Professional Documents
Culture Documents
“Minimum Requirements for WASH Programmes” (MR-WASH) is essential reading for all Oxfam GB1
Public Health (PH) field staff and partners, and their Managers. It describes the process and standards
to which Oxfam WASH programmes2 must adhere if they are to be carried out effectively, consistently
and in a way which treats affected communities with respect.
PH Team Leaders, Co-ordinators, Advisors and HSPs should use MR-WASH as a constant
reference when implementing activities on a day-to-day basis, and for planning purposes to ensure
sufficient time and resources are allocated for projects to comply with Oxfam’s Minimum
Requirements.
Project Managers and Country Management Teams should use MR-WASH as a checklist of
“must dos” which they need to be satisfied are understood and are being fulfilled by their staff.
PH Field Staff (Officers and Assistants) will be trained on MR-WASH at the start of every new
programme, and should follow the Requirements in their daily work.
Staff from Local Partner organisations – unless specifically stated MR-WASH also applies to
partner organisations working with Oxfam on a WASH programme.
2. All PH staff are expected to follow these Minimum Requirements. However, there will be situations
or projects in which certain aspects are not appropriate or relevant; in such cases staff members
responsible must be able to justify why she/he did things differently.
3. MR-WASH is intended to support and give clarity about what Oxfam does and how to do it well; it
should NOT limit programme activities. In particular, innovative approaches to WASH activities that
meet these MR are encouraged.
5. For the sake of clarity and consistency this document uses the term ‘affected communities’ to
describe the communities we work with in humanitarian emergencies, including host communities
where applicable.
B1 Health data PH staff must have a simple system for accessing and interpreting data on key disease trends, whether collected directly from
affected communities, through co-ordination activities and/or from medical professionals.
Epidemiological data should be used to develop hygiene promotion campaigns.
B2 Water All WASH programmes should aim to comply with the SPHERE Minimum Standards for water supply in terms of water
quantity, water quality and locations/distances to water points.
WASH programmes must provide hygiene promotion on the importance of the safe water chain, operation and maintenance,
and the means to enable safe hygiene practices.
B3 Excreta Disposal WASH programmes must ensure appropriate safe sanitation for affected communities, including facilities for excreta disposal
and bathing, to minimise risk of WASH-related disease and environmental pollution, in a way that maintains dignity.
Sanitation activities must be based on consultation with beneficiaries – especially women, children and less able people – on
design, type and location of any sanitation facility. Where possible sanitation facilities should be based on materials that
communities have at their disposal.
Desludging and decommissioning needs should be considered when designing excreta disposal projects.
B4 Solid Waste Management All solid waste activities should be based on the findings of a solid waste audit, and follow hierarchy of options (minimisation,
re-use, recycling, disposal) in accordance with local conditions.
For reasons for health, safety and environment: household-level burning of waste should not be promoted; all hazardous
waste arising from Oxfam activities must be specially managed; and, appropriate personal protective equipment should be
issued for all waste activities.
B5 Promotion of Hand-washing Hand washing must be addressed, especially in all latrines Oxfam constructs or repairs, either at the latrine or at the
household level, by the promotion of hand-washing techniques, and promotion and provision of soap or proxy such as ash.
B6 Distribution of Hygiene Kits The composition, targeting criteria and distribution systems for hygiene kits must be decided in consultation with the affected
community, and undertaken in co-ordination with the WASH Cluster.
B7 Development and Use of The affected community must be consulted before the rollout of an IEC programme to ensure cultural sensitivity and
Information, Education and understanding of the subject matter.
Communication materials Development and use of IEC should also be undertaken in close collaboration with the WASH and Health Cluster and
appropriate government departments to ensure that consistent, ‘approved’ messages are used.
An IEC strategy that explains the rationale for the choice of messages, communications methodologies and monitoring
mechanisms should be developed as soon as possible.
B8 Vector Control Physical or chemical vector control activities must be based on a clear assessment of the risk of vectors to WASH-related
disease, and co-ordinated with WASH Cluster, government authorities and specialist agencies to ensure added value of
Oxfam intervention.
Oxfam does not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the
sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.
B9 Shelter PH staff should provide input on technical shelter designs, construction management, and WASH integration in transitional
shelter projects.
B10 Camps and Informal PH staff should be proactively involved in supporting camp and settlement planning with WASH input. This should include
Settlements technical assessments of water availability and planning and layout of water distribution network and sanitation facilities.
B11 Construction Standards All Oxfam construction activities (site management, health and safety, excavations, masonry, concrete, and sign off) must
meet or exceed national quality standards, and be based on a regularly reviewed work plan.
