MANET Notes

INDOOR MOBILITY MODELLING FOR MANETS:
AN ACTVITY APPROACH
by
Mbuyu Sumbwanyambe
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE
of
MAGISTER INGENERIAE
in
ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT
in the
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

at the
University of Johannesburg
Supervisor: Dr. W. Clarke

University of Johannesburg May 2008
Professor, E.W Dijkstras advice to a promising researcher, who asked how to select
a topic for research, was: "Do only what only you can do"
ABSTRACT
INDOOR MOBILITY MODELLING FOR MANETS: A REALISTIC APPROACH
Sumbwanyambe Mbuyu
Master of Science Graduate Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Johannesburg
2007
Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) are multihop wireless topologies that have rapidly
changing node structure and limited connectivity. Since MANETs are not deployed
on a wide scale, the research community still depends on the simulators such as the
network simulator (Ns2) to evaluate MANET protocols.
The topic of how to accurately model an indoor environment in the MANET research
community is explored in this dissertation. We take an empirical and simulative
approach to model our mobility pattern. Our mobility model is based on activity
patterns drawn from the transport science.
A comparison with the random way point is made in order to understand the weighty
discrepancy between the two models. Our contribution in this research is three fold:
1. We argue that mobility modelling should be based on activities other than
stochastic process that have got no realistic backing;
2. We model our network using by putting up an algorithm and take an empirical
approach to model the radio frequency propagation. To show the difference of
the two mobility models, the behaviour of the signal strength on the two
mobility models is drawn; and
3. Finally an implementation of our mobility pattern and RF measurements in
ns2 is done.
Key words:
Activity model, graph theory, ns2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr .W. Clarke who guided and supported me
throughout my dissertation and my stay at the University of Johannesburg. Truthfully
I had a rough time with my research but with your help I am glad I can hold my head
high. Once again, thank you, for the guidance and for steering me in the right
direction. This has been a great time for me. Undoubtedly, my life at the university
could have been boring had not been for the support of my colleagues in the
Telecommunications Research Group (TRG). I sincerely thank Khmaies, Ling,
Marco, Dr Theo swart, Filip, Ali, Dr Benny Chisonga and Hailing. I will certainly
miss the great soccer days we shared on Fridays. I want to give a great thank you to
my family: Dr Silishebo Sumbwanyambe, Lubasi Masilokwa, Faith sumbwanyambe.
Your support was exceedingly valued.You modeled me to be the person I am proud to
be today and hence, I owe you this great opening I have in life. I want to thank all my
friends from Zambia who kept me with the nice zed music from back home. Lastly,
but certainly not the least, my greatest thanks to GOD almighty for granting me the
ability, perseverance and clarity to do this work.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... II
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..........................................................................................III
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. VI
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. VIII
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................. 1
1. OVERVIEW: INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES ...................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 DEFINITION OF MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS............................................................ 1
1.3 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND ........................................................................... 1
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................... 3
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 5
1.6 DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF OBJECTIVES .......................................................... 6
1.7 CONTRIBUTION ...................................................................................................... 7
1.8 DISSERTATION STRUCTURE .................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................... 10
2. THE ROAD MAP: OVERVIEW OF MANETS AND RELATED
TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................................... 10
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 10
2.2 CELLULAR NETWORKS ......................................................................................... 11
2.3 SATELLITE NETWORKS ......................................................................................... 11
2.3 WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (WLAN). ....................................................... 12
2.4 MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS (MANETS) ................................................................. 13
2.5 SIMULATION TOOLS FOR MANETS - THE DE FACTO STANDARDS ........................... 30
2.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................... 35
3. UNDERSTANDING OF MOBILITY MODELS ............................................... 35
3.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 35
3.2 RANDOM MOBILITY MODELS. .............................................................................. 36
3.3 MOBILITY MODELS WITH SPATIAL DEPENDENCY. ................................................ 38
iii
3.4 MOBILITY MODELS WITH TEMPORAL DEPENDENCY. ............................................ 39

3.6 OVERVIEW OF RELATED WORK ............................................................................ 40
3.7 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................... 50
4. RADIO FREQUENCY PROPAGATION MODELS IN WLANS OR
MANETS .................................................................................................................... 50
4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 50
4.2 SHADOWING ........................................................................................................ 51
4.3 RAY TRACING MODELS. ....................................................................................... 53
4.4 RF EMPIRICAL PATH- LOSS MODELS ................................................................... 54
4.5 RELATED WORK-PROPAGATION IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT............................ 57
4.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................... 63
5. MOBILITY MODELLING AND IMPLEMENTATION ................................. 63
5.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 63
5.2 TOPOLOGY THE SPATIAL ENVIRONMENT ......................................................... 64
5.3 NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTIONS PATTERNS .......................................................... 69
5.4 USER MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION-THE DYNAMICS. ................................................ 71
5.5 PATH CHOICE: SHORTEST PATH / ALL-OR-NOTHING .......................................... 72
5.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MOBILITY MODEL IN NS2 ........................................... 77
5.7 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 80
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................... 81
6. METHODOLOGY OR EXPERIMENTAL PLANNING ................................. 81
6.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 81
6.2 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 81
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL DESCRIPTION .......................................................................... 82
6.4 EXPERIMENT 1. UNDERSTANDING INDOOR TRAVEL PLANS AND ACTIVITY
PATTERNS.
................................................................................................................ 84
6.5 EXPERIMENT 2: MODELLING THE OBSERVED CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICSEMULATING THE MOBILITY PATTERNS. ...................................................................... 87
6.6 SECTION 3: MAIN EXPERIMENT, NS2 SIMULATIONS. ........................................... 96
iv
6.7 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 98

CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................. 100
7. EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS........................................ 100
7.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. 100
7.2 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT 1A: SPEED IN AN INDOOR LOCATION. ........................ 100
7.3 RESULTS FOR EXPERIMENT 1B: NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AND ACTIVITY
DISTRIBUTION ......................................................................................................... 102
7.4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT C: SELECTION OF ROUTES IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT

................................................................................................................................ 104
7.5 GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS: EFFECTS OF DISTANCE ON THE SIGNAL
STRENGTH. .............................................................................................................. 105
7.6 SECTION 2 MAIN EXPERIMENT: SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.............. 116

7.7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................. 121
8. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ........................................................... 121
8.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. 121
8.2 CONTRIBUTIONS ................................................................................................ 121
8.3 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS .................................................................................. 121
8.4 LIMITATIONS OF OUR STUDY ............................................................................. 122
8.5 CONCLUSIONS OF RESULTS ................................................................................ 123
8.6 FUTURE WORK .................................................................................................. 123
8.7 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 123
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................... 124
COLOPHON ............................................................................................................ 133
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: DIAGRAM SHOWING DIFFERENT TYPES OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS
.............................................................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 2: A BASIC SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ........................................... 12
FIGURE 3: MANETS IN MILITARY OPERATIONS ............................................................ 14
FIGURE 4: NODE COMMUNICATION IN SENSOR NETWORKS ............................................ 15
FIGURE 5: EMERGENCY OPERATIONS IN MANETS ....................................................... 16
FIGURE 6: (A) A BAN NETWORK AND (B) A PAN NETWORK ........................................ 17
FIGURE 7: IEEE 802.11 LAYERED PROTOCOL STRUCTURE [4] ....................................... 20
FIGURE 8: PERFORMANCE OF THE 802.11 NETWORKS [71] ............................................ 21
FIGURE 9: THE HIDDEN TERMINAL PROBLEM ................................................................ 23
FIGURE 10: ROUTE REQUEST AND ROUTE REPLY IN AODV [15] ................................... 26
FIGURE 11: SCOPES IN THE FSR ROUTING PROTOCOL ................................................... 28
FIGURE 12: A SIMPLIFIED VIEW OF THE NS2 SIMULATION FLOW [40] ............................ 33
FIGURE 13: DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOBILITY MODELS [42] ............................................ 36
FIGURE 14: RANDOM MOVEMENT IN THE RANDOM WAY POINT MODEL ......................... 38
FIGURE 15: FREE WAY MODEL AND THE MANHATTAN MOBILITY MODELS [42] ............ 39
FIGURE 16: ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT .................................... 46
FIGURE 17: DRAWING SHOWING (A) SCATTERING (B) DIFFRACTION (C) REFLECTION .. 52
FIGURE 18: THE TWO RAY MODEL DIAGRAM [73]........................................................ 53
FIGURE 20: SIMILARITIES IN GRAPHS PRESENTATION IN (A) AND (B) ............................. 65
FIGURE 21: NETWORK DIAGRAM .................................................................................. 67
FIGURE 22: NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION (A) RANDOMWAY POINT (B) ACTIVITY MODEL
.............................................................................................................................. 70
FIGURE 23: PICTURE OF NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AT PARTICULAR TIMES OF THE
DAY (A) BREAK TIMES AND (B) DURING WORKING HOURS ..................................... 70
FIGURE 24 COMMON SCENARIOS IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT; PICTURE SHOWING THE

