highstand delta lobes of the
Lafourche complex prograded the delta plain.
(Progradation and abandonment of a single delta
lobe creates a parasequence. Related groups of
delta lobes (that is, a delta complex) can be considered a parasequence set. Stacking patterns of delta
complexes classify them into systems tracts.)
Figure 11 illustrates the occurrence, thickness,
and distribution of peats in this setting. Only scattered, thin, high-ash peats occur in the strongly retrogradational Teche delta complex (Figure 12).

1624

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

I Coal (PS4)

ps6

G Coal (PS3)

C Coal-n (PS2)

<-Land

ps4

ps3

Mid
LST

ps2

Mid
LST Early LST

A Coal (PS1)
0
-15 km
-10

ps5

Late
TST

Late
LST

0
5

ps7

Early
TST

5
0
5

Blue Gate Shale

Mid
TST

Ferron Ss

Total Coal Thickness (m)

10

,,,
,,




,


,,









,,,

,,,
,,



,

,,
,,












Early
TST

J Coal (PS1)

-5

5 km

Distance from Updip Shoreline Pinch-Out

10

Sea->

ps1

Tununk Shale

~10 m

~10 km

Figure 9Stratal stacking in the Ferron Sandstone member of the Cretaceous Mancos Shale, Emery coalfield, Utah.
The occurrence and distribution of coals are strongly tied to shoreline-stacking patterns. Coals change from relatively thin and widespread, through thick and isolated, to thin and discontinuous as the system evolves under
increasing accommodation.

Open-bay sediments dominate the upper part of

this complex, attesting to very high accommodation rates within its delta-plain environments.
Relatively thick peats of high organic content are
found landward of the shoreline of maximum
transgression, just above the change from retrogradation to progradation (upper transgressive
to basal highstand systems tracts). Slowly rising
relative sea level created accommodation and
resulted in discharge of nutrient-rich groundwater
within the delta plain. This created favorable conditions for producing and preserving high-quality
organic facies as hypautochthonous f lotants
(Kosters and Suter, 1993). Thin, organic-poor sediments are accumulating currently within the
progradationally stacked parasequences of the
LaFourche complex (highstand systems tract).
Fresh water and nutrients from groundwater are
discharged into the Gulf of Mexico, forcing formation of brackish and salt-marsh environments unfavorable to peat accumulation. Active highstand
delta complexes, the Plaquemines-Moder n
(Birdfoot delta) and Atchafalaya, are all salt-marsh
dominated (Kosters and Suter, 1993). Neither
complex has significant quantities of in-situ peat,
although numerous occurrences of drift peats, or
coffee ground beaches, attest to continuing
high-organic productivity.
The Mississippi delta demonstrates that high-quality organic facies can accumulate in temperate environments even in high-sediment-yield systems.
However, the best organic facies occur away from
active sediment input and tidal exchange. Barataria
basin peats accumulated in fresh marsh settings on
an abandoned delta complex, landward of the shoreline of maximum transgression in a zone of groundwater discharge. Here, under these depositional

conditions, organic productivity balances accommodation, allowing peat accumulation.

In summary, we, along with others (see the references cited in the introduction), observe that the
thickest and most extensive coals are associated
with aggradational to slightly retrogradational
parasequence sets in both the lowstand and the
highstand systems tracts. Coals are also well developed on a larger scale in aggradational sequence
sets [see, for example, observations in Ryer (1984)
and in Beeson (1984)].
PREDICTING COAL OCCURRENCE AND
GEOMETRY WITHIN A SEQUENCE
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK

Having considered how changes in accommodation inf luence the occurrence, thickness, and
geometr y of peats, we can now examine how
accommodation in paralic settings relates to relative sea level and propose a model for the distribution of coals within a depositional sequence. This
tie of accommodation to relative sea level is best
revealed by the stacking patterns of shoreline
parasequences, which record the same net combination of subsidence, base level, and sediment
accumulation that controls peat accumulation. To
complete the tie to paralic mires, we also must
consider the effect of sea level on the base level of
the mire, the groundwater table. The resultant
sequence stratigraphic model must account for the
integrated effects of changing relative sea level on
the nearshore and paralic environments to explain
the occurrence of coals in this setting.
The stacking patterns of parasequences depend
on the ratio of sediment accumulation rates to

Bohacs and Suter

1625

Figure 10Distribution of
coals within the upper
Illawarra Coal Measures,
Sydney basin, Australia.
Coals are best developed
and most widespread
at the top of aggradational
packages, just below
significant retrogradation,
which is interpreted to be
at the top of the lowstand
systems tract (well logs
from Arditto, 1992).


