Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thisisahandoutthatwillhelpyousystematicallysketchfunctionsonacoordinateplane.Thishandout
alsocontainsdefinitionsofrelevanttermsneededforcurvesketching.Anotherhandoutavailableinthe
TutoringCenterhas3sampleproblemsworkedoutcompletely.
ASYMPTOTES:
Thishandoutwilldiscussthreekindsofasymptotes:vertical,horizontal,andslant.
VERTICALASYMPTOTES
Wedefinethelinex=casaverticalasymptoteofthegraphof f x ,iff(ifandonlyif) f x
approachesinfinity(ornegativeinfinity)asxapproachescfromtherightorleft.
Theconceptofanasymptoteisbestillustratedinthefollowingexample:
Takethefunction f x
2x
1x
Here,wecanseethatxcannottakethevalueof1,otherwise, f x wouldbeundefined.Also:
lim f x and lim f x
x 1
x 1
Inthiscase,wecallthelinex=1averticalasymptoteof f x .
2
VerticalAsymptote:x=1
-2
-1
-1
-2
(863)6/02
Thefactthat f x isundefinedatx=1isnotenoughtoconcludethatwehaveaverticalasymptote.
Thefunctionmustalsoapproachinfinityornegativeinfinityasxapproachesthevalueatwhich f x is
undefined.
(863)6/02
Considerthefollowingproblem:
f x
x 2 3x 2
x2
Thefunction f x isundefinedatx=2butwedonothaveanasymptote.Noticethefollowing:
x 2 3x 2
( x 2)( x 1)
lim
lim x 1 2 1
x 2
x 2
x 2
x2
x2
lim
Weconcludethat f x approaches1asxapproaches2.Thisfunctionhasa"hole",notanasymptote,
atthevalueforwhich f x isundefined.
f x
-2
-1
x 2 3x 2
x2
-1
-2
HORIZONTALASYMPTOTES
Wedefinetheliney=Lasahorizontalasymptoteofthegraphoff(x),ifff(x)approachesLasx
approachesinfinity(ornegativeinfinity).
(863)6/02
Forthefunction f x
2x
theline y 2 isthehorizontalasymptoteofthegraphof f x .
1 x
Thefollowinglimitshowswhythisistrue:
2x
2
2
2x
2
2
lim
2
lim
lim
2
x 1 x
x 1
and x 1 x x 1
1
1
1
x
x
lim
x 1
4
2
-2
2
-2
y 2
-4
-6
Aquickwaytodeterminethepositionofthehorizontalasymptoteofarationalfunction(havingno
commonfactors)iswiththefollowingmethod.Lookatthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorandthe
highestdegreeinthedenominator.
Ifthehighestdegreeisinthedenominator,thenthehorizontalasymptoteisy=0.
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorandthehighestdegreeinthedenominator
areequal,thehorizontalasymptoteistheratioofthecoefficientofthehighest
degreeterminthenumeratortothecoefficientofthehighestdegreeterminthe
denominator.
2x
(Inourpreviousexampley=
,thehighestdegreeinthenumeratoris1andthe
1 x
highestdegreeinthedenominatoris1.Theratioofhighestdegreetermcoefficients
2
is .Sothehorizontalasymptoteisy=2.)
1
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorisonedegreelargerthanthehighestdegreein
thenumerator,thenthefunctionhasaslantasymptote.
(863)6/02
SLANTASYMPTOTES
Ifthehighestdegreeinthenumeratorofarationalfunction(havingnocommonfactors)isonedegreelarger
thanthehighestdegreeinthedenominator,wesaythatthefunctionhasaslantasymptote.
Todeterminetheasymptote,rewritethefunctionintermsofapolynomial+anotherrationalfunction.For
example,let
f(x)=
x 2 3x 3
x 1
Dividingthenumeratorbyx1weget
f(x)=x+2+
5
x 1
5
approaches0asxapproachesinfinityandnegativeinfinity,thefunctionf(x)
x 1
approachestheliney=x+2asxapproachesinfinityandnegativeinfinity.y=x+2iscalledaslant
asymptote.
Sincethefraction
y x 2
6
4
f x
-2
x 2 3x 3
x 1
-2
-4
-6
x 1
Someremarksaboutfunctionswithasymptotes:
VerticalasymptotesareNEVERcrossedbyf(x).However,thegraph
off(x)maysometimescrossahorizontalorslantasymptote.
