You are on page 1of 13

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING.

WALDEMAR LINDGREN.

As men began to delve deep into the earth's crust instead of


confiningthemselvesto the shallowdiggingsand minesof earlier
times many depositswere found to diminish in size or value, or

both,andthequestion
of maintaining
theworld'ssupply
of useful
metals came to be discussed with

interest

and sometimes

with

anxiety.
The newly establishedscienceof ore depositswas calledupon
to elucidatethe mode of depositionof ores and the probabilities
of finding workable'.ores in depthsbelow the ore bodiesof the
surface. The new scienceproceededwith faltering stepstentatively groping its way and leaning in turn on many hypotheses
and theories, and if even now the answers which it gives are
often hesitatingand filled with doubt,we may perhapsbe justified
in saying that we do now, better than before, understandthe
mode of depositionof ores. How lacking our knowledgeis,
nevertheless,
noneappreciatemore than thosewhosevocationit is
to attempt the solutionof theseproblems.

A forecastof the probabledistanceof continuityof any deposit


beyondthe limit of empiricalrulesobtainedby the observationof
many similar ore bodies must of necessitybe based on some
hypothesisconcerningits origin; this hypothesiswe are able, in
most cases,to advanceto the standingof a theory and in fewer
casesto the position of assuredfacts.
Vital and preliminary questionsare: Has the ore been deposited together with the surroundingrock? Has it been introduced

later

from

outside

sources?

Or

has it been concen-

trated to a workable depositfrom minute quantitiesoriginally


containedin the rock? The first.casecoversthe sedimentarydeposits,like certain limonites, sideritesand hematiteswhich have
been precipitatedin lakes or seas. Their. continuity, as a rule,
dependson the extent of the basinssuitablefor depositionand
34

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

this is a matter which, especiallyin caseof older rocks,may be


very difficult or impossibleto determine. They are often very
extensiveand when folded into steeppositionsmay well be
lowed down to the greatest depth attainableby mining. They
may be deeplyerodedor coveredby thousandsot?feet ot?sedimentswithout greatly changingtheir character. In other words
depth below the surface has no direct relation to the extent and

richnessot?the deposits. Few ot?theseiron mineshave as yet


attainedgreat depthfor the quantity ot?easilyaccessible
oresnear
the surfaceis as yet very considerable.
Metamorphic processesmay, however, have altered their
original oresand in this casethe depthmay becomean important
factor. The depositsmay have beenburiedto sucha depththat

heatandmoisturehaveproduceda changein the ores;rich magnetitesand specularires


may result from lower grade limonites.
and subsequent
erosionhas perhapsagain brought the deposits
closeto the surface. Or local enrichmentot?the samekind may
result from the vicinity ot?hot intrusive rocksnearer to the surface,in whichcasethe originalcharacterot?the depositsmay reassert itself in depth.

Again an enrichmentmay have beenproducedby descending


surface waters as Professor

Van

Hise

for instance maintains

in

the caseothe Lake Superiorhematiteoreswhich he believesto


have beenderivedfrom low grade sedimentarysiderites. "If
the foregoing reasoningbe correct," he says, "the ore bodies
can not be expectedto extend beyondthe depth to which the
descending
watersmay bear oxygen,and precipitateiron oxide.
Up to the presenttime all 'butan insignificantfractionot?the ore
has beentaken from abovethe I,OOO4OOt
level. Many ore de-

positsbeforereachingthat levelhavebecomesmallerandpoorer,
and a numberhave been worked out. Two or three deposits
havebeensufficiently
persistent
sothat theyhavebeenworkedto
the depthot?1,5oofeet. I haveno doubtthat vastlymorehighgrade iron ore will be taken out in the Lake Superior region
above the I,OOO4OOtlevel than below it. If this be true, 'iron
oresot?the Lake Superiorregionbearingmore than 60 per cent.
ot? metallic

iron are not inexhaustible."

36

WALDEMAR

LINDGREN

Gold-placersmay justly be classedamongthe sedimentarydeposits. Although of coursethe great majority of them are worked
at the surface there is no limit, except that of cost and practicable mining, to the depth at which they can be worked, for later
depositsor volcanic eruptions may have buried them deeply,
without changingtheir character. The Hidden Treasuregravel
channelin Placer County is worked (by tunnel however) below
over ,ooo feet of covering andesitetuffs and breccias. The
Rutherglengold bearing gravel leadsof Victoria, Australia, are
worked by shafts below 50o feet of sands and clays and the
Loddon Valley leads in the same State underneath400 feet of
massive basalt flows.