,
,





,



,



accommodation rates (Jervey, 1988; Van Wagoner et
al., 1990; Soreghan and Dickinson, 1994). Sediment
accumulation rates vary significantly among depositional systems and change as depositional sequences

develop; however, this ratio controls parasequence

stacking. The control of this ratio on the stacking of
shoreline parasequences that inf luence paralic
coaly settings is shown in Figure 13. This figure also

Alluvial
Valley

At

ch

30

af

al

ppi R iver
ssi
Mis s i

New Orleans

Lac Des
Allemands

ay

aR

ive

Ba

you

Laf

our

che

Mi

ssi

ssi

91

90

89

km

20
Bay
o

uL

af
Peat Thickness
0 - 300 cm
300 -> 400 cm
Intrabasinal Prodelta Mud

he
ourc

1
2
3
4
5
6

Gulf of Mexico

92
Maringouin
Teche
St. Bernard
Lafourche
Plaquemine - Balize
Atchafalaya

iR

ive

29

Lake
Salvador

pp

Barataria
Bay

Lake Borgne Fault

Teche Shoreline
Pleistocene

30
km

Gulf of Mexico

60

Figure 11Location map of Mississippi River delta-plain complexes and isopachous map of peat in the Barataria
basin, Louisiana (after Kosters and Suter, 1993).

,


























,













, 



1626

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Strike

(A)

Strike

Gulf of Mexico
0

6m

Rangea cuneata

Lac des Allemands

Lake Salvador

Lake
Borgne Fault

Bayou Perot

Teche Shoreline

(B)

Grand Isle

PS2 Peat

PS1 Clastics

50

(A)

PS2

100

6m

130 km

(B)

Peat/Carbonaceous Mud

True Peat (75% organic matter)

Organic-Rich Material (35-75% OM)

Channels and Crevasses
Basin Fill/Overbank
Open Bay

Parasequence

Open Water

Lithofacies

PS2 Clastics

TST
Coastal Plain

PS1 Peat

TST
Coastal Plain

PS1

Delta Plain Clastics

Transition Bed

Shoreline Sandstone

Max. Flooding Surface

Flooding Surface

Barrier Island

Figure 12Lithofacies and sequence stratigraphic interpretation cross section of the Teche, Saint Bernard, and
LaFourche delta-plain complexes (after Kosters and Suter, 1993). Significant peat deposition is associated with
aggradational parasequence stacking in the late transgressive to early highstand systems tracts.

illustrates the postulated tie between accommodation at the shoreline and coal thickness and geometry.
Integrating the controls on peat accumulation
with accommodation as recorded by the shoreline
parasequences, we postulate a tie to relative sea
level. This allows us to discuss the implications for
the distribution of paralic coaly rocks within a
cycle of relative change of sea level; that is, one
depositional sequence. The proposed model of the
distribution of coaly rocks within a depositional
sequence (one cycle of relative change of sea level)
is outlined in the following paragraphs and illustrated in Figures 14, 15, and Table 5.
Falling sea level (late highstand to early lowstand, part 1 on the base-level curve on Figure 14)
promotes rapid shoreline progradation, incision,
and amalgamation of fluvial systems forming the
sequence boundary and lowstand systems tract.
Significant f luvial accumulation may begin in
incised valleys. Coaly organic-rich rocks are
absent to very thin, isolated, and poorly preserved
because of falling groundwater tables, oxidation,
and subaerial erosion. During the deposition of
lowstand wedges (parts 2 and 3 on the base-level
curve), rising sea level and groundwater tables,

Figure 13Link between shoreline-stacking patterns

and paralic coal geometries, which are both governed
by the amount of accommodation relative to sediment
supply.







,



,
,



,,,



,

,
,
,


,






,
,




1627

Figure 14Occurrence
and distribution of paralic
coals within a depositional
sequence. This is a
representative depositional
sequence with moderate
subsidence, slowly varying
sediment supply, and
average rates of change
of sea level.