Asymptoteshelpdeterminetheshapeofthegraph.
Polynomialfunctionsneverhaveasymptotes.
(863)6/02
INCREASINGANDDECREASING:
Afunctionisincreasingoveranintervalif,whentracingthegraphfromlefttoright,
thegraphisgoingup.Likewise,afunctionisdecreasingoveranintervalwhenthe
graphisgoingdown.
Mathematically,thefunctionf(x)isincreasingwhenf '(x)(theslopeofthetangent
linetothecurve)ispositiveandf(x)isdecreasingwhenf '(x)isnegative.
Slopesofthetangentlines
Arepositivewhenx<cso
F(x)isincreasingwhenx<c.
f(x)
Afunctionf(x)canchangefromincreasingtodecreasing(orviceversa)atvalues
wheref '(x)=0orf '(x)isundefined.
f(x)
f(x)
incre
asin
g
ng
easi
decr
ng
easi
decr
incre
asin
g
f '(x) is undefined at x = c
f(x) changes from decreasing
to increasing at x = c
f '(x) = 0 when x = c
f(x) changes from increasing
to decreasing at x = c
Tofindwhereafunctionisincreasingandwhereitisdecreasing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Computef '(x)
Determinethevalue(s)ofxwheref '(x)=0orwheref '(x)isundefined.
Orderthevaluesfoundin(2)inincreasingorderandplotthemonanumberline.
Foreveryintervalbetweentwoconsecutivevaluesin(3)chooseatestvaluein
thatinterval.
5. Determinethevalueoff '(x)atthetestvalue.
6. Iff'(x)>0atthetestvalue,thenf(x)isincreasingonthatinterval.Iff '(x)<0
atthetestvalue,thenf(x)isdecreasingonthatinterval.
(863)6/02
Forexample: Letf(x)=3x39x.Determinewheref(x)isincreasingandwhereitis
decreasing.
Takingthefirstderivativeandsettingitequaltozero,weobtain:
f '(x)= 9x29=0
9(x21)=0
9(x+1)(x1)=0>x=1andx=1
f '(x)isdefinedeverywhere,sowehaveonly2valueswheref(x)canchangefromincreasingto
decreasing:x=1andx=1.
Orderthevaluesfoundaboveonanumberlineasfollows:
-1
f '(x)
Theintervalsweneedtotestare( ,1),(1,1)and(1, ):
1) Fortheinterval( ,1)wewillchoosex=2asourtestvalue.
f '(2)=9(2)29=369=27
Sincef '(2)>0,weknowf(x)isincreasingontheinterval( ,1).
2) Fortheinterval(1,1)choosex=0asourtestvalue.
f '(0)=9(0)29=9
Therefore,sincef '(0)<0,f(x)isdecreasingontheinterval(1,1).
3) Fortheinterval(1, )choosex=2asourtestvalue.
f '(2)=9(2)29=369=27
Again,f(x)isincreasingontheinterval(1, ),becausef '(2)>0.
Relabelingournumberlinewehavethefollowing:
+
1
-1
f '(x)
Rememberthatvalueswheref'(x)=0orf'(x)isundefinedareonlypotentialplaceswherethegraph
canchangefromincreasingtodecreasing(orviceversa).Itispossible,however,thatthefunctionmay
notchangeatthosevalues.
f(x)
f'(x)isundefinedatx=0
f(x)isdecreasingwhenx<0
f(x)isdecreasingwhenx>0
x
(863)6/02
CRITICAL/EXTREMEPOINT:
Anotherimportantconceptneededincurvesketchingisacriticalpoint.Ifx=cisinthedomainoff(x)
andeitherf '(c)=0orf '(c)isnotdefined,thenx=ciscalledacriticalvalueofthefunctionf(x),and
(c,f(c))iscalledacriticalpoint.Acriticalpointmaybeamaximumpoint,minimumpoint,orneither.
Arelative(orlocal)maximumpointisacriticalpointwherethefunctionchangesfromincreasingto
decreasing.
Arelative(orlocal)minimumpointisacriticalpointwherethefunctionchangesfromdecreasingto
increasing.