A small classof mineral depositshas been formed by separation during the coolingof moltenigneousrocks. Among mineral
depositsof this kind are titaniferousmagnetites,ilmenites,chromites, nickel-bearingpyrrhotites, finally tin ore or cassiterite,
more rarely chalcopyrite. Gold and silver are as a rule absent
from thesedeposits. The depositionis probablynot greatly influencedby the differencesin the high pressureduring the consolidation, and mining of the depositscouldbe carried to the greatest
depth attainableby technicalmeans,shouldthe ore bodiesprove
continuous. In fact, pressure,in solidifying magnaas,is favorable to precipitation,contrary to its general action in aqueous
solutions. This continuitycouldprobablynot be relied upon for
smaller bodies, for instancecassiteritein pegrnatitedikes, but
many of thesedeposits,for instancethe massof titano-magnetite
at Taberg in Sweden,are known to be of very great extent vertically as well as horizontally.
Turning now to the large class of "epigenetic" depositsin
which the metal is of later origin than the surroundingrock and
hasbeenintroducedby agenciesforeign to the rock itself the first
division

which

should

receive

attention

is that

of the contact-

metamorphicdeposits. In these the ores replace limestonesor


more rarely other sedimentaryrocks; their substanceis beyond
reasonable doubt derived from metallic emanations from intrusive

magmasand their occurrenceis closelyconnectedwith the actual

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

37

contact with these intrusives,although they may extend for a


coupleof thousandfeet away from the igneousrock. The depositswhich generallycontain magnetiteand chalcopyriteand
which usuallyare poor in gold and silver were formed at a considerabledistancebelowthe surface,probablynever lessthan one
thousand feet and there is, as far as known, no other limit in the

depthat which they can be formed exceptthat the heat must not
be so high as to fusethe sedimentarybeds. The contactdeposits
are brought to the surface by erosion of the overlying rocks.
Although casesmay be easily conceivedin which the deposits
would continuein depth and length for severalthousandfeet it
is far more commonto find them irregular and spottedin their
mineralization,so that while there is no geneticreasonwhy they
shouldnot be continuousto the greatestdepthattainableby mining they will as a matter of fact often give out when least expected. Owing to the irregular surfaceof contactthe findingof
the continuationof lost ore bodiesis often very difficult. Slight
changesof compositionand texture of the rocks influencetheir
susceptibilityto contactmetamorphismto a very surprisingdegree. Few mines on contact depositshave been worked at a
greater depth than a few hundred feet. Oxidizing surface
waters may greatly enrich contactdepositsof poor grade by the
developmentof oxidizedores; this especiallyrefers to copperdepositsalthoughsuchoxidized ores rarely extend downwardmore
than a few hundredfeet at mostand this only in very dry climates.
If in connectionwith the contactdepositsthe Swedishmagnetites of the "skarn" type and the large pyritic depositsof the
Agordo, Rammelsbergand Rio Tinto typesare mentioned,it is
done with full realizationof the fact that their origin is still in
most casesa mooted question. The former recall in many of
their featuresthe contactmetamorphicdeposits,perhapsformed
at very great depth. The latter recall types of metasomaticdeposits with which the mining geologistsof this country are
familiar but which have as yet hardly receivedtheir just appreciationin Europe. The large pyritic massof the Highland Boy
mine in Bingham is a case in point. Mr. J. M. Boutwell has
recentlyconvincinglyshown its metasomaticorigin and pointed

38

PV,ZILDEM,zIR

LINDGREN

out how well the replacementhas preservedthe original stratification structure of the limestone, so that a bedded structure of

the ore is no longera criterionof its sedimentaryorigin.


A limited extent in depth seemscharacteristicof theseclasses
of deposits. Few of the Swedishiron minesare very deep.and
the limits of the ore bodies are well known.

Neither

do we

know many deep pyritic depositsof this class;500 feet to 800


feet seems to be the limit.

This is no doubt rather

due to the

limited quantity of rock suitable for metasomaticreplacement


than to direct influenceof temperatureand pressure.