TS

Bohacs and Suter

Fluvial Channel
Floodplain
Coal

2
1

DLS
(mfs)

Nearshore Sandstone

SB

Offshore Mudstone

Base Level

High

stable fluvial channels, and coastal-plain aggradation lead to relatively thick, continuous, and moderately well-preserved coaly organic-rich rocks. These
become thicker and more isolated during continued sea level rise, until accommodation increases
more rapidly and shorelines translate landward
(part 4 of the base-level curve). Mires become
restricted and scattered; increased overbank flow
and clastic sedimentation is not conducive to organic
deposition, whereas rapidly rising groundwater
tables and saltwater wedges may drown the coastal
plain, forming lakes and bays. Shoreface erosion hinders preservation of those organic facies that are
deposited. After the transgressive maximum, lessened rates of sea level and groundwater-table rise
combine with greater stability of the paralic environments to allow establishment, production, and
preservation of relatively thick, relatively isolated
coaly organic-rich facies and overall aggradation of
the coastal plain during the early highstand (part 5
of the base-level curve). Stable groundwater tables
and fluvial systems result in thinner and more continuous organic facies through mid-highstand (part
6 base-level curve), until relative fall of sea level terminates the cycle.
With this general model in mind, we now discuss some of the important processes that influence the accumulation of coaly organic-rich rocks
within different portions of a depositional
sequence: groundwater response to changing sea
level, shoreline evolution, and sediment supply.

Low

Our generalized inferences about shoreline evolution and sediment supply are based on glacioeustatic processes that clearly were important during the PermianCarboniferous and the Tertiary,
major times of coal accumulation (Dalrymple et al.,
1992; Suter, 1994; Willis and Behrensmeyer, 1994).
Specific morphologies and environments of individual systems vary greatly depending upon local
conditions, but within an overall sequence framework, we can predict general shoreline and coastalplain response to eustatic fluctuations. For example, barrier islands and estuaries are common
depositional environments within transgressive
systems tracts, whereas falling sea level enhances
shoreline regression and promotes fluvial incision
(e.g., Dalrymple et al., 1992). Obviously, climate is
an important factor, and we consider it in our discussions on groundwater. Wanless and Shepard
(1936) and Heckel (1995), among others, discussed possible ties between climate and eustasy
for Carboniferous coal-forming settings.
The behavior of the groundwater system on the
coastal plain is the major control on the initiation,
location, and development of mires. The main controls on the location of the groundwater table in a
coastal phreatic aquifer are topography, precipitation/evaporation ratio, permeability structure of the
aquifer, sea level, and the location of the underground saltwater wedge (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Where local relief is negligible, as on a constructional coastal plain, only single regional groundwater


,






,,,

,

,





,



,




,
,


Transgressive

Late Highstand

5 6

High

Low

Plain

Low

ead
BayhDelta

al
od Tid

Delta

Flo

on

Lago

High

Base Level

2 3

Peat Zone

Bay Valley)
ed
(Incis

E me
rgen
t Co
ast
al

5 6
4

Base Level

2 3

Tidal

r Island

lta
Inlet
al De
Ebb Tid

Barrie

c
Deltaiadland
He

2 3

Coaly organic-rich rocks are absent to very thin, isolated, and poorly preserved because groundwater table falls as the sea and subsurface salt wedge withdraw, fluvial systems incise, channels amalgamate, and because nonchannel facies are minimally preserved. On
the coastal plain, there is also widespread subrial exposure, extensive soil formation, and very infrequent overbank flow of low intensity.

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin, restricted, and

scattered; the rapidly rising groundwater table due to rising sea
level and advancing subsurface salt wedge may drown the mire
and form ponds or lakes. Near the coast, the mire may be submerged beneath brackish or salt water, elevating sulfur content.
Also, accumulation of peat on initial and rapid transgressions is
discontinuous and scattered due to the detailed kinematics of a
transgression.

Early Highstand

Middle Lowstand

5 6

5 6

High

Base Level

2 3

Low

High

Base Level

2 3

Low

Peat Zone

Peat Zone

TS

2 3

DLS
(mfs)

SB

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin to relatively

thick, continuous, and moderately well preserved because of rising
groundwater table (due to rising sea level and advancing subsurface
salt wedge), stable fluvial channels, and enhanced preservation of
overbank environments.

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be thick to very thick, relatively

isolated, and well preserved because the rate of rise of water table
slows to a rate that can be balanced by peat accumulation. High
groundwater table and stable fluvial channels enhance mire establishment, production, and preservation. On the coastal plain, frequent overbank flow of high intensity spreads abundant fine-grained clastic sediments. Fluvial avulsion is common and coastal plain
streams form in abandoned trunk streams and at drainage divides.

Middle Highstand

Late Lowstand

5 6

5 6

High

Base Level

2 3

Low

High

Base Level

2 3

Low

Peat Zone

Peat Zone

TS

TS

2 3

2 3

SB

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be thick to very thick, relatively

isolated, and well preserved because of continued rising groundwater table, stable fluvial channels, and enhanced vertical accretion
and preservation of overbank facies.