B12 Cholera and other All PH staff must be aware if cholera is endemic in the country they are working and they must be familiar with the measures
Diarrhoeal Outbreak Control for prevention and response.
All PH staff must be familiar with the critical stages in the outbreak curve and key target activities for each stage as specified
on the OGB Cholera Prevention and Control Guidelines.
At a minimum a response to a severe diarrhoea outbreak should entail the following:
o Intensive public health campaign on key diarrhoea focused messages.
o Access to oral re-hydration.
o Chlorination of all drinking water.
o Distribution of NFIs.
o Clean-up campaigns to ensure the environment is free from faecal matter.
o Provision of WASH support to Cholera Treatment Centres.
o Close co-ordination with the Health Cluster and MoH.
B13 Malaria The decision to intervene with a malaria programme must be based on knowledge of the malaria profile for the area: all
WASH assessments must include an appraisal of malaria risk and the capacity and intention of other agencies (including the
government) to intervene.
Depending on context the preference for Oxfam malaria activities is for the provision of community education to ensure
effective prevention of malaria and distribution of insecticide-treated nets.
B14 Other public health If PH staff identify a need or opportunity to intervene in other public health areas, Programme Management, and preferably
programming Regional or Oxford-based Public Health Advisors should be consulted to determine Oxfam’s capacity to intervene, what
added value Oxfam would bring, and budgetary and timing issues.
B15 What we DON’T do PH staff must be briefed and understand the limit of Oxfam PH activities, and know how to deal with requests for humanitarian
support in activities that we do not undertake (if necessary with the support of Programme Managers).
• PH teams should appraise options for income generation / revenue collection by WASH committees (for example to finance
Operation and Maintenance (O&M)) with EFSL colleagues.
• Livelihoods work initiated by PH teams must consider the particular needs of women and vulnerable groups such as PLWHA.
A1.7 Working with WASH Partners • HUHA 3.13
Local authorities and NGOs often have excellent local knowledge and contacts as well as skilled human resources. • Oxfam Partnership
There are many different models for working with partners. For example, Oxfam sets the work plan and undertakes management and Policy, 2007
M&E; the partner submits their own proposal and Oxfam oversees implementation; Oxfam seconds staff into partners to support them; or • OI Toolbox, Working
Oxfam seconds staff from partners into Oxfam. with Partners in
Whichever method is chosen depends on the capacity of the partner and the primary objective of the programme (for example, is it rapid Humanitarian
emergency response or longer-term capacity building), what is acceptable to the local partner, and ultimately, what is the most effective Responses, 2008
way for the project to deliver for the affected communities. • WASH Cluster
Hygiene Promotion
Training Materials,
2009
A1.8 Working with Finance, Logistics and other Programme Support Functions • HUHA 4
The HUHA details Minimum Requirements for Programme Support Functions. In addition to this, PH teams should:
• Be briefed on the functions of Finance, Logistics, HR and other Programme Support teams, and understand how they interact with
WASH programmes.
• Receive a briefing on the overall programme budget, in particular the WASH activity budget, donors/sources of funds, and budget
codes and how to use them.
• Undertake joint assessments/field visits with Logistics staff to aid in implementing NFI distributions or delivery of construction
materials, as well as market assessments.
• Ensure that all WASH activities which require cash payment or transfer of materials in the field are communicated to the Programme
Manager, and that adequate support is sought to undertake these activities safely and in line with Oxfam policy.
3 It is increasingly common for a WASH Cluster to be activated for humanitarian emergencies. In order to be succinct, different mechanisms for WASH co-ordination are hereafter referred to simply as the ‘WASH Cluster’, and relevant
Minimum Requirements apply regardless of whether a formal Cluster has been established or not.
and what and how they should feedback outcomes / actions to colleagues.
• Ensure that key outcomes from every co-ordination meeting are concisely communicated to management and teams in a timely
manner,
PH staff can also take opportunities for informal networking (outside meetings, over coffee etc.) with colleagues from other agencies to
widen their scope of contacts.
Oxfam role in WASH Cluster Leadership
In humanitarian emergencies the lead for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) co-ordination is Unicef working closely with local
authorities.
• In general Oxfam does not offer to be a WASH Cluster lead in countries as this is the role of Unicef as global co-ordinating agency.
Our primary role is in providing emergency preparedness and response; taking on a cluster lead role without sufficient back-stopping
can lead to a loss of vital emergency preparedness and response capacity.
• Much of our credibility in the WASH sector comes from our reputation for operational work (either directly or through partners).
