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DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING.
WALDEMAR LINDGREN.
both,andthequestion
of maintaining
theworld'ssupply
of useful
metals came to be discussed with
interest
and sometimes
with
anxiety.
The newly establishedscienceof ore depositswas calledupon
to elucidatethe mode of depositionof ores and the probabilities
of finding workable'.ores in depthsbelow the ore bodiesof the
surface. The new scienceproceededwith faltering stepstentatively groping its way and leaning in turn on many hypotheses
and theories, and if even now the answers which it gives are
often hesitatingand filled with doubt,we may perhapsbe justified
in saying that we do now, better than before, understandthe
mode of depositionof ores. How lacking our knowledgeis,
nevertheless,
noneappreciatemore than thosewhosevocationit is
to attempt the solutionof theseproblems.
later
from
outside
sources?
Or
ORE
DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
Van
Hise
in
positsbeforereachingthat levelhavebecomesmallerandpoorer,
and a numberhave been worked out. Two or three deposits
havebeensufficiently
persistent
sothat theyhavebeenworkedto
the depthot?1,5oofeet. I haveno doubtthat vastlymorehighgrade iron ore will be taken out in the Lake Superior region
above the I,OOO4OOtlevel than below it. If this be true, 'iron
oresot?the Lake Superiorregionbearingmore than 60 per cent.
ot? metallic
36
WALDEMAR
LINDGREN
Gold-placersmay justly be classedamongthe sedimentarydeposits. Although of coursethe great majority of them are worked
at the surface there is no limit, except that of cost and practicable mining, to the depth at which they can be worked, for later
depositsor volcanic eruptions may have buried them deeply,
without changingtheir character. The Hidden Treasuregravel
channelin Placer County is worked (by tunnel however) below
over ,ooo feet of covering andesitetuffs and breccias. The
Rutherglengold bearing gravel leadsof Victoria, Australia, are
worked by shafts below 50o feet of sands and clays and the
Loddon Valley leads in the same State underneath400 feet of
massive basalt flows.
A small classof mineral depositshas been formed by separation during the coolingof moltenigneousrocks. Among mineral
depositsof this kind are titaniferousmagnetites,ilmenites,chromites, nickel-bearingpyrrhotites, finally tin ore or cassiterite,
more rarely chalcopyrite. Gold and silver are as a rule absent
from thesedeposits. The depositionis probablynot greatly influencedby the differencesin the high pressureduring the consolidation, and mining of the depositscouldbe carried to the greatest
depth attainableby technicalmeans,shouldthe ore bodiesprove
continuous. In fact, pressure,in solidifying magnaas,is favorable to precipitation,contrary to its general action in aqueous
solutions. This continuitycouldprobablynot be relied upon for
smaller bodies, for instancecassiteritein pegrnatitedikes, but
many of thesedeposits,for instancethe massof titano-magnetite
at Taberg in Sweden,are known to be of very great extent vertically as well as horizontally.
Turning now to the large class of "epigenetic" depositsin
which the metal is of later origin than the surroundingrock and
hasbeenintroducedby agenciesforeign to the rock itself the first
division
which
should
receive
attention
is that
of the contact-
ORE
DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
37
depthat which they can be formed exceptthat the heat must not
be so high as to fusethe sedimentarybeds. The contactdeposits
are brought to the surface by erosion of the overlying rocks.
Although casesmay be easily conceivedin which the deposits
would continuein depth and length for severalthousandfeet it
is far more commonto find them irregular and spottedin their
mineralization,so that while there is no geneticreasonwhy they
shouldnot be continuousto the greatestdepthattainableby mining they will as a matter of fact often give out when least expected. Owing to the irregular surfaceof contactthe findingof
the continuationof lost ore bodiesis often very difficult. Slight
changesof compositionand texture of the rocks influencetheir
susceptibilityto contactmetamorphismto a very surprisingdegree. Few mines on contact depositshave been worked at a
greater depth than a few hundred feet. Oxidizing surface
waters may greatly enrich contactdepositsof poor grade by the
developmentof oxidizedores; this especiallyrefers to copperdepositsalthoughsuchoxidized ores rarely extend downwardmore
than a few hundredfeet at mostand this only in very dry climates.