CHOICE OF PATH BETWEEN THE STAIRS AND THE RAMP ......................................... 73
FIGURE 25: PICTURE SHOWING DIFFERENT ROUTE CHOICES IN AN INDOOR

ENVIRONMENT. ..................................................................................................... 73
FIGURE 26: GENERATING A MOBILITY TRACE IN NS2 USING ACTIVITY BASED MODEL ... 77
FIGURE 27: GENERATED CAD DRAWING OF AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT ....................... 78
vi
FIGURE 28: PICTURE DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT WHERE EMPIRICAL

MEASUREMENTS WERE CONDUCTED...................................................................... 83
FIGURE 29: NODE DENSITY MEASUREMENT AREA ........................................................ 85

FIGURE 30 FEATURES OF THE 802.11G PCI CARD ......................................................... 88
FIGURE 31: SCREENSHOT OF THE WIRELESSMON GUI ................................................... 89
FIGURE 32: SETUP CONNECTION OF THE EXPERIMENT ................................................... 90
FIGURE 33: LINE OF SIGHT MEASUREMENT AREA ......................................................... 91
FIGURE 34: OPEN PLAN OFFICE MEASUREMENTS AREA ................................................. 92
FIGURE 35: OPEN SPACE AREA WHERE EMULATION OF THE RANDOM WAY POINT WAS
CONDUCTED .......................................................................................................... 95
FIGURE 36: TWO TYPES OF RANDOM WAY POINT MOVEMENT WHICH WE EMULATED .... 96
FIGURE 37: PERCENT PROBABILITY OF NODE DENSITY IN CORRIDORS AT SPECIFIC TIMES
OF THE DAY ......................................................................................................... 103
FIGURE 38: PERCENTAGE USE OF TIME IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT ......................... 104

FIGURE 39: VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH DISTANCE ................................. 107
FIGURE 40: SIGNAL STRENGTH DECAY VERSUS DISTANCE IN AN OPEN PLAN OFFICE ... 108
FIGURE 41 VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH DISTANCE IN A STAIR CORRIDOR 110
FIGURE 42: VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH ONE NODE STATIONED IN AN
OFFICE AND ONE MOBILE ALONG THE CORRIDOR ................................................. 112
FIGURE 43: VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS DISTANCE WHEN TWO NODES ARE
MOVING APART IN AN OBSTACLE FREE CORRIDOR ............................................... 113
FIGURE 44: SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS DISTANCE WITH BOTH NODES MOVING IN THE
SAME DIRECTION BUT IN A RANDOM MANNER FIGURE (A) ................................... 114
FIGURE 45 VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS THE DISTANCE IN AN EMULATED

RANDOM MOVEMENT WITH TWO NODES MOVING OPPOSITELY FIG (B) ................ 115
FIGURE 46: SIGNAL STRENGTH DISPARITY VERSUS DISTANCE IN RANDOM MOVEMENT

KEEPING ONE NODE CONSTANT ........................................................................... 116
FIGURE 47 RESULTS FOR DSDV THROUGHPUT (A) AND DELAY (B) USING THE 1024
BYTES PACKET PAYLOAD
.................................................................................... 118
FIGURE 48 THROUGHPUT (A) AND DELAY (B) RESULTS FOR 512 BYTES PACKET PAYLOAD
USING DSDV ...................................................................................................... 119
FIGURE 49 THROUGHPUT (A) AND DELAY (B) RESULTS FOR AODV WITH 1024 BYTES
PAYLOAD ............................................................................................................ 119
vii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: WIRELESS LAN THROUGHPUT BY IEEE STANDARD ..................................... 18
TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENT IEEE 802.11 STANDARDS AND MODULATION
TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................................... 22
TABLE 3: PATH-LOSS EXPONENT N FOR DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS [73] ...................... 56

TABLE 4: PARTITION LOSS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS [73] ........................................... 59
TABLE 5: ACTIVITY TIME DISTRIBUTION IN AN INDOOR PLACE ...................................... 85
TABLE 6: SPEED VARIATION OF USERS IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT ......................... 101
TABLE 7: AVERAGE SPEED MEASUREMENTS IN DIFFERENT INDOOR LOCATIONS ......... 101
TABLE 8: NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT PLACES OF AN INDOOR
ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................... 103
TABLE 9: THE STATISTICAL TABLE WAS TAKEN FROM A SMALL SURVEY OF 100 USERS AT
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG. ........................................................................ 104
TABLE 10: VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH DISTANCE .................................. 106
TABLE 11: SIGNAL STRENGTH DECAY VERSUS DISTANCE IN AN OPEN PLAN OFFICE .... 108
TABLE 12: VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH DISTANCE IN A STAIR CORRIDOR
............................................................................................................................ 110
TABLE 13: VARIATIONS OF SIGNAL STRENGTH WITH ONE NODE STATIONED IN AN OFFICE
AND ONE MOBILE ALONG THE CORRIDOR ............................................................ 112
TABLE 14: VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS DISTANCE WHEN TOW NODES ARE
MOVING APART IN AN OBSTACLE FREE CORRIDOR ............................................... 113
TABLE 15: SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS DISTANCE WITH BOTH NODES MOVING IN THE
SAME DIRECTION BUT IN A RANDOM MANNER FIGURE (A) ................................... 114
TABLE 16: VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS THE DISTANCE IN AN EMULATED

RANDOM MOVEMENT WITH TWO NODES MOVING OPPOSITELY FIGURE (B) .......... 115
TABLE 17: SIGNAL STRENGTH DISPARITY VERSUS DISTANCE IN RANDOM MOVEMENT

KEEPING ONE NODE CONSTANT ........................................................................... 116
viii
Definitions and Terminology