Working in this role we are able to play an active and influential role in the cluster and other co-ordination processes. Where
possible we should be offering to lead PHE and PHP technical working groups that support cluster co-ordination.
• This does not mean that we will never take the cluster lead in a country. There have been circumstances in which we will do this for
particular context-specific reasons and for a distinct time period. But we should not set ourselves up as long-term cluster leads in
countries, and we should always consider the resource implications of engaging in Cluster Leadership
A2.3 Co-ordination with Government
In most cases, the responsibility for humanitarian response ultimately rests with the government of the affected country.
The extent of co-ordination that is possible with government authorities on specific WASH issues will depend on the political and
humanitarian context, however PH staff (in collaboration with Oxfam Country Management) should:
• Take pro-active steps to develop a working relationship with the relevant technical WASH authorities at local and national level.
• Obtain copies of national legislation, policies and standards covering all relevant public health issues, ensure all PH teams are
trained in these policies and understand their application.
These can often be done through the WASH Cluster or other functioning inter-NGO co-ordination mechanism.
A5 Today’s response, tomorrow’s disaster – forward thinking for WASH Reference documents
All WASH programmes, however short-term or ‘rapid response-orientated’ they might seem, should consider aspects of Disaster
Risk Reduction in assessment, on-going activities and preparedness planning.
A5.1 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) • Oxfam Learning
Due to the increasing frequency and impact of disasters and consequential disease epidemics, all Oxfam programmes must consider Companion on DRR
how they can integrate DRR into WASH and other programmes. Examples of how DRR can be integrated into WASH activities are given and WASH
in the ‘Learning Companion on DRR and WASH’, but at a minimum, PH staff should: • Oxfam DRR
• Think beyond the present situation when undertaking rapid and baseline WASH assessments: Programme Policy,
o In addition to current impacts, is there evidence that natural hazards are increasing?, and what are the vulnerabilities of the 2009
affected community (particularly women) to these disasters?
o What capabilities does the affected community have to respond to disasters?
o What opportunities are there for empowering affected communities to understand the disaster risks (including climate
change patterns), identify solutions, and negotiate the means to implement these.
• Undertake a similar analysis of on-going programmes (both humanitarian and development) with the above considerations.
• Consider the potential long-term negative impacts of WASH activities.
• Contribute to the development of preparedness plans in anticipation of disasters ( Section A12 Contingency Planning). These
should include contingency plans and stocks, and funding proposals to help mitigate the impact of future disasters. Ensure that all
stakeholders - including affected communities, the WASH Cluster, and local authorities, are involved in preparedness planning from
the beginning.
• Ensure that you understand the different solutions for communication with disabled people such as the deaf, blind and those with
mental disabilities. This is a good starting point when reaching disabled people.
• Ensure that you understand timing issues for home visits to make sure that you don’t miss the vulnerable whose livelihoods are
outside their home or are seasonally away.
• Don’t assume that just because you don’t see a vulnerable group in the community that they don’t exist – e.g. the mentally and
physically disabled people are often kept inside their home by family members.
PH staff must:
• Understand Oxfam’s gender policy.
• Ensure there is no negative impact on women due to OGB programming.
• Basic gender analysis is completed and used to inform WASH programming.
• Collect gender disaggregated data (considering the feasibility and actual need/usefulness of this data – i.e. don’t collect it if no-one is
going to use it).
• Ensure that women and men are actively involved in the design and targeting of humanitarian programme activities, in particular (but
not limited to) the siting and design of sanitation facilities and water points, the choice of non-food items and the contents of hygiene
kits.
• Ensure that issues of women’s and girl’s dignity is addressed through out the programme cycle, in particular (but not limited to) the
design of latrines and bathing cubicles and access to appropriate menstrual protection materials.
• Promote the equal representation of women – not only in numbers, but also in terms of decision-making powers - in WASH
community-management structures.
• Promote the opportunity for women to be the explicit beneficiaries of WASH-related income generation activities, and take steps for
removal of barriers (e.g. childcare) to women’s participation in these.
A9.3 Mainstreaming Protection • HUHA 3.9
Mainstreaming of protection in a WASH programme ensures that: • Oxfam Protection
• WASH teams contribute to the wider humanitarian goal of safe programming, in particular by mitigating the concern that WASH Training Manual,
goods and services provided might make affected communities more vulnerable to violence, sexual exploitation or coercion. Module 3, 2009
PH staff must:
• Be briefed by a Manager on the protection threats that they might encounter during the course of their work, and how they could
respond.
• Ensure that protection information relevant to WASH (including land-ownership) is collected and analysed during assessments.