Lastly,we turn to that greatgroupOf "epigenetic"deposits


in whichthe oreshavebeendepositedeither by filling or replacement along fissuresor other pathsfor undergroundwaters. Not
that it always is easy to separatethesefrom certain types of the
pyritic deposits,for the latter may form large bodiesmore or less
directly connectedwith fissure veins. Or, again, the pyritic
massesformed by replacement,may surroundthe fissureon both
sidesin porphyries,granite or limestones. This, again, someof
our trans-Atlanticcolleaguesseemto find it difficultto fully appreciate.

Concerningthe genesisof fissureveinsthere ae severalviews,


discussion
of which is unnecessary
for the presentpurposes,since
thosenow generally acceptedagree that the metallic contentsof
these depositshave been depositedby ascending,hot solutions,
in fact ascendinghot springs,and most observersalso agree that
the metals were taken up in solutionby the water at somepoint
considerablybelow the point of precipitation.
The fissure veins claim our attention among other things on
accountof being--directly, or indirectly by placers--the source
of three fourths of the world's productionof gold. The remaining fourth being derived from the South African conglomerates
the origin of which depositsseemsas yet questionableand to a
smallextent from variousother sourcessuchas pyritic massesof
doubtful origin, contact metamorphic deposits, etc. Fissure
veinsalso furnish a large part, probablysomewhatlessthan onehalf of the copperproductionof the world and contributelargely
to the productionof lead, antimony,bismuth,tin and most of

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

39

the rarer metals. On the'other hand they only yield an insignificant percentageof the world's output of iron.
With the gold miner who has payableore the most important
question is: Will the ore go down? Does it get richer or
poorer? And of answersto this there are many.
Soon after deepmining beganin Australia and California and
it was found that very many veins which were rich at the surface turned poor at a relativelyslight depthan opiniondeveloped
that the gold in the veins after all was a "surface formation."
We understand

now of course that this view was to some extent

justified in that an enrichmentby surfacewaters is the rule in


the croppingsof the majority of gold bearing veins and is

especially
prominentin dr2climates. On the otherhandit was
not appreciatedor understoodthat erosionhad removedso much
material that the presentcroppingsmight be thousandsof feet
below the point where the fissurereachedthe surfaceduring the
vein forming epoch. The matter is further complicatedby the
normal occurrenceof the payable ore in "shoots," or elongated

bodies,distinctlylimited laterallyand vertically,and by the fact


that each vein may contain several of these, below each other,
so that their discoverywould be a questionof more or lessextensive exploration.
We

are now able to ascertain

that the veins in certain

dis-

trictswereformedrelativelycldselyto the surface. Theseveins


usuallycut throughbedsof volcanicrocks,relativelyrecentflows,
the upper surface of which at the time of vein formation we can

determinewith more or lessaccuracy. Such are many of the


veinsof westernNevada,of the Hauraki peninsulain New Zealand, of Owyhee county in Idaho, and of the San Juan and
.CrippleCreek regionsin Colorado.
In other parts of the world the veins may intersectintrusive
rocks, like diorite and granite, which we know to have consolidated at great depthand which were mostprobablyoncecovered
by heavymassesof just suchlava flowsas are referred to above.
From geologicalstudieswe may know, with relative exactness,
the dateof vein formationwhichis likely to be remotecompared

WALDEMAR

LINDGREN

to the classof veinsalludedto in the previousparagraph. Such


are the veins of the SouthernAppalachianStates,of the gold
belt of California, and of Australia.
With these generalizationsin mind we have a basis for com-

parison of ore-valuesalthough additional data along the lines


mentionedare much to be desired. Careful judgment of individual casesis of coursenecessaryfor we may conceivesurface lavas accumulated

in such masses that in their

lowest beds

the veins would have the same depth from the surface as veins

in intrusiveand deeplyerodedareas. It is also possiblethat intrusive rocksmay be injected to levelsperhapsonly one or two
thousand feet below the surface. This has happened,for instance,in the San Juan region in Colorado. The vital point is
the correct estimate

of the amotint

of erosion which

has taken

place.