DLS
(mfs)

SB

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin to relatively

thick, continuous, and moderately well preserved because the
groundwater table stabilizes at relatively high levels, rising only
slowly, at rates equal to or slightly less than peat accumulation rate.
Stable fluvial channels restrict clastic input. Mires may shift laterally to continue vigorous growth.

Figure 15Proposed model of the distribution of paralic coaly rocks within a depositional sequence.

Bohacs and Suter

1629

Table 5. Distribution of Coals in the Rock Springs Formation

Parasequence

Systems
Tract

Coal
Occurrence

Coal
Thickness

1
2

Early-middle lowstand
Late lowstand

Locally present
Present

3
4
5

Transgressive
Transgressive
Early highstand

Locally present
Locally present
Present

Early highstand

Present

Late highstand

Locally present

systems develop, graded to sea level (e.g., Back,

1966). Indeed, one defining attribute of paralic
environments is their hydrologic connection to the
sea (Diessel, 1992). Lowlands and valleys tend to
be discharge areas, providing beneficent conditions
for mire growth.
Within an unconfined coastal aquifer, given
these considerations, one can calculate the shapes
of the freshwater/saltwater interface and the free
surface of the groundwater table (Rumer and Shiau,
1968; Verrujiat, 1968). These equations yield
insights not only into the distribution of the water
table, but also into the major controls on its shape
and location. These mathematical relations also
enable us to calculate the effects of changing sea
level on the coastal groundwater regime.
The shape of the free surface of the groundwater
table in a heterogeneous (anisotropic) coastal
aquifer is a segment of a parabola of the form
(Freeze and Cherry, 1979)

Q
z 2 = 2
K z 1 +

(6)

where z = elevation of water table (0 = sea level),

= relative density of groundwater and sea water
[( sw fw )/ fw = 0.03)], Q = groundwater discharge, = anisotropy ratio of aquifer, horizontal to
vertical conductivity [ (Kx /Kz)1/2], and Kz = vertical hydraulic conductivity.
Figure 16A shows the form of the water table for
a representative coastal aquifer (data from U.S. midAtlantic coast in Meisler et al., 1984). Note that the
groundwater table is at or very near the ground surface, with a net upward flow in a zone approximately 35 km wide behind the mainland shoreline
(bayline). This is the zone that responds most
rapidly to changes in sea level and groundwater
flow. We also observe that coals are commonly best
developed in this zone behind the shoreline (e.g.,

<0.5 m
Thin to relatively
thick (14 m)
Thin (<1 m)
Thin (<1 m)
Thin to thick
(13 m)
Thin to thick
(13 m)
Thin (0.51 m)

Coal
Distribution
Widely scattered, isolated
Very widespread and
continuous (6 27 km)
Isolated, discontinuous
Isolated, discontinuous
Isolated thicks,
discontinuous (5 8 km)
Isolated thicks,
discontinuous (5 8 km)
Widely scattered

Partridge, 1982; Roberts and McCabe, 1992; data in

Frenzel, 1983).
Figure 16B illustrates the effects of a 5-m relative
rise of sea level in a representative coastal aquifer.
Rising sea level pushes the interface between salt
and fresh water landward and upward, reestablishing a water-table profile adjusted to the new boundary conditions. This effect propagates landward
throughout the coastal aquifer to its updip limit or
the first regional groundwater divide, but with
decreasing amplitude. The newly established water
table is at or near the ground surface 2030 km farther inland. This distance is in accord with field
observations made on numerous modern coastal
plains (Back, 1966; Meng and Harsh, 1988; Krause
and Randolph, 1989; Meisler, 1989; Zapecza,
1989). Thus, we postulate that relative rises of sea
level affect accommodation and the accumulation
of peats at least 40 km inland. This range of influence of rising sea level on coastal-plain mires is
documented by many workers (Table 6 lists representative examples; see also the list in Frenzel,
1983). Of course, local topography and precipitation/evaporation ratios modify the regional groundwater flow calculated with equation 6. The local
topographic effects on a constructional coastal
plain, however, should be minimal, and conditions
should be generally favorable for mire growth with
slowly rising sea level.
In stark contrast, lowered sea level rapidly draws
down the coastal aquifer and flattens and lowers
the groundwater table (Dunham, 1969; Wilson,
1975; Meisler et al., 1984). These effects tend to
restrict areas of subaerial groundwater discharge
and move them seaward. The net effect of a sea
level fall is to restrict the occurrence and robustness of coastal-plain mires and decrease accommodation, diminishing the likelihood of accumulating
significant peat deposits.
The effects of falling sea level are diagrammed in
Figure 17. The relations governing this case require
the consideration of the full Navier-Stokes flow