• Ensure that people’s safety is taken into consideration in programme design e.g. siting and lighting of facilities, distance to water
points, community meetings and management of NFI distributions.
• Understand the relevant linkages for channelling information on protection trends. With the support of the Programme Manager or
other Oxfam colleagues, information could be passed to the Protection Cluster, UNHCR or individual agencies dealing with
protection issues.
• WASH facilities must be completely finished before they are handed over to the community, and the community needs to agree that
the facility is ready for handover and all the supporting elements have been put in place. A signed MoU should confirm this.
• Training of communities or other stakeholders in O&M requires considerable time, planning and resources. It should not be left until
the very end of the programme.
PH staff should:
• Consider the multiple uses of water – drinking, cooking, washing AND livelihoods (e.g. irrigation, livestock, brick making, water
vendoring etc.) by different groups when undertaking WASH assessments and planning activities. Although WASH programmes
might be unable to provide water for all household and livelihood uses, PH staff must have an understanding of the overall water
demand.
• During assessments, work with the affected community to identify and prioritise credible risks to water supply. If these risks are
significant, PH staff should then design activities that address these risks (see CBWRM Companion).
• Consider and monitor the impacts of WASH programme activities on longer-term water resources, livelihoods and protection issues.
• Gain an understanding of communal water laws and practices (in addition to national policies and legislation) and how these might
impact on WASH activities.
B2.3 Water Quantity
• When calculating L/P/D, do not just divide the water production figures by the population but back the figures up with household
water usage surveys.
• Refer to Sphere for details of daily water requirements for different users.
• The easiest way to establish if there is a water shortage is to look at the queues at water points.
• Distance from the water source is the biggest factor in determining household consumption; therefore, always ensure that water
points are distributed as evenly as possible.
• In arid zones, livestock have no alternative sources of water and must also be included in calculations of water requirements
B2.4 Water Quality Testing • Oxfam Technical Brief
• In a 1st phase emergency carry out a rapid sanitary survey of water sources and, wherever there is a suspicion of contamination, on Water Quality
‘protect’ the source and/or chlorinate the water. There is no need to undertake a bacteriological test at this stage. Analysis in
Emergency Situations
• All chlorinated sources should be monitored regularly (daily, bi-daily or weekly, depending on the severity of the emergency) with a
simple pool tester.
• Bacteriological tests should be carried out when handing over improved water sources to communities and when there are any
disease outbreaks.
• All routine water test results MUST be communicated to water users.
• ACTION must be taken when residual chlorine, bacterial and chemical analysis results fail.
• Ensure that water is acceptable to the users by addressing taste, colour and smell issues.
• There should be regular campaigns to clean water containers, as dirty containers are 1 of the major sources of contamination.
• In the first phase of an emergency options for water treatment in the home such as alum and chlorine distributions, household
chlorination or combined floc / disinfectant sachets should be promoted (all with considerable promotion and monitoring).
• If introducing “new” technologies during the immediate emergency response consider the ethical implications and adequate
resources for the additional promotion requirements.
• For slow-onset emergencies or where people are still in their homes, sustainable household treatment such as ceramic pots or
candles, biosand filters, and SODIS should be promoted. The choice of which depends on what previous experience communities
have, local availability etc.
• All of these activities must be planned and implemented in close consultation with the affected communities, as cultural and
religious norms relating to safe water chain have a significant impact on the success of any programme.
B2.7 Design and Siting of Hand-Dug Wells • Oxfam Technical
• Wells should be dug during the dry season, to ensure the availability of water during all seasons. Manual on Hand-dug
Wells
• Always line hand-dug wells.
• Experiences from
• Liners must adhere to Oxfam standard of 1.5m external and 1.3m internal diameters and 100mm thickness.
Turkana and Wajir,
• All hand-dug wells must have a minimum of 1m raised wellheads, and concrete aprons with proper drainage leading to gravel soak Kenya programmes
pits must be included. (Consider highest flood level).
• Where necessary address livestock and agriculture water needs in the design of the well.
• Gravel filters must be included at the bottom and sides of wells and drainage channels.
• Always incorporate a sanitary seal, preferably a 1:2:4 concrete mix 1m from ground level (water table permitting).
• Use a 1:2:4 mix ratio for concrete ring production.
• Wells should be fitted with a hand pump or windlass and a proper cover slab with manhole options. (Consider availability of
replacement hand-pump parts).
• Ensure that the wells are resilient to natural disasters by provision for deepening in drought prone areas and providing necessary
protection from flooding.