If in connectionwith the contactdepositsthe Swedishmagnetites of the "skarn" type and the large pyritic depositsof the
Agordo, Rammelsbergand Rio Tinto typesare mentioned,it is
done with full realizationof the fact that their origin is still in
most casesa mooted question. The former recall in many of
their featuresthe contactmetamorphicdeposits,perhapsformed
at very great depth. The latter recall types of metasomaticdeposits with which the mining geologistsof this country are
familiar but which have as yet hardly receivedtheir just appreciationin Europe. The large pyritic massof the Highland Boy
mine in Bingham is a case in point. Mr. J. M. Boutwell has
recentlyconvincinglyshown its metasomaticorigin and pointed
38
PV,ZILDEM,zIR
LINDGREN
out how well the replacementhas preservedthe original stratification structure of the limestone, so that a bedded structure of
Neither
do we
due to the
ORE
DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
39
the rarer metals. On the'other hand they only yield an insignificant percentageof the world's output of iron.
With the gold miner who has payableore the most important
question is: Will the ore go down? Does it get richer or
poorer? And of answersto this there are many.
Soon after deepmining beganin Australia and California and
it was found that very many veins which were rich at the surface turned poor at a relativelyslight depthan opiniondeveloped
that the gold in the veins after all was a "surface formation."
We understand
especially
prominentin dr2climates. On the otherhandit was
not appreciatedor understoodthat erosionhad removedso much
material that the presentcroppingsmight be thousandsof feet
below the point where the fissurereachedthe surfaceduring the
vein forming epoch. The matter is further complicatedby the
normal occurrenceof the payable ore in "shoots," or elongated
dis-
WALDEMAR
LINDGREN
lowest beds
the veins would have the same depth from the surface as veins
in intrusiveand deeplyerodedareas. It is also possiblethat intrusive rocksmay be injected to levelsperhapsonly one or two
thousand feet below the surface. This has happened,for instance,in the San Juan region in Colorado. The vital point is
the correct estimate
of the amotint
of erosion which
has taken
place.
Geol. Survey,
ORE
DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
41
geologists
seemfar toolargebutat anyrateit mustbeat last
3,ooo feet, so that we may assumethat depositionof free gold
with quartz took placeat leastto a depthof 7,000 feet below the
original surface.
In the deep Ballarat quartz mines the grade and quantity of
ore appearsto decreasesomewhatin depth. although they have
scarcelyattained a depth of 2,000 feet.
Turning now to the California quartz mines in the foothills
of the Sierra Nevada the latest results which as yet are little
known beyondthe State offer much encouragement
to thosewho
believein deepmining. In GrassValley ten years ago the out-
The Empire has sunk its shaft to 3,t6o feet on the incline
(,286 feet vertically) and it is recentlystatedin the pressthat
the ore-shoothas been found on the 3,ooo-footlevel. Many
42
VALDEMAR
LINDGREN
Lincoln,
2,000 feet
Baliol,
South Eureka,
k ertlcal.
x,766 feet.
x,8oo"
x,8oo"
2,030"
2,3o0"
2,863"
2,xoo "
z,2o0"
2,380"
The Kennedy
is nowsaidto be stcping
on the2,7oo-foot
level, the Central Eureka at depth from 1,9ooto 2,000 feet, the
Oneidabelowthe 1,9oo-footlevel,the Gwin belowthe 2,ooo-foot
level. These very gratifying resultshave proved that at the
depths indicated free gold ores are found of similar character
to thoseoccurring
nearerto the surface,'
although
the rich
pocket bonazasseem to be of less frequent occurrencein the
deeper workings. The hope of finding payable ore at still
'greater depthhas beengreatly strengthened,and it may well descendto the deepestlevelsattainableby mining. On accountof
increasingtemperaturethis will perhapsnot greatly exceed5,000
feet. The thicknessof crust removedby erosionin the foot-hill
regionsincevein formationis of coursedifficultto estimatewith
exactness
but it may not exceed3,ooofeet. At any rate it seems
certain that depositionof free gold ores in the Cali.forniaveins
has proceeded
at depthsfrom the surfaceof about6,ooo feet.