1630

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 16Groundwater
table in representative
constructional coastal
plain: (A) base case (data
from Meisler et al., 1984);
(B) effect of 5-m rise of
sea level on representative
groundwater table.
Note effects propagate far
inland, with a 3.5-m rise of
the water table 50 km from
the shore.

equations; these relations somewhat resist analytical solutions, but are readily solved with numerical
methods (Meisler et al., 1984). A sea level fall of
approximately 30 m on the mid-Atlantic coastal
plain results in discharge of fresh water through
the upper continental slope about 125 km seaward
of the shoreline. Meisler et al. (1984) also reported
the presence of a significant freshwater wedge in
the strata beneath the continental shelf of the midAtlantic Bight. This widespread effect of falling sea
level is characteristic of most coastal-plain and
nearshore systems. The pronounced effects of sea
level fall on the groundwater system have long

been recognized in carbonate terranes (Fischer,

1964; Dunham, 1969; Wilson, 1975).
Shoreline evolution and changes in sediment
supply and distribution during sequence deposition also strongly influence coal distribution. In
paralic settings, the base of a coal is commonly not
physically correlative with a f looding surface
(parasequence boundary) (e.g., Diessel, 1992).
Although the inception of the mire reflects a rise of
the groundwater table in response to the beginning
rise of sea level, peat begins accumulating before
the actual landward translation of the shoreline that
forms the physical flooding surface, because any

Table 6. Inland Influence of Sea Level Rise on Mires

Distance Inland
30100 km
75130 km
2436 km
1536 km
~40 km
65 km

Location
South Florida,
Shark River
Rhine-Meuse delta,
Netherlands
Ahlen-Falkenberger
Moor, northwest
Germany
Altcar Moss,
west Lancashire,
England
Ro Negro, Ro
Chubut, Patagonia
Kaiparowits Plateau,
Utah

Gradient

Age

Reference

0.004
(7.5 105)
~0.0035
(3.3 105 to
8.9 105)

Holocene

Spackman et al. (1966)

Holocene

Trnqvist (1993)

Holocene

Schneekloth (1970)

Holocene

Tooley (1976)

Pleistocene and
Holocene
Late Cretaceous

Auer (1965)

Shanley (1991)

Bohacs and Suter

Delaware
River

Atlantic
City
40

20
A

2000'

Continental Shelf

40

20

Mainland Beach

Slope

SW

Sea
Level

1631

NE

A Fresh
B

Salt
0
25 mi
4000'
0
40 km
Vertical Exaggeration x 40

Initial Rise = Marsh Rim

2
SW

NE

6000'

Simulated Interface between salt & Fresh Water (Run A & Run B)

Line of Equipotentiometric Head for Run B

Figure 17Effects of falling sea level on groundwater

table. This figure shows the results of numerical models
run to estimate the intrusion of fresh water into the continental shelf with a 15.25-m fall in sea level (after
Meisler et al., 1984).

Continued Rise = Marsh Platform

3
SW

NE

finite sediment supply can outpace sea level rise for

a while, with the shoreline aggrading some before
transgressing. Also, the time of active shoreline
movement landward, the actual formation of the
flooding surface, does not support coal formation.
The depositional system seaward of the shoreline is
starved of clastics because those same clastics are
being stored on the coastal plain (Loutit et al.,
1988), and such an influx is incompatible with continued coal formation. Thus, as a practical matter, a
marine f looding surface is generally physically
traceable to and carried at the top of the coal in
this setting.
Similarly, middle transgressive systems tracts usually do not contain thick or widespread paralic
coals because depositional conditions are not stable for sufficiently long periods, mire locations shift
rapidly, and abundant clastic sediment is trapped in
the lower coastal plain. Coastal mires and accumulation of peat develop discontinuously on initial
and rapid transgressions (e.g., Kraft, 1971; Sanders
and Kumar, 1975; Rampino and Sanders, 1981;
Belknap and Kraft, 1985; Finkelstein and Ferland,
1987; Finkelstein and Kearney, 1988). This patchy
distribution is inherent in the detailed kinematics
of a transgression. The initial flooding proceeds up
stream valleys, whose thalwegs actually may be
deepened by tidal currents, and eventually up onto
interfluves (Figure 18). Coastal fluvial systems may
adjust to rapidly rising base level by developing
decreased sinuosity (Schumm, 1993) and
increased thalweg depth scoured by enhanced
tidal currents (Oertel et al., 1992). The transgressed topography is generally uneven, and
marshes first colonize steep estuarine banks and
then the broad interf luvial f lats at succeeding
times in the transgression, never occupying the
same area for very long (see discussion in Oertel et
al., 1992). Even the type of mire may change during the course of the transgression (Finkelstein and

Continued Rise = Marsh Fringe, Open Bays

SW

NE

Continued Rise = Marsh & Barrier Rollback

SW

NE

Figure 18Effects of rapid transgression on paralic peat

accumulation. The detailed kinematics of a transgression force the mire to migrate frequently. The mire has
insufficient time to establish and accumulate significant
volumes of peat; hence, peat accumulation is discontinuous and scattered (after Oertel et al., 1992).