B2.8 Borehole Design • Oxfam Guidelines on
• All boreholes must have gravel packs, sanitary seals, concrete aprons with proper drainage to soak pits, and low-maintenance Well Design in
sustainable pumping devices. (Consider highest flood level when selecting height to raise the hand-pump). Emergencies
• Borehole diameter should be 200mm greater than the OD of screen/casing to incorporate a gravel pack. • Oxfam Technical Brief
on Solar Pumping
• Screen slot size should be 0.5mm or 1mm with an open area of 10%. Slot size should normally depend on the aquifer formation
and the size of silt.
• The gravel pack must be well rounded and not angular, preferably 2-4mm diameter, and of silicate rich (>70%) or quartzitic nature.
• The gravel pack should completely enclose the screened portion to at least 5m above highest screen level. A bentonitic clay seal
0.5m should be placed above the gravel pack before backfilling.
• After borehole development it is imperative to undertake a 24-hour pumping test to determine the safe yield of the borehole.
Borehole yields should be estimated (air lifting or bailers method) by drilling crews during final stages of borehole development.
This is important in the sizing appropriate pumps for test pumping.
B2.9 Design of Rainwater Collection • Oxfam Rainwater
• Rainwater collection works best for schools and institutions with a large roof space and large storage tanks but is also effective for Harvesting Guidelines
individual households or communal buildings where other sources are contaminated and it rains frequently.
• There must be a mechanism to prevent first rain run-off from entering the storage tank.
• In diarrhoeal outbreaks the storage tanks must be included in an emergency chlorination programme.
• There must be a cover on the rainwater collection tank to prevent contamination.
• PVC or other synthetic tanks can be used in 1st phase. Cement tanks should be adequately washed out before use to avoid a
smell of cement.
B2.10 Design of Water Collection Points • Oxfam Distribution
• Water collection points must be designed to avoid standing water around them; therefore, a proper soakaway must be incorporated Manual
into the design.
• The tap stand has to be no more than 10cm (4”) higher than the tallest water container.
• Ensure that provision is made for people with limited mobility to access water.
B2.11 Gravity-Fed Systems • Oxfam Technical
• Low maintenance requirements and the formation of User Management Committees are essential for long-term sustainability. Guidelines on Gravity-
fed Water Systems
• Technical calculations and detailed drawings are required before construction begins.
(currently in
• PVC/PE distribution pipes must be buried a minimum of 0.3m. When pipes cannot be buried GI pipes should be used. production)
• All pipes that are suspended over streambeds or ravines must be securely supported.
• All designs that pass through landslide prone areas should have serpentile or progressive joints for quick isolation, diversion or
replacement.
• The squat plate must be firmly anchored into each side of the trench by using pegs or wooden bracings or a concrete/masonry
plinth.
• There must be no visible gaps between the squat plate and the pit. Gaps can appear through erosion due to lack of proper
drainage around the toilet.
• There must be a privacy wall around facilities for women’s latrines. This, however, is optional for male facilities.
• Every cubicle must have a mechanism to keep the ‘door’ closed from the inside. Shared family latrines should also have a
hook to which to attach a padlock.
• Consider the need for NFI distributions of tools for disposal of infants’ and children’s faeces; hygiene promotion should link to
the means provided for handling faeces.
B3.3 Toilets in High Water Tables (<1.5m from the surface) • Excreta Disposal in
To avoid contaminating the ground water, sealed units need to be constructed, comprising: Emergencies
• Raised latrines (if a de-sludging system exists); • Oxfam Septic Tank
Guidelines
• Septic tanks with secondary treatment (for the longer term); and
• Urine separation raised toilets (twin vault where possible), coupled with intensive hygiene promotion on proper usage.
B3.4 Pit Latrine De-sludging
Any toilet designed to be de-sludged must have:
• A lined pit (if the pit is unlined, the mechanical vacuum process may collapse the pit walls);
• An access hole/slab where a pump / suction hose can be inserted or people can enter (the squat hole is often not large enough
for the pump foot valve);
• A safe, properly organised and clearly marked final disposal site for the excreta; and
• A community/household sustainable de-sludging methodology in place for long-term situations.
B3.5 Hand Washing at all Sanitary Facilities • Oxfam Technical Brief on
• Hand washing must be addressed for all latrines Oxfam constructs or repairs – either at the latrine or at the household level – Hand Washing Options
by the promotion and provision of soap and hand-washing devices.
• All institutional latrines constructed by Oxfam must have hand-washing facilities provided with soap or a proxy such as ash.