AODV
Ad-hoc on-demand Distance vector
APs
Access points
ATIS
Advanced Traveller Information Systems
AM
Activity Model
BAN
Body Area Network
CSMA/CA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
CCK
Complementary Code Keying
CTS
Clear To Send
CRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check
DARPA
Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
DCF
Distributed Coordinated Function
DSR
Dynamic source routing
DSDV
Direct Sequence Destination Vector
DSSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
FSR
Fisheye State Routing Protocol
GPS
Ground Position System
GTNets
Georgia Tech Network simulator
HTC
High-Tech Cellular
ISM-Band
Industrial Scientific and Medical band
LAR
Location aware routing protocol
LAN
Local Area Network
LOS
Line Of Sight
MAN
Metropolitan Area Network
MAC
Medium Acces Control
MATLAB
MATrix LABoratory
MANETs
Mobile Adhoc NETworks
MIRRORS
Mobility Integration of Radio Requirements in Real-world
Simulations
NAV
Network Allocation Vector
NS2
Network simulator 2
N-LOS
Non Line Of Sight
ix
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing OPNET
OPNET
Optimized Network Engineering Tools
PDAs
Personal Digital assistants
PDR
Packet Delivery Ratio
PAN
Personal Area Network
RTS
Request To Send
RF
Radio Frequency
RFID
Radio Frequency IDentification
RPGM
Reference Point Group Mobility
RWP
Random Way Point
S-D
Source to Destination
TTL
Time To Live
TGn
Task Group N
W-LANs
Wireless Local area Network
Chapter 1
Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives
CHAPTER 1
1. OVERVIEW: INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mark Wieseer the father of ubiquitous once said, The most profound technologies
are those that disappear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until
they are indistinguishable from it
In this chapter we present an introduction to the topic of mobility modelling in Mobile
Adhoch Networks (MANET) simulations and its effects on radio frequency (RF)
physical (PHY) metrics. An overview of our research and the motivations behind our
research is also presented in this dissertation. Further more the dissertation outlines
the research problems we have developed in the area of MANETs and identifies the
contributions of our research. Finally, it provides an outline for the rest of the chapters
to follow.
1.2 DEFINITION OF MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS

A mobile adhoc network (MANET) represents a system of communicating nodes that
can dynamically self- organise into temporal and arbitrary network topologies. Unlike
conventional wireless networks, MANETs have no fixed infrastructure or
administrative support such as in the cellular networks or other forms of wireless
networks. Sometimes MANETs are referred to as wireless LANs (WLANs) or just
wireless networks. In MANETs nodes act as routers, transmitters or receivers
depending on the transmission pattern of the network.
1.3 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND

In the next generation of wireless networks, mobile computing [9] is predicted to
become part of our lives. MANETs, which forms part of mobile computing, may find
increasingly use in situations where there is a need for the rapid deployment of
independent mobile users. Significant examples include:
Chapter 1
Establishing
survivable,
efficient
and
dynamic
communication
for
emergency/rescue operations (such as in the September 9/11);
Disaster relief efforts such as in African countries where war and civil conflict
have brought down many telecommunication infrastructures; and
Military networks where MANETs are deployed for effective war combat and
communication.
The research community is currently busy trying to understand the scalability of

MANETs in real world scenarios [44]. Recent efforts in research and development
have rapidly advanced the research in the wireless mobile computing. For example,
EUROtech has released the ZYPAD [5], a wearable computer which has a GPS
incorporated into it. The ZYPAD incorporates the dead reckoning system (Dead
reckoning (DR) is the method of approximating one's current spot based upon an
earlier determined spot, and advancing that spot based upon known speed, elapsed
time, and course). It can detect if the user has been motionless for a long period by
sending beaconing messages for quick location of the user.
Although research in MANETs has been a focus of many research institutions, a lot,
however, needs to be done especially in the area of modelling techniques and the
behaviour of MANETs in different environments.
Earlier techniques of MANET modelling were mostly dependent on analytical
approaches, but the trend changed with the introduction of stochastic principles to
model real world scenarios. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to model the
unpredictability of mobility and radio propagation inherent in real-world phenomena
with such models.
This led to the introduction of simulators in order to capture these scenarios in a more
realistic manner. Discrete event simulators such as the Ns2, [40] GloMosim [42],
OPNET [39], QUALNET and MATLAB have been extensively used in research
activities to model the characteristics of MANETs.
Chapter 1
While it has been less complex to model wired networks, it has really been very
difficult to model wireless MANETs. Wireless networks simulations for indoor and
outdoor are being implemented by researchers, but most of the simulations are biased
towards evaluating the scalability of MANETs in outdoor scenarios [29, 32, 33, 34].
Modelling the real world underpinning the indoor environment is therefore difficult.
Even if modelling indoor environments might prove to be difficult, it is essential that
simulation models for adhoc networks must include sensible movement behaviour,
such as activity driven movement pattern, effects of obstructions on route choice and
signal variations due to channel characteristics [79, 84]. It is imperative that the
simulation should be realistic, in such a way that the parameter space and user
movement evaluated should reflect real world settings. Assumptions that do not
reflect the true nature of the problem domain edge the results of simulations to
academic importance.
Despite much research effort on the above aspects, the current state of the art is still
unsatisfactory and unrealistically implemented. Most simulations in wireless networks
ignore the effects of obstructions on path choice [44], radio propagation and tend to
ignore typical mobility patterns which are influenced by activity patterns.
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.4.1 Unrealistic Mobility Patterns.
Mobility pattern is a major factor that affects the performance of a MANET and in
turn it will affect the results obtained in the simulation of mobile networks. Mobility
in most MANET simulations lack realism and do not really reflect the users
movement behaviour in such a place. Despite the fact that earlier models are credited
with ease of understanding and implementation, they are often based on theoretical
models rather than real world observations.
Mobility patterns such as the Random Way Point (RWP) [6, 42], Reference Point
Group model (RPGM) [42] and the more recent Down Town Mobility models [44]
Chapter 1
such as Manhattan and freeway, are mobility patterns that are not based on realistic
movement behaviour motivated by activity and path choice.
Some of the aforementioned models assume scenarios devoid of obstacles with a
random user movement. Others are rather simplistic and do not really depict the
movement behaviour found in an indoor structure or channel.
Although, the movement pattern displayed by some of the above models may be a
reasonable assumption in certain outdoor situations, it is likely not applicable in many
indoor environments where the impact of indoor obstacles and pathways on both user
mobility, path choice and user density cannot be underestimated.
For example, students on campus will go to places where they want to perform an
activity, such as attending a lecture or going to the canteen. This choice influences
their movement pattern which in turn influences the node density in the path
traversed.
Selection of a path on the other hand, is determined by obstructions such as stairs,
ramps and lifts within such a path. It is common sense knowledge that people/users
tend to avoid paths which are congested with obstacles. For example, people and cars
tend to avoid paths with a lot of stairs and traffic lights respectively. Instead, they
select paths with fewer obstacles in corridors and with less or no traffic lights in
highways/freeways.
Transport science [36, 49, 51, 50] indicates that user movement in an environment is a
function of activity participation and route choice is a function of obstructions. This in
itself suggests that mobility patterns in any environment must be linked to path/route
choice and movement pattern generated by the users.
1.4.2 Indoor Propagation and Routing.
While wired links have been well understood in the research community, there has
been less understanding on the wireless links due the fluctuating nature of the channel
in which they operate. Space and channel parameter have a drastic effect on the
received signal strength, packet scheduling and link quality of wireless networks.
4
Chapter 1
Since these effects have temporal as well as spatial properties, it is hard to model
them analytically or using the discrete event simulators.
Stochastic and deterministic modelling procedures [86] have been used to predict the
intrinsic behaviour of wireless phenomenon in an indoor environment but correct
ways are far from being reached. This is because indoor environments differ in their
geometry and construction, making transportability and applicability of such results to
other indoor environments questionable.
Also, the effect of materials has to be taken into consideration when modelling
wireless networks which is not included in discrete event simulators. It is for the
above reason that we take an empirical approach to model radio frequency (RF)
propagation in an indoor office environment.
In this dissertation the space is the office indoor environment in which we take
measurements and observe the received signal strength and the link quality of our
wireless transceivers.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This dissertation has three major objectives, which are:
To analyze activity patterns of both students and workers at the University of