Ferland, 1987); therefore, the traditionally expected

continuous basal peat layer on a transgression may
actually be relatively uncommon.
Also, during the deposition of the middle transgressive systems tract, overbank flows tend to be
frequent, and ponding and flood-plain aggradation
are widespread. This storage of fines on the
coastal plain is what starves the shelf of terrigenous sedimentation, generating the midsequence
condensed section (Loutit et al., 1988). The rapid
transgression and updip ef fects should also
enhance the formation of hydromorphic soils
(Wright and Marriott, 1993). Hence, any thin
coals that form probably would contain large
amounts of mineral matter and numerous splits.
Widespread mires become established only when
the rate of accommodation increase caused by the
transgression decreases into the range of achievable peat production rates about the time of relative stillstands late in the transgressive systems
tract (see Kosters and Suter, 1993).

1632

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 19For a given peat production rate, the occurrence of paralic coals may vary significantly due to the local rate
of change of accommodation. Lower accommodation rates favor initiation of mires earlier in the lowstand systems
tract and later termination in the highstand systems tract. Higher accommodation rates would delay initiation of
mires and, at very high rates, may prevent widespread peat accumulation, even in the transgressive systems tract.

Variations on the Model

Having considered what the distribution of
coals would be in a typical sequence (one
formed under moderate subsidence and sediment
supply), we can discuss common variations on
the sequence-scale model. These variations arise
because the occurrence and distribution of coaly
organic-rich rocks are the result of the interaction
of many nonlinear processes with complex feedback relations. The rate and relative strength of
these processes vary as a depositional sequence
develops. [For example, see discussions of nonlinear nature of vegetation changes in Smith
(1965), or of fluvial systems in Wescott (1993).]
The systems that produce coals are also sensitive
to local conditions; thus, numerous local exceptions of different kinds may occur.
The different phases of coal development are
assigned to systems tracts based on relative
changes of sea level; that is, with subsidence factored in. The tie of phases to eustatic sea level
depends upon the local subsidence regime (see
Jervey, 1988). Higher subsidence rates favor initiation of mires earlier in the lowstand systems

tract and a later termination of mires in the highstand systems tract because of the timing of balance between accommodation and peat production (Figure 19). For the same reason, lower
subsidence rates delay initiation of mires and, at
ver y low rates, may prevent widespread peat
accumulation, even in the transgressive systems
tract.
Peat-forming ecosystems require sufficient
time to establish and to accumulate organic matter (see collateral discussions in Shanley and
McCabe, 1994). If accommodation varies quickly
enough, no peat may accumulate, as in the
high-frequency sequences of the lower Sego
Sandstone of Colorado (A. Jennsen and J. Van
Wagoner, 1993, personal communication). A popular rule of thumb is that it takes 5000 yr to form
1 m of bituminous coal (e.g., Stach et al., 1982).
If environments shift more rapidly, little peat will
accumulate.
The combined effects of subsidence and sediment supply may favor selective preservation of
certain systems tracts during deposition of succeeding sequences. Relatively low values tend to
preserve mostly incised-valley and transgressive

Bohacs and Suter

1633

Figure 20Sequence stacking

within composite sequences
and their relation to coal
accumulation. Coals tend to
develop best in sequence sets with
stacking that is aggradational to
slightly retrogradational because
the rates of accommodation and
peat production balance for the
longest time.

systems tracts, as seen in the Miocene of southcentral Louisiana (Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
Highstand coals are particularly prone to this subsequent modification, both from falling groundwater tables during late highstand and from erosion during the ensuing fall of base level.
Climate differences also affect the distribution
of coals. Conditions may be conducive to peat
growth only during short portions of deposition
of the sequence, or not at all. Thus, there are
sequences with appropriate accommodation
rates and shoreline-stacking patterns that contain
no significant coals because the prevailing climate was adverse. In contrast, the high peatproduction rates in tropical areas may overwhelm
changes in accommodation and accumulate peats
throughout much of the sequence; indeed, entire
depositional sequences in some areas may be
exclusively coal (cf. Boyd and Diessel, 1995;
Diessel et al., 1995).
Note that this sequence stratigraphic model
strictly applies only to coals in paralic environments, those settings hydrologically connected
to the sea, which can extend more than 75 km
inland (see Table 6). The general controls of
accommodation on peat accumulation discussed
in the first section should apply to all environments, but the specific timing of peat accumulation with respect to systems tracts may vary (see
the discussion in Diessel, 1992). Figure 5 presents an example of a completely nonmarine setting that illustrates analogous inf luence of
accommodation.