• Women must be consulted about their requirements for them to manage their own menstrual hygiene needs
B3.6 Toilet Facilities for People with Specific Needs • Oxfam Technical Brief on
Excreta Disposal for
It is estimated that within a ‘normal’ community between 4% and 10% of the population have reduced mobility for 1 reason or People with Physical
another. Disabilities in
• At least 1 toilet out of every 20 should be constructed for people with specific needs (including extra space for a carer to help a Emergencies
disabled person bathe)..
• PHPs should supply actual numbers or percentages and locations as soon as possible (note: after an earthquake or conflict
there would be an increased percentage of people with physical disabilities), so that facilities can be constructed as near to the
users as possible.
B3.7 Cultural Aspects for Toilet and other Sanitary Facilities • Oxfam Technical Brief on
In many countries there are strict cultural norms as well as taboos around sanitation; therefore, it is essential that the beneficiaries Vulnerability and Socio-
be fully consulted during the design (including materials) and usage of the facilities any programme will provide. cultural Considerations for
For example: PHE in Emergencies
• In Muslim cultures the toilet must never be positioned so that it opens or so that the user’s bottom faces Mecca;
• Some cultures do not permit women to be ‘seen’ going to the toilet so a screen needs to be added in front of the door. 100%
opaque (not semi-transparent) plastic sheeting should be used in super-structure/wall to prevent people’s silhouettes from
being seen. Female toilets should have a roof if there are particular privacy concerns, for example where latrines are located
lower than any public places e.g. road/embankment side.
• Women may not be permitted to share a toilet with a male that is not a member of their immediate family.
This list is not exhaustive and only gives some ideas on how cultures and taboos can raise planning and implementation concerns in
a toilet programme.
B3.8 Emergency and Semi-Permanent Toilet Facilities
The timing of the decision to move from rapid ‘emergency’ latrines to semi-permanent constructions is difficult to predict. However:
• If affected communities are still living in plastic sheet structures, latrine structures with a metal roof and walls (or other more
permanent material) should not be constructed, as the population might dismantle the latrines to improve their shelters and thus
make the latrines inoperable.
• If the timeframe of the humanitarian situation will be longer than 3 months, consideration should be made to upgrading the
superstructure of the toilets to a more suitable design, incorporating environmental, budgetary and longevity factors.
• In some contexts, there are political connotations to constructing semi-permanent latrines in temporary settlements – these
must be considered by PH teams with the support of Programme Management.
B3.9 Bathhouse / Cubicle Construction Oxfam Technical Briefs:
• Female-bathing cubicles should be included in a screened courtyard design with toilets. • Vulnerability and Socio-
• Ensure adequate space and provisions for female menstrual needs e.g. cleaning, drying or disposal of sanitary napkins. cultural Considerations for
PHE in Emergencies
• If there is no piped water system, the bathing cubicles must be close to the water points so that people do not have to transport
water far for bathing. • Low-cost Drainage for
Emergencies
• There must be 1 bathing cubicle for every 50 people (1:100 in the first phase, then 1:50 in the second phase).
• Hand Washing Options
• At least 1 bathing cubicle out of every 20 should be constructed for people with specific needs (including extra space for a carer
to help a disabled person bathe).
• Women are more likely to be bathing children whilst they bathe and so will need more time. To avoid excess queues for female
bathing facilities there should be more (2:1 female : male) units for women, and they must be clearly marked.
• Adequate drainage for the wastewater must be provided. Slabs and floors should be provided with 1% slope towards drainage
to prevent stagnant water.
• Every cubicle must have a door and, where possible, it should be a solid door so that door catches can be installed; this is
especially important for communal bathing facilities.
• Bathhouse construction should also be accompanied by education, for example on stopping public defecation in the communal
bathing space.
• Bathhouses should be segregated by sex and should be clearly marked. In communities where men bath outside/at water
point, construction of bathhouses for men may not be necessary. However, in such conditions, consider additional water
points.
• Frequently people wash their clothes while bathing: space for washing clothes needs to be considered while designing
bathhouses.
B3.10 Design of School Latrines • IRC, School Sanitation
• Camp school latrines should be semi-permanent, whereas permanent structures are built for existing schools. It is important to and Hygiene Education,
match the construction materials of the school building (an exception to this is when metal roofing is used to enable catchment 2003
of rainwater for handwashing etc.).
• There should be a viable water source located near the latrines to enable anal cleansing, handwashing, and latrine cleaning.
• School toilets must be segregated for males and females.
• The toilets should be scaled down to suit children’s needs, especially the squat hole and foot rests.
• There must be adequate light entering the toilet unit to ensure that children can see where to urinate/defecate and are not afraid
to use the toilets.
quantity of hazardous waste for disposal. The Waste Zone should have several pits for different purposes: general refuse pit /
sharps pit / organic waste pit (commonly called ‘placenta pit’). All must be lined, be at least 2m above the water table, and have
a cover designed for their specific purpose.