Among the causes which produce ore precipitation from


aqueoussolutionsthe most generally advocatedare (x) mingling with other waters, (2) reducingagents such as carbonor
ferrous sulphateand (3) diminishingpressureand temperature.
The last cause has been most freely advocatedand often for
casesof small differencesof depth. I have shown elsewhere
x
that although it is of great importancethe argument must be applied with much discrimination since actual observation shows

that ore precipitationtakes placewithin a very wide vertical


range. If it can be shown,however,that ore depositionchanges
in depth, gradually and generally, that Changemust be due to
pressure and temperature.

A review of the veins which cut through surface lavas will


show that many of them have been followed down for over a
thousand feet from a point which was undoubtedlynear the
original surface. In the Silver City district a depth of over
2,000 feet has been attained, in Cripple Creek x,5oo feet, and in
the San Juan country, Colorado, at least one of the veins has
actually been prcved payable within a vertical range of 3,000
feet. But in most casesthe ore--which generally is of higher
" Nevada City and Grass Valley," 7th Ann. Report, U.S.
Part II., p. 77.

Geol. Survey,

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

41

value than in the deep gold-quartz mines in California--seems


to decreasesomewhatin quantity and value as the lowest levels

are reachedand in manycasesthe decrease


is'markedand conspicuous. Extremely rich massesof orebonanzasmwithin
moderatedistancefrom the original surfaceare'really characteristic of theseveins and are frequentlystill further enrichedby
oxidationand the formationof secondarysulphides.
A review of the veinswhich cut throughlarge intrusivemasses
and their surroundingsedimentaries
and whoseupper parts have
beenremovedby erosionleadsto encouragingresultsespecially
with veins carrying free gold. First among them we should
mention the veins and saddle reefs of Bendigo, Victoria, which
have lately beenopenedat a maximum depth of 4, I56 feet and
proved payable, in part at least. But it is stated that below a
vertical depth of 2,500 feet fewer ore bodieshave been found
than above that limit and that the deeperexplorationshave not
as a whole proved economicallysuccessful. The amount of rock
removedby erosionsincevein formation in this district is very
difficult to estimate. Some of the figures given by Australian

geologists
seemfar toolargebutat anyrateit mustbeat last
3,ooo feet, so that we may assumethat depositionof free gold
with quartz took placeat leastto a depthof 7,000 feet below the
original surface.
In the deep Ballarat quartz mines the grade and quantity of
ore appearsto decreasesomewhatin depth. although they have
scarcelyattained a depth of 2,000 feet.
Turning now to the California quartz mines in the foothills
of the Sierra Nevada the latest results which as yet are little
known beyondthe State offer much encouragement
to thosewho
believein deepmining. In GrassValley ten years ago the out-

lookfor the two principalmines,the North Star and the Empire,


seemed doubtful; since then the former mine has found ore

-equallyas rich as in upperlevelsdownto a verticaldepthof t,6oo


feet and 4, too feet on the incline of the vein.

The Empire has sunk its shaft to 3,t6o feet on the incline
(,286 feet vertically) and it is recentlystatedin the pressthat
the ore-shoothas been found on the 3,ooo-footlevel. Many

42

VALDEMAR

LINDGREN

years ago the Idaho minesin the samecamp found someore at a


vertical depth of 2,200 feet, but the explorations were discontinued owing to the fact that the principalore-shootwas located
at a higher level and seemedfar more inviting to follow.
On the Mother Lode deepmining has principallybeencarried
on in Amador and CalaverasCounties. The depthsof some
prominentminesat the presenttime (August, 9o5) are as folIncline.

Lincoln,

2,000 feet

Baliol,
South Eureka,

Central Eureka, 2,3oofeet


Oneida,
Kennedy,
Argonaut,
Zeila,
Gwin,

k ertlcal.

x,766 feet.
x,8oo"
x,8oo"
2,030"
2,3o0"
2,863"
2,xoo "
z,2o0"
2,380"

The Kennedy
is nowsaidto be stcping
on the2,7oo-foot
level, the Central Eureka at depth from 1,9ooto 2,000 feet, the
Oneidabelowthe 1,9oo-footlevel,the Gwin belowthe 2,ooo-foot
level. These very gratifying resultshave proved that at the
depths indicated free gold ores are found of similar character

to thoseoccurring
nearerto the surface,'
although
the rich
pocket bonazasseem to be of less frequent occurrencein the
deeper workings. The hope of finding payable ore at still
'greater depthhas beengreatly strengthened,and it may well descendto the deepestlevelsattainableby mining. On accountof
increasingtemperaturethis will perhapsnot greatly exceed5,000
feet. The thicknessof crust removedby erosionin the foot-hill
regionsincevein formationis of coursedifficultto estimatewith
exactness
but it may not exceed3,ooofeet. At any rate it seems
certain that depositionof free gold ores in the Cali.forniaveins
has proceeded
at depthsfrom the surfaceof about6,ooo feet.