Thecriticalpointisneitheramaximumnoraminimumifthefunctiondoesnotchangefromincreasing
todecreasing(orviceversa)atthecriticalpoint.
f(x)
f(x)
(c,f(c))
f(x)=x3
f(x)
f'(x)=3x2
x
c
(c,f(c))
f(c)isdefinedandf'(c)=0so
(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint.
f(x)isincreasingbeforex=c
anddecreasingafterx=cso
(c,f(c))isarelativemaximum.
f(c)isdefinedandf'(c)is
f(0)isdefinedandf'(0)=0so
undefinedso(c,f(c))isacritical (0,0)isacriticalpoint.
point.
f(x)isincreasingbeforex=0and
f(x)isdecreasingbeforex=c
increasingafterx=0so(c,f(c))is
andincreasingafterx=cso
neitheramaxnoramin.
(c,f(c))isarelativeminimum.
Tolocatethecriticalpointsonthegraph:
1. Takethefirstderivativeofthefunctionanddeterminethevaluesx=cwhere
f '(c)=0orf '(c)isundefined.
2. Ifcisinthedomainoff(x),then(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint.
(863)6/02
Forexample:
f(x)=3x39x
Earlierwefoundthatf '(x)=9x29=0,whenx=1andx=1,andf '(x)isdefinedeverywhere.
Sincef(x)isdefinedforbothx=1andx=1,wehavefoundtwocriticalvalues.
Substitutingthesevaluesintoouroriginalfunction,wefindthat
f(1) =3(1)39(1)
=39
y =6
AND
f(1) =3(1)39(1)
=3+9
y =6
Thus,wehavefoundcriticalpointsat(1,6)and(1,6).
Youcandeterminewhetherthesepointsaremaximumpoints,minimumpoints,or
neither,usingeitherthefirstderivativetestorthesecondderivativetest(thesecondderivative
testwillbeexplainedinthenextsection):
FIRSTDERIVATIVETEST
1. Determinewherethefunctionisincreasingordecreasing.
2. Ifthefunctionisincreasingbeforethecriticalvalueanddecreasingafterthecritical
value,thepointisamaximum.Ifthefunctionisdecreasingbeforethecriticalvalue
andincreasingafter,thenthecriticalpointisaminimum.Otherwise,thecriticalpoint
isneitheramaximumnoraminimum.
Forexample:Earlierwefoundcriticalpointsforf(x)=3x39x,at(1,6)and(1,6).To
determinewhetherthesepointsaremaximumsorminimums,usethefirstderivativetest.
Firstdeterminewheref(x)=3x39xisincreasinganddecreasing.
Thecriticalvaluesfoundabovewerex=1andx=1.
Fromourpreviousexamplewefoundthatf(x)isincreasingon( ,1),decreasingon
(1,1)andincreasingon(1, ).Thus,wehadthefollowingnumberline:
+
-1
(863)6/02
+
1
f '(x)
Atthecriticalvaluex=1,thefunctionchangesfromincreasingtodecreasing.
Therefore,(1,6)isamaximum.
Atthecriticalvaluex=1,thefunctionchangesfromdecreasingtoincreasing.
Therefore,(1,6)isaminimum.
maximum
(1,6)
f(x)=3x39x
f(x)
6
4
2
x
-3
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
minimum
(1,6)
CONCAVITY:
Concavitydescribesthegeneral"cupping"ofafunctionataparticularpointorinterval.Whenthe
slopeofthetangenttothecurveisincreasingoveraninterval(f '(x)isincreasing,i.e.f ''(x)>0)the
functionisconcaveup.Whentheslopeofthetangenttothecurveisdecreasingoveraninterval(f
'(x)isdecreasing,i.e.f ''(x)<0)thefunctionisconcavedown.
f(x)
concaveup
Slopeoftangent
linesisdecreasing
(f"(x)<0)
B
concavedown
A
Slopeoftangent
Linesisincreasing
(f"(x)>0)
NoticethatthepointAisacriticalpoint(sincetheslopeofthetangentlineis0atA)andf(x)is
concaveupatA.WecanseethatAisaminimum.AlsothepointBisacriticalpoint(sincethe
(863)6/02
10
slopeofthetangentlineis0atB)andf(x)isconcavedownatB.WecanseethatBisa
maximum.