Johannesburg. Analysis will include time allocation to activities, movement
pattern, route choice as a function of obstacles and node density. This in turn
will enable us to propose a more realistic mobility pattern for an indoor office
environment for MANETs based on activities and proper selection of routes
within a network;
To emulate the observed mobility pattern as dictated to by the geometry and

obstructions of the building and compare it with the random waypoint, then
compare the signal strength (RF propagation) of the physical layer (PHY
layer) of the IEEE 802.11 standard with the two mobility patterns ( the random
way point and, activity and obstruction driven mobility pattern); and
Implementation of this movement and RF propagation behaviour in Ns2.
Chapter 1
1.6 DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF OBJECTIVES

1.6.1 Mobility models in based on activities and route choice
Notably, most mobility patterns in MANETs are a source- destination (S-D) type of
movement which may not be the case in real scenarios. Realistic mobility patterns are
dictated to by a number of factors such as activities and obstructions. Activities and
obstructions determine the destination of users and route choice respectively, for this
reason, these two factors also determine the node density within each particular link
traversed.
Despite much work or effort regarding mobility modelling, [8, 27, 30, 31,] the current
state of art is not to our satisfaction.
We argue that modelling mobility patterns should be based on activities and path
choice in space and time, rather than assumptions [6]
We propose a mobility model based on the activity and route choice [46, 47, 48, 49,
54, 52, 53] which focuses on mobility as a function of activities performed by
individuals and route choice as a function of obstructions in a particular environment.
Our mobility model is formulated from the data that we collected after a one week
observation of user movement in our chosen environments, which are the Electrical
Engineering office and the main administrative building.
Detailed observations about the user path choice, time management and mobility
patterns are observed. We use both mathematical approaches (graph theory) [56] and
the ns2 [40] to realistically implement our observations
We start by choosing our office space in which we carry out our movement patterns
based on observation of users or people. We evaluate how the structure of the space
we have chosen dictates the mobility pattern and the user choice of a path.
Furthermore, we observe the effects of any activities on time scheduling and the
restrictions such activities have on the movement behaviour of the users.
Chapter 1
1.6.2 Indoor propagation - connectivity and radio range

Since obstructions and mobility govern the connectivity of nodes in wireless network,
we conduct experiments to see the effects of obstructions and mobility on radio
frequency propagation.
The challenge in this experiment is to evaluate how mobility patterns and obstructions
affect certain metrics such as the link quality and the received signal strength. These
results will lead us to a new understanding of the wireless routing problems and the
effect of such on the physical layer of 802.11 [2, 66, 65] in an indoor environment
We take an empirical approach (experimental analysis) to modelling the effects of
obstructions on mobility in the selected environments. We evaluate how different
mobility patterns in an indoor environment affect the Received Signal Strength
Indicator RSSI (RSSI is a measurement of the power present in a received radio
signal) and the link quality using wireless cards.
In addition we also take a compulsory evaluation of the effects of materials on the
signal strength indicator and the link quality. We perform our experiments in different
office buildings and record the effect of mobility coupled with building materials of
that particular office. We are optimistic that the above models will allow for more
efficient and scalable simulations parameters in event simulators.
1.7 CONTRIBUTION
In this dissertation, we develop a new mobility model based on the activities patterns
in an indoor environment. Our contribution in this dissertation is threefold:
Firstly, we present an algorithm which aims at selecting the most probable paths in an
indoor environment. We provide a mathematical descriptions, complexity analysis
and implementation of the algorithm;
Our second contribution, is the experimental analysis of the user mobility and radio
frequency behaviour in an indoor environment; and
Chapter 1
Finally, we link these models together to obtain a new mobility model called the
Activity Model (AM). We show that when this mobility model is compared with the
Random way point model the results, in terms of performance, outweigh the Random
Way Point.
1.8 DISSERTATION STRUCTURE

Chapter 2
This chapter explains the background of wireless communication. Particular attention
is given to the Mobile Adhoc wireless networks. Furthermore, this chapter will also
focus on the necessary introduction to communication networks providing the reader
with necessary communications terminology and a brief introduction to evolution of
networks and the simulation tools.
Chapter 3
In chapter 3, we present some mobility patterns which are commonly used in the area
of wireless LANs (WLANs). We present the related research work on the field of
MANETs
Chapter 4
In chapter 4, we will introduce wireless propagation models and related work that
have been done so far to model the channel effects on the transmitted signal in
wireless LANs.
Chapter 5
In chapter 5, we propose a graph algorithm based on the activity patterns in an indoor
environment. We look at how building geometry dictate the mobility of the users in
question. We present our mobility pattern which includes graph abstraction, path
choice and speed dictators in this chapter.
Chapter 6
In chapter 6, we present the methodology and the procedures of the experiments.
Chapter 7
Chapter 1
In this chapter we present the results of the work done in chapter 6.
Chapter 8
In chapter 8, we provide a discussion of our work, the conclusion and envisaged
future work in the area of indoor mobility modelling.
Chapter 2
The roadmap: overview of MANETs and related technologies
CHAPTER 2
2. THE ROAD MAP: OVERVIEW OF MANETS AND
RELATED TECHNOLOGIES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Telecommunications has been in existence from time memorial when man used to
communicate with each other in an ancient way. Old ways of communication
involved the use of smoke in the deep African continent to the use of whistle in the
Americas; other forms of communication in this area include the torch signalling,
flashing mirrors, signal flares and smoke. Such type of communication required a line
of sight (LOS) between the sender and the receiver. Observations towers were built on
hilltops and along the roads to relay these messages over a large distance.
Modern telecommunications involves the use of telephone or radio technology to
communicate over long distances through analogue or digital radio signals. This type
of communication uses microelectronic computer, and PC technologies to transmit,
receive, and switch voice, data, and video communications over different transmission
medium (copper, fibre, wireless and microwaves).
Various types of analogue and digital transmission technologies are employed in
telecommunications today [73]. Analogue communication technologies use a
continuously varying signal and are currently being phased out by digital
transmission. To the contrary, digital communication requires the transmission of data
to be done in discrete form or in bits comprising of ones and zeros. This transmission
in discrete form allows for, a faster signal processing, reduction in errors (errors can
be detected and corrected). In summary, digital communication works like a simple
light switch which is either on or off.
Telecommunication can be divided into two main streams, that is, wireless and wired.
The block diagram in figure1 shows the different blocks of telecommunication.
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Telecommunications
Wired communication
Cellular
communication
Satellite
communications
Point to
point
Wireless communication
MANETs
W-LANS
Figure 1: Diagram showing different types of telecommunication networks
2.2 CELLULAR NETWORKS

Cellular communications [7] also known as mobile communications has experienced
tremendous growth in the past two decades. In the world today more and more people
have seen themselves having a cell phone or a mobile gadget, making it the most
sought after type of communication. Cellular phones allow a person to make or
receive a call as long as the person is in the range of the tower. In a cellular network a
person is able to make a conversation while moving hence the name mobile
communication.
2.3 SATELLITE NETWORKS

Satellites such as the one shown in Figure 2 have been in use for a long time in the
history of wireless communication [1]. Satellites provide communication for long
distance communication across the continents of the world e.g. from Africa to Europe.
They have also found great use in space explorations e.g. National Aeronautics Space
Administration (NASA). Satellites can be divided into three major groups which are
mainly the Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and Low Earth
Orbit (LEO) satellites.
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Down link
Up link
Base station
Figure 2: A basic satellite communication systems
2.3 WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (WLAN).