The gold depositsof the SouthernAppalachianStatesoffer


an exampleof deep"roots" of veins; the amountof erosion
from the croppingsat the time of depositiondoubtlessgreatly
exceedsthe figuresgiven for Australiaand Californiaand still
free gold oreshavebeenfoundand followedin somecasesto a

ORE

DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

43

depth of over ,ooo feet. They are usuallyof very low grade
although small shootsand pocketsof ore occur which are fully
as rich as anything found in California or Australia.
It may thereforebe confidentlyassertedthat depositsof gold.quartz ores extend at least over a vertical range of 6,0o0 or
,7,ooofeet. There is someevidencethat the conditionsfor depositiongrow less favorableas depth increasesbut the change
takesplacevery slowly. The richestoresare thosenear to their
original apex. Most of the deep mines in the Mother Lode

region
of California
carryoresof comparatively
lowgraderS4
to $8 per ton--and are only payableon accountof the availability
of cheapmetallurgical processes.
It shouldbe clearly understoodthat in any district local causes
may becomeoperativedepressingthe value and decreasingthe
quantity of ores. Among the causesinfluencingore deposition
besidespressureand temperatureshouldbe mentionedthe char.acterof the wall rock and the presenceof crossfissuresoh which
waters of different compositionand temperature are moving.
Enrichmentis very often notedat suchintersections
and Professor
Van Hise attributesthe principalcauseof'ore-shoots
to them; but

it seems
moreprob.able
thattheyareamong
theminorcauses
and
they certainlyseemto be mostcommonin depositsformed short
distancesbelow the surface where such a mingling of circulating
solutionsfrequently is apt to take place, and where, as has been

pointed'outabove,localbonanzas
are mostlikelyto occur. The
Cripple Creek district offers many examplesof this. The large
shootsand the deep ore bodiesdo not seemto dependon such
influences of cross veins.

Temperature and pressureboth increaseas we descendinto


the earth's crust and from

what has been said before there must

be a limit beyondwhich depositionof gold and silver ores does


not readily take place. Possiblythis limit lies near the critical
point of water (q-365 C. at a pressureof 200 atmospheres)

-which
is notno'mally
.reached
untildepths
of over2o,ooofeet,
but locally is often attained in the vicinity of igneousmassesincludedin the uppermostpart of the earth's crust. Contactmeta-

morphic
deposits
arebelieved
to becaused
by theactionof water

44

WALDEMAR

LINDGREN

abovethe critical temperaturein the closevicinity of intrusive


masses. The small amountof gold and silver found in suchdeIx)sitsas well as in pegrnatitedikeswhich were formed at a still
highertemperatureseemsto indicatethat extremelyhightemperature and pressureare unfavorablefor depositionof thesemetals.
On the otherhandin suchmineralizedareas,gold and silverbearing veinsmay often be found at somedistancefrom the contact
zone, or in veinsof a later date cutting acrossthe intrusivesand
their contactbelt. This argument will be coursemost forcibly
appeal to those who believe.that the lxot ascendingwaters and
their principal metallic contents are derived from intrusive
magrnas.

What takes placewhen descendingsurfacewaters have an opportunityto act on the uppermostparts of veins,has beenelucidated by such observersas Penrose,Van Hise, Emmons, Weed
and others. Differencesin temperatureand pressureby increasing depth are here of little moment; insteadthe depth to which
the surfacewaters can carry oxygen, and, closelyconnectedwith
this, the standof the water level, are the important points.
Oxidation

of the vein material

in some cases involves enrich-

ment, in others impoverishmentbut in the latter casethe forma-

tionof secondary
sulphides
of copper,
silver'andlead,aboutthe
water-leveland underneaththe impoverishedzone, frequentlyis
a compensatingfeature. In a few mines in New Mexico, Utah
and Nevada the oxidized ore extends a little more th&n I,ooo
feet below the croppings. In the Butte mines, chalcocite--a
secondarycoppersulphide--issaidto extenddownto a depthof
2,4oo feet. But these casesare due to specialand rare conditions. Where oxidizedore is mined we are as a rule justified in
expectinga decreasein value when the primary ore is reached
and where secondarysulphidesform the principalvaluableores
a sharp decreasein grade might be expected within a few
hundredfeet or lessbelowthe surface. The orescreatedby surface waters are due to very complexprocesses,
and rapid changes
may completely alter the character of the ores within a distance of a few feet. For gold bearing veins the general rule
of enrichmentof the oxidized portion is basedon reductionof