ORE
DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
43
depth of over ,ooo feet. They are usuallyof very low grade
although small shootsand pocketsof ore occur which are fully
as rich as anything found in California or Australia.
It may thereforebe confidentlyassertedthat depositsof gold.quartz ores extend at least over a vertical range of 6,0o0 or
,7,ooofeet. There is someevidencethat the conditionsfor depositiongrow less favorableas depth increasesbut the change
takesplacevery slowly. The richestoresare thosenear to their
original apex. Most of the deep mines in the Mother Lode
region
of California
carryoresof comparatively
lowgraderS4
to $8 per ton--and are only payableon accountof the availability
of cheapmetallurgical processes.
It shouldbe clearly understoodthat in any district local causes
may becomeoperativedepressingthe value and decreasingthe
quantity of ores. Among the causesinfluencingore deposition
besidespressureand temperatureshouldbe mentionedthe char.acterof the wall rock and the presenceof crossfissuresoh which
waters of different compositionand temperature are moving.
Enrichmentis very often notedat suchintersections
and Professor
Van Hise attributesthe principalcauseof'ore-shoots
to them; but
it seems
moreprob.able
thattheyareamong
theminorcauses
and
they certainlyseemto be mostcommonin depositsformed short
distancesbelow the surface where such a mingling of circulating
solutionsfrequently is apt to take place, and where, as has been
pointed'outabove,localbonanzas
are mostlikelyto occur. The
Cripple Creek district offers many examplesof this. The large
shootsand the deep ore bodiesdo not seemto dependon such
influences of cross veins.
-which
is notno'mally
.reached
untildepths
of over2o,ooofeet,
but locally is often attained in the vicinity of igneousmassesincludedin the uppermostpart of the earth's crust. Contactmeta-
morphic
deposits
arebelieved
to becaused
by theactionof water
44
WALDEMAR
LINDGREN
What takes placewhen descendingsurfacewaters have an opportunityto act on the uppermostparts of veins,has beenelucidated by such observersas Penrose,Van Hise, Emmons, Weed
and others. Differencesin temperatureand pressureby increasing depth are here of little moment; insteadthe depth to which
the surfacewaters can carry oxygen, and, closelyconnectedwith
this, the standof the water level, are the important points.
Oxidation
tionof secondary
sulphides
of copper,
silver'andlead,aboutthe
water-leveland underneaththe impoverishedzone, frequentlyis
a compensatingfeature. In a few mines in New Mexico, Utah
and Nevada the oxidized ore extends a little more th&n I,ooo
feet below the croppings. In the Butte mines, chalcocite--a
secondarycoppersulphide--issaidto extenddownto a depthof
2,4oo feet. But these casesare due to specialand rare conditions. Where oxidizedore is mined we are as a rule justified in
expectinga decreasein value when the primary ore is reached
and where secondarysulphidesform the principalvaluableores
a sharp decreasein grade might be expected within a few
hundredfeet or lessbelowthe surface. The orescreatedby surface waters are due to very complexprocesses,
and rapid changes
may completely alter the character of the ores within a distance of a few feet. For gold bearing veins the general rule
of enrichmentof the oxidized portion is basedon reductionof
ORE DEPOSITION
AND
DEEP
MINING
45
a moderate
vertical
distance as
wellasthegeneral
formof theshoots
aremostprobably
lueto
specialcausessuchas the physicalcharacterof the fissuresand
the precipitatingpower of certain wall rocksor solutionsof different kinds encounteredby the ascendingwaters.
The action of solids on liquids containing their constituents
is anotherfeatureof importancefor the explanationof ore-shoots.
If some local cause starts precipitation at' one point, this precipitatedsubstanceacts as an incentiveto further precipitation.
If gold-bearingsulphideshave separatedfrom the solutiontheir
presencewill induce depositionof more mineralsof the same
kind.
46
V,4LDEM,4R LINDGREN
ascending
sol'utions
bydecreasing
pressure
andtemperature.