Occurrence and Distribution of Paralic

Peats/Coals Within Sequence Sets and
Supersequences
The same relations that govern the occurrence
and distribution of coals at the sequence scale
appear to operate at the larger stratigraphic scales
of the sequence set and composite sequence (or
supersequence; see Mitchum and Van Wagoner,
1991). Within a composite sequence, coals tend
to be best developed in sequence sets with stacking that is aggradational to slightly retrogradational. These are the sequence sets wherein the rates
of accommodation and peat production balance
for the greatest amount of time (see Figure 20).
Two examples with contrasting long-term
accommodation trends illustrate this concept.
The first, the Latrobe Group (Gippsland basin,
Australia) demonstrates an overall increase in
accommodation in a CretaceousPaleogene riftsag basin (Figure 21). Coals are best developed in
sequences that stack aggradationally to slightly
retrogradationally, with depositional shelf breaks
that show net movements in the range of 5.3
km/m.y. landward to 0.25 km/m.y. seaward. One
consequence of the overall retrogradation within
the composite sequence is the preferential
preservation of early to middle highstand coals
within the updip section.
The second example, the Blackhawk Formation
(Book Cliffs, Utah) illustrates an overall decrease
in accommodation in a Cretaceous foreland basin
(Figures 22, 23). Each member of the Blackhawk

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

OLIGOCENE

1634

50

60

RUPELIAN

E
36
39.4

EOCENE

P.turberculatus

CHATTIAN
30

42

35
UPPER N.asperus
36.5

PRIABONIAN
BARTONIAN

MIDDLE N.asperus

LOWER N.asperus

LUTETIAN

48

YPRESIAN
54

55.5

DANIAN
66.5
68

73.5

LATE

CAMPANIAN

T.lilliei
80

N.senectus
89

M
92

SANTONIAN
CONIACIAN

T.apoxyexinus

DEPOSITIONAL
SHELF
BREAK

87.5

P.mawsonii

TURONIAN
CENOMANIAN

96

WELL CONTROL

83.75

84

L
E 88
L

SENONIAN

74

UPPER T.longus

LOWER T.lomgus

M
E

M.diversus

UPPER L.balmei

LOWER L.balmei

60.2

MAASTRICHTIAN

CRETACEOUS

90

U
M
L

THANETIAN

66.5

80

P.asperopolus

50.5
51.5
52.5
53.5

70

TOP LATROBE GROUP

39.5

49

PALEOCENE

40

TERTIARY

30

25.2

92.5

10
km

SEQUENCE

A.distocarinatus

SIGNIFICANT COAL ACCUMULATION

96

Figure 21Retrogradational stacking of sequences in the CretaceousPaleogene Latrobe Group, Australia (after M.
Sloan, Esso Australia). Coals are best developed and most widespread within sequences that stack aggradationally to
slightly retrogradationally.

Formation generally corresponds to a depositional sequence within a highstand sequence set (see
discussions in Taylor and Lovell, 1991; Howell et
al., 1995). Coals are thick and well developed
within the early, mainly aggradational, portion of
the sequence set from the Spring Canyon to
Kenilworth members. The coals increase in lateral extent and continuity as the overall accommodation decreases through the Sunnyside member.
Coals become thin to absent in the strongly
progradational latest portion of the sequence set,
from the Grassy to Desert members. The changes
in coal distribution are mirrored in the degree of
development of the sequence boundaries in the
same interval, ref lecting the same decreasing
rates of accommodation: obscure to poor in the
Spring Canyon and Aberdeen, moderate in the
Kenilworth and Sunnyside, and good to excellent
in the Grassy to Castlegate (J. Van Wagoner, 1994,
personal communication). An analogous pattern
of sequence stacking, sequence boundary development, and coal distribution can be seen in similar age rocks in Wyoming, in the Rock Springs
Formation (Devlin et al., 1994; Beauboeuf et al.,
1995).

