The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that (was

carried) into orbit by a Space Shuttle in 1990 and (remains) in operation. A 2.4
meter (7.9ft) aperture telescope in low Earth orbit, Hubbles four main
instruments observe in the nuclear ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared. The
telescope (was named) after the astronomer Edwin Hubble.
Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and
most versatile, and is well known as a both a vital research tool and a public
relation boon for astronomy. The HST (was built) by the United States space
agency NASA, with contributions from the European Space Agency. The telescope
is operated by the Space Telescope Science Institute. The HST is one of NASAs
Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the
Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope.
Space telescopes (were proposed) as early as 1923. Hubble was funded
in the 1970s, with a proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by
technical delays, budget problems, and the Challenger disaster. When finally
launched in 1990, scientists (found) that the main mirror (had been made)
incorrectly, compromising the telescopes capabilities. The telescope was
restored to its intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by
astronauts. Between 1993 and 2002, four missions repaired, upgraded, and
replaced systems on the telescope; a fifth mission was canceled on safety
grounds following the Columbia disaster. However, after spirited public
discussion, NASA administrator Mike Griffin (approved) one final servicing
mission, completed in 2009 by Space Shuttle Atlantis. The telescope is now
expected to function until at least 2013. Its scientific successor, the James Webb
Space Telescope (JWST), (will be launched)in 2018 or possibly later.

Between 4000 and 3000 B.C, significant technological developments

(began) to transform the Neolithic towns. The use of metals marked a new level
of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before 4000
B.C, craftspeople (had discovered) that metal-bearing rocks (could heat) to
liquefy metals, which could then be cast in molds to produce tools and weapons
that were more useful than stone instruments. Although copper was the first
metal to be utilized for producing tools but after 4000 B.C, craftspeople in
western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a
much harder and more durable than copper. Its widespread use (has lead)
historians to call the period the Bronze Age; thereafter, from around 3000 to 120
B.C bronze (was increasingly replaced) by iron. At first, Neolithic settlements
(were) hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of
farming, more complex human societies (emerged).
As human societies grew and developed greater complexity, a new form of
human existencecalled civilizationcame into being. A civilization is a complex
culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common
elements. Lately historians (have identified) a number of basic characteristics
of civilization, most of which (were) evident in the Southwest Asian and Egyptian
civilizations. Why early civilizations developed (remains) difficult to explain but
a number of possible explanations of the beginning of civilization (have been
suggested). A theory of challenge and response explains that challenges which
happened long time ago (have forced) human beings to make efforts that
resulted in the rise of civilization. Some scholars have adhered to a material
explanation. Material forces such as the growth of food surpluses, made possible
the development of large communities. But, the area of the Fertile Crescent was
not conducive to agriculture. Abundant food (could be produced) only with a
massive human effort to carefully manage the water. Some historians (argue)
that non material forces, primarily religious provided the sense of unity and
purpose that made such organized activities possible. The other scholars, in fact,
doubt that they (will capable) to discover the actual cause of early civilization
due to uncovered mysteries.