• Incorporate mainstreamed themes of HIV & AIDS, gender and protection when designing distribution systems.
• Conduct post-distribution monitoring after distribution and record lessons learned.
B7 Development and use of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials Reference documents
The affected community must be consulted before the rollout of an IEC programme to ensure cultural sensitivity and understanding
of the subject matter.
Development and use of IEC should also be undertaken in close collaboration with the WASH Cluster and appropriate government
departments to ensure that consistent, ‘approved’ messages are used.
An IEC strategy that explains the rationale for the choice of messages, communications methodologies and monitoring mechanisms
should be developed as soon as possible.
B7.1 IEC materials and activities are an essential component of any WASH programme. PH staff involved in the development of IEC must: • WASH Cluster IEC
• Undertake an assessment of IEC needs, local literacy levels and cultural and religious issues around public communication. The Tools
information gathered in the assessment provides the framework for a ‘communication plan’ which should describe intended • Unicef, BCC in
audiences, IEC techniques, M&E plans, logistics and budget). Emergencies Toolkit
• Collaborate with the affected community in developing IEC. Activities and materials must always be culturally sensitive and 2006
appropriate.
• Co-ordinate IEC plans with the WASH Cluster to ensure a collaborative approach, consistent with government policy is adopted.
• Pre-test IEC materials within the affected community.
• Ensure materials are logical and non-technical.
• Make sure pictures are as accurate as possible and familiar to audience.
• Identify local motivating factors for behaviour change and design images based on these factors.
• Try to convey positive messages.
• Develop hygiene promotion campaigns based on seasonal disease trends and/or new disease risks related to hazard/displacement
context.
• Link hygiene promotion messages with engineering, NFI, and EFSL interventions. For example, if it is a 6-month livestock-restocking
project and the EFSL team is distributing pigs - it might be important to do a bit of hygiene promotion on “pig hygiene”.
• Undertaken regular monitoring of IEC activities – both for feedback on the IEC and to determine the impact of the IEC on WASH
practices, and modify approaches as appropriate.
B8 Vector Control (to be read alongside specific Malaria Minimum Requirements Section 13.) Reference documents
Physical or chemical vector control activities must be based on a clear assessment of the risk of vectors to WASH-related disease,
and co-ordinated with WASH Cluster, government authorities and specialist agencies to ensure added value of Oxfam intervention.
Oxfam does not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole
purpose of eradicating or controlling flies.
B8.1 General Principles Oxfam Malaria Control
• Vector control programming should be based on an assessment of the local impact of vectors on communicable disease such as Manual
malaria and dengue, and undertaken as an integral part of wider malaria or WASH activities.
• All vector control programming should pursue all available opportunities for community participation, and be accompanied by
education to explain the work.
• Any chemicals used must conform to national and international (WHO) safety and environmental standards.
• Disposal of expired or surplus vector control chemicals must follow national guidelines and standards (or international if not
available) for hazardous waste management. See Solid Waste Management.
B8.2 Physical Vector Control (Source Reduction)
• Physical vector control should focus on improving drainage around water points, providing adequate rainwater drainage, and filling-in
or draining ponds, swamps and other breeding sites. Affected communities should be provided with the necessary tools and safety
equipment, and knowledge on vectors, for this work.
• Solid waste management activities for the purpose of vector control (e.g. clean-up campaigns, facilitating local government cleansing
operations) must be linked to vector risks identified by public health assessments. See Solid Waste Management section.
• Clearing of vegetation from around dwellings is often undertaken in an attempt to reduce opportunities for mosquitoes to find resting
places. However the impact of this is minimal compared to other control measures: resources should not be wasted on mobilising
communities to embark on vegetation clearance.
B8.3 Chemical Vector Control WEDC, Emergency Vector
• Evidence shows that the provision of toilets and removal of open defecation is the most effective method for reducing the spread of Control using Chemicals
WASH-related disease (including cholera and trachoma): Oxfam must not advocate for, or implement, chemical fly control Oxfam Fly Spraying
methods such as spraying, outdoor fogging or dusting for the sole purpose of eradicating or controlling flies. Policy, 2007
• Oxfam does advocate for Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) with WHO-approved insecticides for the control of mosquitoes as a
malarial control method. See Malaria section.