Wireless LAN supports high speed data transmission in a small region and where the
mobility of users is within a limited area e.g. in a village community or a small
building. Wireless devices that support these LANs are typically stationary or moving
at pedestrians speeds.
The early form of wireless LANS were based primarily on proprietary and
incompatible protocols. These WLANs functioned within the 26 MHz spectrum of the
900 MHz industrial, scientific and medical band (ISM) with data rates of up to 1-2
Mbps [73]. Both star and peer to peer (P2P) network topologies are often used. The
non availability of standards for these products (Early WLANs) led to soaring
development costs, low capacity of production, and a small market for every
individual product.
The second generation of WLANs operated within 83.5 MHz of the spectrum in the
2.4 GHz ISM band. The IEEE 802.11b [2] was developed to address the troubles
which were faced in the earlier version of the WLANs. Versions of IEE 802.11 such
as the g and n were formed in order to address the problem of low data rates offered
by IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b. Unlike the earlier version of WLANs the 802.11
standards led to low development costs and high capacity of production.
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In Europe, wireless LANs growth revolves around the HIPERLAN (high performance
radio LAN) standard. The HIPERLAN standard is very similar to the IEEE 802.11a
standard hence it has the same frequency operation of 5 GHz and data rate speeds of
54Mbps and approximately the same range of 30m. Although the HIPERLAN and the
IEEE 802.11a are similar they differ in their quality of service (QoS).
A more detailed discussion on the technology will be provided later in this chapter.
2.4 MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS (MANETS)

2.4.1 Introduction
Mobile adhoc networks are networks without any fixed or centralized infrastructure
[4]. The networks can be deployed at any time when needed, especially in military
and emergency operations. As the world becomes more pervasive and ubiquitous,
telecommunications gadgets such as PDAs, Laptops, cell phones and intelligent
vehicle communication will all form a part of MANETs. The communication through
MANETs is adhoc, meaning that the signal is transmitted randomly. In mobile adhoc
networks each node can either be a router, sender or receiver.
MANETs find a lot of applications in our everyday life such as in military, disaster
and emergency operations, sensor networks, W-LANS, home networks and vehicular
communications, Personal Area Networks (PAN) and Body Area Networks (BAN)
2.4.2.1 Military
MANETs are often used in military battlefields for communications. Military
operations shown in Figure 3 always reflect high level of organised societies when it
comes to communication. In the digital age, the military effectiveness depends on the
information
quality,
availability,
and
on-reflex
information
sharing.
The
characteristics of information are of great importance for the military. Since MANETs
do not need a structured system, they find great use in survivable military
communications as shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3: MANETs in military operations
2.4.2.2 Sensor Networks

Sensor networks shown in Figure 4 are composed of nodes that can either be
stationary or mobile. Such networks communicate with one another in order to
provide vital information about their surroundings to a centralized system. Sensor
networks can be networked together to share real time information such as in active
roads or in automation of systems (SCADA). Like MANETs, sensor networks also
have constrained or limited networks communication bandwidth and finite on-board
battery power. Due to this similarity, sensor networks are sometimes referred to as
MANETs as well.
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N2
N1 s
N5
N4
N3
N6
Figure 4: Node communication in sensor networks

2.4.2.3 Home Networks
Home networks are envisioned [4] for future networks where ubiquitous or pervasive
home equipment will be deployed. This will support communication among PCs,
Laptops, cordless phones, smart appliances, security and monitoring systems
anywhere in and around the home. Home networks will also encompass sensor
networks and RFID networks for appropriate home management
2.4.2.4 Emergency Operations

MANETs have found practical applications in emergencies that need a quick network
to be established between members of emergency services. This type of MANET
makes use of the cars, laptops, PDAs and high-tech cellular phones (HTC) as routers
to direct information to the desired destination. In this age of critical emergency
operations as depicted in Figure 5, MANETs will find a very useful use in mitigating
disaster situations.
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Figure 5: Emergency operations in MANETs

2.4.2.5 Personal area network (PAN) and body area networks (BAN).
Short-range communication MANETs [4] as portrayed in Figure 6 can simplify the
intercommunication between various mobile devices (such as a PDA, a laptop, and a
cellular phone). In this communication network wired cables are replaced with
wireless connections such as Bluetooth or infrared. These adhoc networks can also
extend the access to the Internet or other networks by wireless mechanisms, e.g.
Wireless LAN (WLAN), GPRS, and UMTS.
A Body Area Network (BAN) is a network on the body of a person. The BAN is,
potentially, a promising application field of MANET in the future of pervasive
computing context, especially in identification and medical fields. The BAN
comprises of devices such as the wireless head screen, Bluetooth, wireless business
cards or other wireless devices such as the RFID. A combination of two or more
BANs becomes a personal area network (PAN)
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(a)
(b)
Figure 6: (a) A BAN network and (b) a PAN network

2.4.3 The IEEE 802.11 and the Bluetooth standards for MANETs
MANETs currently use two networking standards, which are the IEEE 802.11
standards and the Bluetooth standard. Bluetooth is being developed by the Bluetooth
Special Interest Group (SIG) [3] which is made up of different telecommunications
company such as Nokia and Samsung [2]. The features offered by Bluetooth
technology are its low cost, robustness and low power [3].
Contrary to the IEEE802.11, Bluetooth is a short range wireless communication
platform currently being developed for portable devices such as personal digital
assistants (PDAs), cell phones and note books. Other than being used in wireless
mobile devices, Bluetooth is also being developed for motor vehicles in the area of
intelligent transportation.
The IEEE 802.11 group of protocols are currently being developed for long range
communication at much higher data rates and distance. The introduction of 802.11n as
implemented by Task Group N (TGn) stimulated a lot of research in the area of the
802.11 family of protocols. The 802.11n offers a lot of throughput and high
performance. Driven by modulation techniques such as the OFDM [71], the 802.11n
17
Chapter 2
is expected to shift the performance of the current wireless LANS to four times
higher. Table 1 shows different IEEE 802.11 standards with different transmission
rates.
Table 1: Wireless LAN throughput by IEEE standard

IEEE WLAN Standard
Over-the-Air (OTA)
Estimates
802.11b
802.11g
11 Mbps
54 Mbps
802.11a
802.11n
54 Mbps
200+ Mbps
Media Access Control

Layer, Service Access
Point (MAC SAP)
Estimates
5 Mbps
25 Mbps (when .11b is not
present)
25 Mbps
100 Mbps
2.4.4 The IEEE 802.11 technology (overview)

The IEEE802.11 [2] was adopted in 1992 by the IEEE for Local area networks (LAN)
standards with rates up to 2Mbps. Since then SIGs/task groups (TGs) have been
formed to look into the affairs and extensions of standards with the IEEE 802.11
framework.
A lot of standards have been developed by the IEEE 802.11 task force to improve
communication in wireless networks [2]. IEEE 802.11 standards have different
characteristics in terms of speed, throughput and compatibility of chipsets among
different vendors.
The IEEE 802.11b was formulated by the IEEE to have higher data rates when
operational, with 2.4 GHz assigned as the frequency band of operation [2]. However,
802.11b came with its own deficiencies in its operation. The working group decided
to rectify these deficiencies by developing the IEEE 802.11 b-cort.
Continuous development of standards in IEEE by various task groups continued
leading to the introduction of other standards such as the IEEE 802.11 c, d, e, g, f and
more recently 802.11n etc.
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Chapter 2
At present the most common one on the shelf is the 802.11g standard. The 802.11g
operates in the frequency range of 2.4 -2.5 GHz, has a clear signal and less
interference. Though, the 802.11g frequency works fine in penetrating walls or other
types of building obstructions, it can, in some situations be interfered by other devices
which operate in the same frequency spectrum. Considerably, high data rates are
enabled by the IEEE 802.11g physical-layer extension making the 802.11g better than
the 802.11b in terms of data rates.
One of the most imperative aspects of the IEEE 802.11g standard is its backward
compatibility with IEEE 802.11b. In this way engineers implementing 802.11g are
able to persuade a widespread and international adoption of IEEE 802.11b products
such as laptops, PDAs and other 802.11 gadgets.
Additionally, backward
compatibility also prevents market confusion and allows for easy decisions by
engineers in the IT environment and network professionals as they look to upgrade
their networks to higher performance [2]. Backward compatibility with 802.11a is
still not possible because of the same modulation techniques and the identical nature
of the two standards
The IEEE 802.11 standard specifies a MAC and physical layer for wireless LANs.
The physical layer uses different technologies such as the Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). The MAC protocol
is the distributed coordinated function which has a carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
While the 11-Mbit/s modes of IEEE 802.11b attain peer-to-peer throughputs at the
MAC layer of about 7.1 Mbits/s for 1,500-byte packets, the 54-Mbit/s OFDM mode
of 802.11g will enable throughputs in excess of 24.3 Mbits/s. The new throughput
rates in 802.11g have brought with them excellent streaming of DVD video in the
world of multimedia and new applications, which are marginal with existing IEEE
802.11b rates. These figures assume use of the distributed coordination function
(DCF) channel-access mechanism of the 802.11 MAC layer. Figure 7 shows the
layered protocols that are common to W-LANs or MANETs.
.
19
Chapter 2
Logical control link