(863)6/02
11
Concavitycanhelpusdetermineifacriticalpointisamaximumoraminimum.Thefollowing
isthesecondmethodfordeterminingwhetheracriticalpointisamaximumoraminimum.
SECONDDERIVATIVETEST
If(c,f(c))isacriticalpoint,then:
1. Iff ''(c)<0,thefunctionisconcavedownatthatpointandthus(c,f(c))isamaximumpoint.
2. Iff ''(c)>0,thefunctionisconcaveupatthatpointandthus(c,f(c))isaminimum
point.
3 Iff ''(c)=0,thenthesecondderivativetestfailstodetermineifthepointisamaximum
orminimum.Inthiscase,thefirstderivativetestmentionedearliershouldbeused.
Ourcriticalpointswere(1,6)and(1,6).
Usingthesecondderivativetestweobtainthefollowing:
f ''(1)=18
Sincef ''(1)<0,thefunctionisconcavedownat(1,6)isamaximum.
f ''(1)=18
Sincef ''(1)>0,thefunctionisconcaveupat(1,6)isaminimum.
WeseethatwegetthesameresultsusingtheSecondDerivativeTestaswedousingtheFirst
DerivativeTest.
INFLECTIONPOINTS:
Aninflectionpointisapointonagraph(inthedomainoff)whereconcavitychangesfrom
concaveuptoconcavedown,orviceversa.Concavitycanchangeatvalueswheref ''(x)=0orf
''(x)isundefined.
Tofindinflectionpoints:
1. Determinewherethefunctionisconcaveupandwhereitisconcavedown:
a)Determinethevalue(s)ofxwheref ''(x)=0orf ''(x)isundefined.
b)Orderthevaluesfoundaboveinincreasingorderandplotthemonanumberline.
c)Foreveryintervalbetweentwoconsecutivevalues,chooseatestvalueinthat
interval.
d)Determinethevalueoff ''(x)atthetestvalue.
e)Iff ''(x)>0atthetestvalue,f(x)isconcaveuponthatinterval.Iff ''(x)<0atthe
testpoint,thenf(x)isconcavedownonthatinterval.
(863)6/02
12
2. Ifthefunctionchangesfromconcaveuptoconcavedown(orviceversa)atx=cand
f(c)isdefinedthen(c,f(c))isaninflectionpoint.
(863)6/02
13
Example:Earlierwefoundthesecondderivativeoff(x)=3x39xwhichwas
f ''(x)=18x
f ''(x)=0whenx=0,andisdefinedeverywhere.
Plottingthisonanumberlineweget:
f ''(x)
Fortheinterval( ,0)choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)<0,f(x)isconcavedownontheinterval( ,0).
f ''(1)=18
Fortheinterval(0, )choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval(0, ).
f ''(1)=18
Labelingournumberlineweget:
+
0
f ''(x)
Sincef(x)changesfromconcavedowntoconcaveupatx=
0,andf(x)isdefinedatx=0,thepoint(0,f(0))=(0,0)isan
inflectionpoint.
f(x)
f(x)=3x39x
6
4
2
concave
up
x
-3
-2
-1
concave
down
-2
-4
inflection
point
-6
(863)6/02
14
Rememberthatvalueswheref''(x)=0orf''(x)isundefinedareonlypotentialplaceswherethe
graphcanchangeconcavity.Itispossible,howeverthatthefunctionmaynotchangeconcavity
atthosevalues.Forexample:f(x)=x4f'(x)=4x3f''(x)=12x2
f''(x)=0whenx=0
Plottingthisonanumberlineweget:
f ''(x)
Fortheinterval( ,0)choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval( ,0).
f ''(1)=12
Fortheinterval(0, )choosex=1tobeourtestpoint:
Sincef ''(1)>0,f(x)isconcaveupontheinterval(0, ).
f ''(1)=12
Labelingournumberlineweget:
+
0
f ''(x)
Inthisexamplef(x)=x4isconcaveupwhenx<0andconcaveupwhenx>0.Concavitydid
notchangeatx=0sothepoint(0,0)isnotaninflectionpoint.
(863)12/99
UTLearningCenter
JesterA332A5124713614
UniversityofTexasatAustin