ORE DEPOSITION

AND

DEEP

MINING

45

volume of ore by weatheringof sulphidesand on the liberation


of the gold containedin them. Solution and transportationof
gold seem to be processesof subordinateimportance. Exceptions to this rule occur and are due to specialclassesof ore.
Thus in the telluride ores of Cripple Creek there is little difference in value between oxidized and fresh ore, and similar condi-

tions exist in the Waihi mine in New Zealand, although the


fresh ore here containssulphides.
Disregarding these complex processesof oxidation we may
conciselyformulate the general result that ores depositedby ascendinghot watersare muchmore likely to showa decreasethan
an increasein value when developedby deep mining. This decreaseis likely to be rapid near the original apex of the veins
but below this it is in most casesvery slow, extending over a
vertical range of many thousandfeet. This general decreaseis
most probablya functionof pressureand temperature. Variations in value of the ore within

a moderate

vertical

distance as

wellasthegeneral
formof theshoots
aremostprobably
lueto
specialcausessuchas the physicalcharacterof the fissuresand
the precipitatingpower of certain wall rocksor solutionsof different kinds encounteredby the ascendingwaters.
The action of solids on liquids containing their constituents
is anotherfeatureof importancefor the explanationof ore-shoots.
If some local cause starts precipitation at' one point, this precipitatedsubstanceacts as an incentiveto further precipitation.
If gold-bearingsulphideshave separatedfrom the solutiontheir
presencewill induce depositionof more mineralsof the same
kind.

Considerationof Lake Superior copper depositsand South


African gold-bearingconglomerates
has been deferred to the
last, for, although both have been proved by workings and
diamonddrills to extendto a depthof 5,000 feet from the surface,scientific
opinionis by no meansagreedas to their genesis.
The two classesoffer somestriking similarities: Both carry native metals in the cementingmaterial of conglomerates
and in
both the ore bodiesare unusuallylarge and persistent.

46

V,4LDEM,4R LINDGREN

In Michigan, the copper,occurring in volcanicconglomerates


or in old surface flows, has been mined successfullyto a depth
of 5;ooo feet. Some observers,for instance,Professor Van
I-Iise, believe that the metal has been depositedby ascending
waters and that we consequentlyhave here an example of slight
influenceof pressureand temperature. On the other hand, Dr.
A. C. Lane thinks it more probablethat the copperwas contained
in the bedsof.basiclavas with which the depositsare associated
and that we have simply a caseof local concentrationand metasomatism.

In the SouthAfrican banketdepositsextensiveore bodieshave


beenfolloweddown'below2,ooo feet by mining and provedto
continueto vertical depthsof 5,000 feet by drilling observations,
although, of course,the actual amount of payableore at those
depthshas not as yet beendemonstrated. The ores are of low
grade, averagingperhaps$7 or $8 per ton. Whether an actual
decreasein value has taken place from the surfaceto the deepest

presehtworkingsdoesnot seemto be positivelyascertained.


Contradictorystatementsare found and it is possiblethat the
somewhatlower grade mined now simply indicatesan adjustment owing to better mining and milling; at any rate the decrease,if it exists, is small.

The Rand has been a fertile field for speculationand genetic


theories. Marine precipitation,detrital origin and depositionby
ascendingsolutionshave beenadvancedwith varying success,
but
at the presenttime the lastview seemsdecidedl.
y the mostreasonable. The erosionhas probably removed a great thicknessof
rocks, which at the time of the formation of the depositsrested
on the presentoutcrops. If this is correctthe Rand would offer
anotherinstanceof depositionof low grade ore bodiesby ascending solutionsand would confirm the result reachedaboveas to
the very slow rate of increasein precipitationof gold from

ascending
sol'utions
bydecreasing
pressure
andtemperature.

You might also like