Contention free services
Contention services
Point coordination function (PCF)

Distributed coordination function (DCF)
MAC layer
2.4 GHz frequency hoping or direct sequence spread spectrum with data
rates of 1Mbps and 2Mbps
Figure 7: IEEE 802.11 layered protocol structure [4]

2.4.4.1 The link layer (MAC Layer)
When two nodes are in communication, access to the wireless medium is controlled
by Medium Access Control Layer (MAC layer) with a distributed coordination
function (DCF) known as carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA) (Figure 8).
When using the contention-based CSMA/CA access method, nodes making up the
mobile ad hoc networks or MANETs must first listen to one of the nodes on the WLAN about to transmit a message on the appropriate frequency and ensure that no
other node is transmitting. After the node detects that there is no other device which is
about to transmit, the device can start to transmit provided the channel is clear. If the
channel is busy, the device or the node transmitting initiates a random back-off
message, which must expire before another attempt to transmit can be made.
20
Chapter 2
Figure 8: Performance of the 802.11 networks [71]
2.4.4.2 The physical layer (PHY Layer)

The physical layer controls the communication or the transmission of data among or
between the nodes in a network. The 802.11b offers data rates of about 11Mbps at the
PHY layer whilst the The IEEE 802.11g standard offers 54 Mbps data throughput
values at PHY level [2].
However, different factors cause data throughput degradation. The main degradation
factor of data transmission in MANETs is the CSMA/CA, a mechanism used to detect
collision and prevent it. Other factors are the distance between the wireless node and
the access point (AP), and propagation conditions which may include line of sight or
non line of sight ((LOS or NLOS), as well as any materials that may be present in
the propagation path [81].
2.4.4.3 Modulation techniques in mobile Adhoc networks (MANETs)

Literature of 71 and 70 documents types of modulation techniques that are used in
MANETs, with each modulation offering a different kind of throughput. The most
popular ones are the DSSS, the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM),
and the Wideband Frequency Hoping (WBFH) which is primarily used for the home
RF environments.
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Chapter 2
The DSSS has higher rate of data transmission and prevents a lot of online attacks. It
supports 11Mb/s and the 5.5 Mb/s in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed ISM band using an 8
chip complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme. Conversely, when
DSSS signalling of each bit in the DATA header is multiplied by Pseudo noise (PN)
code sequences, the result is a chipping code which is normally an 11bit number.
The OFDM supports up to 54 Mb/s of data transmission in the 802.11g standards.
OFDM is a digital multi-carrier modulation scheme, which uses a large number of
closely-spaced orthogonal sub-carriers. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a
conventional modulation scheme at a low symbol rate maintaining data rates similar
to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes.
The modulation techniques, frequency and the maximum Data rates of the 802.11
standards are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of the different IEEE 802.11 standards and modulation techniques
Standard
802.11
Max Data rate

2 Mb/s
Frequency
2.4 GHz
802.11a
Home RF 2.0
802.11b
802.11g
54 Mb/s
10 Mb/s
11 Mb/s
54 Mb/s
5 GHz
2.4 GHz
2.4 GHz
2.4 GHz
modulation
FHSS and
DSSS
OFDM
WBFH
DSSS
OFDM
2.4.4.4 IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS

MANETs are usually faced with the problem of hidden terminal (Figure 9) when
transmitting data in adhoc manner. The hidden terminal problem [4] occurs when
two stations try to transmit to a single station simultaneously. The station wishing to
transmit senses that one station is not transmitting and therefore initiates the
transmission. This contention to transmit can result in interference between the
transmitting stations.
In this case, designing wireless LANS requires incorporation of the Carrier Sensing
Random Access protocol. This protocol avoids the confusing which is prevalent in the
22
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hidden terminal problem. As an example consider two transmitting stations T1 and T2

in Figure 9 wishing to send to the receiving station R1. Since T1 and T2 are not in the
transmitting range of one another, it is impossible for each station to detect that
another station is transmitting.
To overcome this problem, the IEEE [2] has adopted the RTS/CTS virtual carrier
sensing protocol in which short beaconing packets called request to send (RTS) are
send to the receiving station to announce the request to transmit data. If the channel is
found idle for a period exceeding the Distributed Interframe Space (DIFS) the
transmitting station will continue with its transmission after receiving a clear to send
(CTS) short message from the receiving station. From our Figure in 9, station R2 will
in this case send a short beaconing message called clear to send (CTS) to indicate its
readiness to receive data or to reject data. The RTS and the CTS usually contain the
projected length of transmission between the receiver and the transmitter. This
information is stored in the Network Allocation Vector (NAV) which determines the
complete time schedule for the transmission of data between the two stations. After
the transmission of the data, the receiving station which in his case is R2 sends the
acknowledgement message (ACK), acknowledging the reception of data without any
errors. If at any point, some errors are encountered during the transmission process
then the receiving station will send a cyclic redundancy check algorithm (CRC). This
algorithm is implemented to discover errors during transmission.
T1
R2
T2
Figure 9: The hidden terminal problem

2.4.5 Routing Protocols for MANETs
23
Chapter 2
In the past few years MANETs have seen a precedented growth in research activities,
especially in the area of routing protocols [11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20]. Most research
activities in MANETs were centred on finding the best routing protocol for MANETs
to optimize quality of service, power, throughput and bandwidth in MANETs.
Notable routing protocols in this area will include the publications of [10, 12, 11, 15,]
in which they present different routing protocols. Vaidya and Ko et al, [17] through
the use of Global Position System (GPS) introduces a Location Aware Routing
protocol (LAR) in which the position of the destination node is known before the data
is sent to that node. In their work the routing of data through the network is solely
based on the position of the node.
Other notable work regarding routing protocols in MANETs can be found in [18, 19,
20, 21, 22 and 23]. Routing protocols can be divided into either reactive or proactive
routing protocols.
2.4.5.1 Reactive routing protocol