Thus, we see that the concepts of balancing

accommodation rate with peat production rate provide a framework for predicting the occurrence and
distribution of paralic coals at both the depositional
sequence and supersequence scales. At larger scales
of change, the tectonic component of accommodation becomes increasingly important, and basin
architecture and subsidence history significantly
affect coal distribution. In predicting coal distribution at this scale, one must consider the lateral distribution of subsidence, as well as its temporal variation. Map patterns of subsidence typical of rift, sag,
foreland, or other basin types also are important to
consider, as are local subsidence histories.
CONCLUSIONS
The concepts presented in this paper can be
used to construct practical tools to locate terrigenous organic-rich rocks, evaluate their hydrocarbon
source potentials, and map and predict their
extents and volumes. The occurrence, distribution, and character of coals vary systematically as a
function of the relative rates of peat production








,,,,,,
,








,,,,,,




,,


,













,,,,,,









,
Bohacs and Suter

Price River Canyon

1635

Horse Canyon

Helper

Green River

Price River
Formation

Sunnyside

Sego

Castlegate

Buck Tongue

Castlegate

Castlegate

Sequence B

Grassy

oundary

Desert

Desert

Blackhawk

Formation

Sunnyside

Coal-Bearing Rocks

Kenilworth

Kenilwort

Aberdeen

Star
Point SS

Spring Canyon Member

Mancos Shale

Mancos Shale

Storrs Tongue

Panther Tongue

Progradational Stacking

Aggradational Stacking

Retrogradational Stacking

Coastal Plain

Coal

Rooted Zone

Major Transgression

Figure 22Aggradational to progradational stacking of sequences in the Cretaceous Blackhawk Formation,

Utah (after Young, 1955). Coals are best developed within sequences that stack aggradationally to slightly
progradationally. The most widespread coal (Sunnyside) occurs at the change in stacking from aggradational to
progradational.

and accommodation change. Accommodation

changes predictably throughout a depositional
sequence; hence, the distribution of coals may be
predicted within a sequence stratigraphic framework. The thickest, most isolated coals occur in
upper lowstand and basal transgressive systems
tracts; the most continuous coals are found in middle
lowstand and middle highstand systems tracts; and
minimal, very isolated coals are found in basal lowstand, middle transgressive, and upper highstand systems tracts. Thickest coals typically correspond to
best conditions for organic preservation, and commonly have enhanced petroleum source potential.
One may devise methods for predicting coal
occurrence in frontier areas using climate as a
proxy for peat production rate, combined with
subsidence analysis to highlight times and areas of

likely balance. The sequence stratigraphic model

and its paleogeographic components also indicate
most likely areas and intervals of coal accumulation. Hydrocarbon source potential depends upon
organic preservation, so it is possible to use the
sequence stratigraphic and paleogeographic concepts herein to estimate coal character and source
potential. The model also provides insights for
mapping and extrapolating the extent of paralic
coals and coaly rocks through its combination of
subsidence analysis, paleogeography, and sequence
stratigraphy.
Finally, we recognize that mires are complex and
sensitive dynamic systems. This model is intended
to aid in constructing a stratigraphic framework
within which to consider and explain the myriad
complexities of coal occurrence and distribution.

1636

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 23Schematic
representation of parasequence
and sequence stacking patterns
in the Cretaceous Blackhawk
Formation, Utah. Note close
relation of sequence stacking
to parasequence extent and coal
occurrence.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kevin M. Bohacs
Kevin M. Bohacs is a sedimentologist and stratigrapher with the
Petroleum Geochemistry section of
Exxon Production Research (EPR).
He received his B.Sc.(Honors) in
geology from the University of
Connecticut in 1976 and his Sc.D.
in experimental sedimentology
from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1981. At EPR, he
leads the application of sequence
stratigraphy to organic-rich rocks, from the deep sea to
swamps and lakes, in basins around the world. He has
written numerous papers on source rock stratigraphy.

John R. Suter
John R. Suter is a senior research
scientist with the predictive stratigraphy group of the integrated interpretation center of Conoco, Inc., in
Houston, Texas. Suter obtained
bachelors and masters degrees in
geology from the University of
Texas at Austin, and a Ph.D. in geology from Louisiana State University.
Suter has worked as a marine geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey
and the Louisiana Geological Survey, and as a research
geologist for Exxon Production Research. He has published extensively on clastic facies and sequence stratigraphy. Suter was awarded the SEPM Excellence of
Presentation Award in 1986 and 1987, the GCAGS Best
Published Paper Award in 1989, Best of AAPG for SEG in
1985, and the AAPG Jules Braunstein Award in 1986 and
1995. Currently, he works on the application of sequence
stratigraphy to exploration and production problems on
Conoco holdings worldwide.