• Insecticide-treated plastic sheeting (ITPS) is a vector control measure sometimes found as wall coverings on latrines, family
shelters, and clinic buildings. Although the chemical treatment used on ITPS is similar to that of insecticide-treated mosquito nets
(ITMNs), the effectiveness of ITPS as a vector control method is still under debate. Oxfam will not promote or use ITPS in latrine
or shelter construction, nor distribute ITPS as an NFI.
families should not exceed 1 kit for every 10 families. Practical training should accompany the distribution of tool kits.
Provide simple information on assembling transitional shelters
• 2 blankets (double or king-size) per family member is the minimum requirement.
• Distributions of shelter materials should be organised in a manner that will enable all beneficiaries (including the elderly) to
easily transport materials.
B9.3 Emergency Shelter Technical Support • Plastic Sheeting – A Guide to
• PH staff should not assume that displaced people lack the skills to erect simple emergency shelters or tents. Technical the Specification and Use of
support is typically warranted only in cases where extreme weather conditions exist (heavy rains, snow or winds), or if Plastic Sheeting in
traditional labour sources are not available within the targeted population. Humanitarian Relief
• Demonstrations and group training are Oxfam’s preferred method of providing technical support. Building individual shelters • Oxfam Cash Guidelines for
for families is slow, expensive, and risks creating dependency. Emergencies
• To prevent or reduce the risk of standing water after rainfall and to prevent water infiltration into tents, attention must be paid
to proper drainage ditches around tents. When possible, tents should be elevated on earth or timber platforms.
• When plastic sheeting is distributed in areas of high winds or heavy rains, technical support may be needed to remind
beneficiaries of the need for appropriate fixing methods. These include the need to spread the load, prevent the sheet from
flapping, and avoid contact with friction points.
• If market and other conditions permit, cash or material vouchers may be an appropriate emergency shelter response. In
these situations, the ESFL team will typically lead the response with technical support from PH staff.
B9.4 Transitional Shelters • Oxfam Shelter Policy, 2006
• Oxfam’s transitional shelter programmes are designed to support the immediate and short-term shelter needs of recently
displaced families until permanent housing is constructed. This can involve:
o Supporting individuals and community groups with materials and expertise to build their own temporary shelters, or
repair/rehabilitate damaged houses.
o Provide information and technical training on how to make transitional housing more disaster resilient.
o Link with EFSL team to explore opportunities for skills-training for carpentry.
o Collective shelters where families are temporarily housed in existing buildings;
o Camp settlements - either organized or spontaneous – where families are housed in tents;
o Host family support through building materials, cash grants, etc.
o WASH support for other agencies involved in transitional shelter projects.
o Advocacy & lobbying work on government transitional shelter policies and practices.
o Ensure accountability/feedback mechanisms are in place, particularly for high-value shelter kits.
• As Oxfam’s best experiences in transitional shelter involve small-scale, community-driven projects, avoid the temptation to
design large programmes.
B9.5 Shelter and NFIs for Cold Climates
• Always consult locally on insulation techniques which can be improvised to fit with temporary or transitional shelters, i.e. use
of lining made of straw or pine needles in ceiling and sub-floor.
• Tents are difficult to keep warm in cold climates as they lose heat quickly. While winterised tents are available, they are only
slightly more effective than other double-walled tents at reducing heat loss from wind infiltration.
• As the greatest heat loss from tents occurs as conduction to the ground, all tents distributed by Oxfam in cold climates
should have an insulated platform. Small stones, sand or straw (if kept dry between layers of plastic sheeting) can be used
as an insulating material.
• Even moderate snowfall can cause tents to collapse. CGI or plastic roof sheets should be considered as a required snow
barrier over tents.
• To prevent fire from sparks, all wood-burning stoves in tents must be on an elevated platform of sand or small stones.
• A bucket of sand to put out small fires is an essential non-food item (NFI) to be distributed along with wood-burning stoves in
tents or other emergency shelters.
• Additional blankets can be used as an insulation material and to reduce wind infiltration heat loss from tents.
B9.6 Shelter and NFIs for Hot Climates • Shade Nets – Use,
• Tents and other emergency shelters used in hot, dry climates must provide shade from the sun and adequate ventilation. As Deployment and Procurement
displaced persons in hot climates typically spend daylight hours outside their shelters, additional shade materials and of Shade Net in Humanitarian
structural supports should be provided. Relief Environments
• Shade netting is often a more appropriate material for use in hot, dry climates than plastic sheeting.
• Shelter interventions in hot climates should make consideration for night-time temperatures which can drop considerably –
blankets etc. might still be necessary.
B9.7 Water, Sanitation and Shelter
• PH staff must ensure that all Oxfam’s emergency shelter interventions are accompanied by adequate access to and supply
of water and sanitary facilities.