Reactive routing is an on-demand routing protocol that calculates the path before
transmission of data occurs. Routing protocols such as these depend on data
transmission to be active. If no data is transmitted the routing session will not occur.
Reactive routing protocols are characterized by:
Being bandwidth efficient when routing, since routing is done on demand;
Elimination of conventional routing tables at the nodes, hence reduction in

routing overhead;
The elimination of the routing tables at the nodes and the ability of the routing
protocol to do their updates to track topology changes.
Path discovery is done on-demand when data is supposed to be sent. Maintenance of

such a path is on as long as transmission is on and deletion of such, when the path is
no longer necessary.
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Reactive routing protocols forward their data through two ways: Source routing and
hop by hop routing. Some few examples of reactive routing protocols include:
(a) Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [18] is a reactive routing protocol. Like the AODV
[15], it forms a route on-demand request for the transmission of messages and it uses
source routing instead of relying on the routing table at each intermediate device.
Determining source routes requires accumulating the address of each device between
the source and destination during route discovery. The accumulated path information
is cached by nodes processing the route discovery packets. The learned paths are then
used to route packets. To accomplish source routing, the routed packets contain the
address of each device the packet will traverse. It allows nodes to cache route
information by overhearing data packets.
(b) Adhoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
Like the DSR [18], the AODV [15] is a routing protocol that operates on demand i.e.
it builds routes only when need to transmit massages arise. It uses sequence numbers
to maintain the freshness of routes. It uses both multicast and unicast routing.
AODV builds routes based on route request and route reply cycle as shown in figure
10. Firstly a message is broadcast for the route request. When a node which has a
route to the destination receives the message it broadcasts the route reply message to
the sender node. However the route request is kept at the node of the intermediate
node. If a need arises to send a route request a node with the route request will send
the route request with much more time to live (TTL). Once the destination has been
reached a route reply (RREP) is sent to the source. As the RREP message propagates
back to the source, nodes set up forward pointers to the destination. Once the source
node receives the RREP, it immediately begins to forward data packets to the
destination. If the source later receives a RREP containing a greater sequence number
or contains the same sequence number with a smaller hop count, it may update its
routing information for that destination and begin using the better route. AODV
maintains the route discovered as long as the route is active.
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Chapter 2
Figure 10: Route request and route reply in AODV [15]

Other reactive routing protocols which have not been included in this brief summary
include but not limited to the ADV TORA and the ABR
2.4.5.2 Proactive Routing Protocols

Proactive routing protocols take advantage of the idea of flooding the network
constantly with route request and increasing the amount of topology information
stored at the header packets of each node. These types of routing protocols combine
both the Distance Vector (DV) and Link State (LS) features. In this way a source node
wishing to transfer data to the destination node experiences no delays in doing so as
the route is always available. Examples of proactive routing protocols include the
DSDV [12], OLSR and the FSR.
(a) Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)

Destination sequenced distance vector, developed by Perkins et al [12] in 1994, is a
table driven routing scheme for MANETs. It is based on the classical distributed
Bellman-Ford algorithm.
In the DSDV routing protocol, each node maintains a set of distance entries in the
routing table. The sequence numbers are even, if a link or route is detected; else, an
odd number is used for no route. This number is more often than not generated by the
destination or the receiver, and the transmitter needs to send out the next update with
this number. In order to sustain the distance estimates up to date, each node monitors
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the cost of its outgoing links and intermittently broadcasts to each one of its
neighbours; its current estimate of the shortest distance of every other node in the
network. Routing information is distributed between nodes by sending full packets
infrequently and smaller incremental updates more.
The DSDV [12] eliminates the looping dilemma by transmitting the packets between
the stations of the network using routing tables which are available at each station of
the network
(b) Fisheye State Routing protocol (FSR)

Fisheye State Protocol (FSR) [13] is the improvement of the greedy state routing
(GSR), and both of them are link state protocols. In this protocol the transmission of
packets to neighbours is through a one hop count instead of flooding the messages.
Normally, the FSR will maintain at its node; a route table, a neighbour list and a
topology of the table of the network. This type of routing protocol does not flood the
messages into the network like other link state routing protocols, but messages are
exchanged with neighbours only. It also stores vital information about the distance
and its neighbour.
The FSR in Figure 11 introduces what is known as the scope, which is basically a
number of neighbours that can be reached by a transmitting node in one hop count.
This kind of transmission makes the packet reaching destination node to have precise
knowledge of the transmission route.
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Chapter 2
Figure 11: Scopes in the FSR routing protocol
2.4.6 Protocol Performance Analysis

Protocol performance analysis is used in MANETs as a gauging tool for measuring
two complementary aspects of the network. Firstly, the performance analysis is used
to measure the cost indexes of routing protocols. This measure is compared against
factors such as the utilization of bandwidth in MANETs and battery optimization.
Since bandwidth is a valuable asset in MANETs, proper utilization of such is vital for
optimal operation of MANETs.
MANETs rely on on-board battery power and as such evaluating the performance of
MANETs against the battery consumption is of greater importance. At all costs power
must be conserved in MANETs so as to make sure that the life span of MANETs is
prolonged.
Extra aspects are based on/or concerns application oriented metrics such as the
throughput of the networks, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end data packet delay,
routing overhead, route discovery time, route optimally, number of out-of-order
packets, and power consumption. Whilst the first three metrics are the ones significant
for an application, the others provide insights into the efficiency of the routing
service.
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Throughput: It is defined as total number of packets received by the

destination or the amount of digital data per time unit (hour, minutes, seconds
etc.) that is delivered to a certain node or destination. It is a measure of
effectiveness of a routing protocol. Throughput is usually measured in bits per
second (bit/s or bps).
Packet delivery ratio (PDR): The ratio between the number of packets
received by the TCP sink at the final destination and the number of packets
originated by the application layer sources. It is a measure of efficiency of
the protocol. It measured as packets delivered over packets generated.
End to end data packet delay: This is the time interval measured from the
time when a packet is ready for transmission at the source node until when it
reaches the destination node.
Routing overhead: The routing overhead measures the algorithm's internal

efficiency and is calculated as the total number of control packets sent divided
by the number of data packets delivered successfully. (Or in number of bytes).
Since end-to-end Network throughput (data routing performance) is defined as
the external measure of effectiveness, efficiency is considered to be the
internal measure. To achieve a given level of data routing performance, two
different protocols can use differing amounts of overhead packets, depending
on their internal efficiency, and thus protocol efficiency may or may not
directly affect data routing performance. If control and data traffic share the
same channel, and the channels capacity is limited, then excessive control
packets often impacts data routing performance
Route discovery time: This is the time taken for a node to compute a new
route after a breakage of the other link. Alternatively it can be described as the
time taken for the establishment of the new route.
Route optimality: This is the measure of the cost of the path taken to the cost
of the most optimal one.
Power consumption: This is the energy required or consumed for each

delivered bit or packet.
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Note that the above metrics are influenced by two factors:

1. The topological movement: Depending on the movement of the topology, the
above metrics will be influenced drastically under different protocols. And
depending on the speed of the nodes, each routing protocol will perform
differently. For example the DSDV is suitable for low mobility situations, under
high mobility conditions the DSDV fails to converge. The TORA protocol will
perform better for low mobility simulations.
The AODV and the DSR are well recommended for the high mobility and are
suitable when traffic diversity increases. However DSR is unable to cope when
traffic diversity increases.
2. The rate of packet transmission for each offered load: For the low values of
offered load, the DSDV periodic route updates results in high value for normalized
routing overhead.
The AODV and the DSR will perform well for a high offered load. However, the
combination of reactive and proactive routing protocols such as ADV [14], break the
AODV and the DSR in terms of high (50% or more) peak throughput, lower packet
delays and control overhead packets. Furthermore, ADV uses fewer routing and
control overhead packets than that of AODV and DSR, especially at moderate to high
loads.
2.5 SIMULATION TOOLS FOR MANETS - THE DE FACTO STANDARDS

Deployment of wireless Mobile adhoc networks is slow. Different research groups are
trying to implement the reality of mobile adhoc networks by means of simulations
[31, 32, 33, and 34]. Few of the many simulators that are available to the research
community include the ns2, Glomosim and Opnet.
2.5.1 The Georgia tech network simulator (GTNets)
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Chapter 2
Developed by the Georgia Institute of Technology under the leadership of Dr. George
F. Riley, GTNets is a full featured discrete network simulator which allows
researchers in wireless and computer networks to evaluate the behaviour of these
networks under a variety of conditions.
GTNets [41] creates a simulation environment which is more close to being realistic.
For instance, GTNets provides a clear separation of protocol stack layers and consist
of Protocol Data Units (PDUs) which are appended and removed from the packet as it
moves up and down the protocol stack. Each node in the network simulator is
associated with an IP address and an associated link.
Protocol object connections at the transport layer are specified using a source IP,
source port, destination IP and destination port.
Like the ns2 simulator [40], the GTNets uses a graphical user interface (GUI) to
observe the movement pattern of different nodes in the simulation environment. The
GUI can be adjusted to observe the behaviour of nodes under different conditions.
2.5.2 MATrix LABoratory (MATLAB) simulator

Matlab [38] developed by MathsWorks is a commercially available, high performance
language for technical computing used by engineers and researchers world wide.
Matlab integrates visualization, computation and programming in an easy to use
environment. Matlab simulator has been used extensively in research, the most
notable use being that of the Graphical representation which has been available to
other network simulators such as the ns2. Characteristically Matlabs tools are capable
of:
1. Computation and Mathematical modelling;
2. Algorithm development and analysis;
3. Modelling and simulation data analysis; and
4. Engineering and scientific graphics, application development including the
graphical user interface.
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Chapter 2
2.5.3 Optimized Network Engineering Tools (OPNET)

Optimized Network Engineering Tools (OPNET) [39] is a commercially available
network simulator that is used to simulate a variety of computer networks and other
linked networks. OPNET Modeller offers a wide range of tools for network
simulation. These tools can be used for data mining and analysis, model design
simulation and network cost diagnosis.
OPNET offers a graphical user interface with which one can observe the flow of
packets, control and routing, packet loss link failures and bit errors at a visible speed.
2.5.4 The Network Simulator (Ns2)

The Ns2 [40] is a discrete event simulator which was written by the Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and supported by the VINT project at
UCB, Xerox and other organisations [40]. Currently ns2 is being supported by
DARPA with SARMAN. Contributions from other researchers to ns2 have always
been welcome. Particularly, work from the University of California at Berkely (UCB)
Daedelus, Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) Monarch and Sun Microsystems had a
significant role in the wireless part of this simulator. Ns2 is a commonly used
simulation tool for the MANET environment [84]. It has been used by different
researchers to predict the performance of mobile adhoc networks in different
environments.
Ns2 is open source software that supports an array of network protocols providing
viable resource for the simulation of both wired and wireless networks. The simulator
is event-driven and runs in a non-realtime fashion. It covers a wide range of
simulations such as adhoc networks, wired LANs, satellites and wireless simulations.
It provides substantial support for simulation of TCP and protocol support such as
single and multicast routing, reservation, transport and session protocols.
Ns2 is written in C++ as the main core language and the object tool command
language (Otcl) or tool command language (tcl) shell as an interface, allowing the
input file to be implemented and manipulated in the network simulation. Controlling
32
Chapter 2
configuring and manipulation of the Ns2 to achieve the desired results is provided
through the tool command language. Usually the OTcl script will do the following:
start or initiates an event scheduler;
build and modify up the topology using network objects through the tcl; and
to configure packet sources when to start/stop transmitting packets through the

event scheduler.
Users can use the class in order to define arbitrary network topologies composed of
nodes, routers, links and shared media. After the creation of networks, users can then
attach a rich set of protocol objects called agents to the nodes. The visualization of the
network topologies can be done through graphical interface called the network
animator (nam), which assists the users in getting more insights about their simulation
by visualising packet trace data.
Figure 12: A simplified view of the ns2 simulation flow [40]

Ns2 simulator is capable of implementing several features that are available within the
world of wireless networks. The following characteristics can be implemented in ns2:
Router queue Management Techniques such as the Queue/DropTail object;

which uses or implements FIFO scheduling and drop-on-overflow buffer
management, other queuing methods include the RED and CBQ,
Multicasting routing protocols among network nodes;
Ns2 can simulate traffic source behaviour such as constant bit rate (CBR)
and variable bit rate (VBR)
Applications telnet, FTP, ping, and
Tracing of packets on all links within the network structure.
33
Chapter 2
2.6 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have presented a background of our study giving the reader a wide
understanding of different types of wireless network. We have presented a brief
overview of the characteristics eminent to the wireless world and more particularly to
the mobile adhoc networks.
We have also looked at different simulations tools that are used in the simulation of
wireless networks
In the next chapter we present a detailed description of different mobility models. We
look at different types of mobility models that are commonly used in Mobile Adhoc
Networks. These include but not limited to the stochastic, non stochastic mobility
models and the more realistic activity based models.
Finally, work related to both the stochastic and the activity based models will be
presented in the next chapter. However, our related work we will focus primarily on
the activity based mobility model as this is the main mobility model to be used in this
dissertation.
34
Chapter 3
Understanding of Mobility Models
CHAPTER 3
3. UNDERSTANDING OF MOBILITY MODELS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Mobility models are normally used to depict movement in MANETs, and are
designed to describe the movement pattern generated by mobile users in space and
time. Mobility models show how the location, velocity and acceleration of users
change with time.
Over time, various researchers have proposed different mobility models with a view
of capturing the realism of movement [28, 29, 30, 31]. This race to capture the
realism of movement trajectories took mobility models through a number of stages;
from models with random movement to mobility models with temporal dependency,
mobility models with spatial dependency, mobility models with geographic restriction
and finally to mobility models based on activity patterns.
Mobility patterns have played a crucial role in evaluating protocol performance [25]
of the WLANS or mobile adhoc networks. It therefore imperative that such models
must in any situation try to emulate the movement pattern of the targeted real life in
more realistic way.
In order to model mobility in MANETs one has to understand the scenario in which
he /she wants to evaluate the effects of such mobility on MANETs. It is critical that
mobility models must reflect the movement of targeted real life applications in a
reasonable way [31, 32]. If this is not the case the results drawn from these
simulations may be inaccurate and misleading and may be useful for academic
purposes only. Typically, the initial point will be to look deep into the nature of what
you intend to simulate.
One perceptive method used to create realistic mobility patterns would be to propose
some trace-based mobility models (in space and time), in which accurate information
about the mobility traces of users could be provided. This can only be possible with
35
Chapter 3
the use of activity based mobility models drawn from transport science
[45,46,47,8,49]. Activity based mobility models tend to capture the travel patterns of
the user based on how the user runs his/her activities during the day.
However, since MANETs have not been implemented and deployed on a wide scale,
obtaining real mobility traces becomes an important challenge. In the next sections we
layout an introduction to mobility models and give you an idea about any related work
on mobility modelling.
Mobility models can be separated into different categories depending on the
complexity or the underlying pattern with which that mobility model follows. Figure
13 shows different mobility models that have been used and proposed in literature.
Figure 13: Different types of mobility models [42]
3.2 RANDOM MOBILITY MODELS.

Random mobility models are used to predict the effects of clear or unobstructed areas
on MANET performance. The movement of mobile users or nodes, in this type of
mobility pattern, is without any restrictions (random movement). The choice of speed,
acceleration and destination is random and independent of other nodes in the
simulation area. Being the earliest type of models, they have been used in a lot of
simulations which have been presented at Mobicom and Mobihoc conferences [84].
36
Chapter 3
The random movement group of models includes but are not limited to the random
walk, or the random way point.
3.2.1 Random way point
Proposed by Johnson and Maltz [25], the Random Way Point has been a cornerstone
for many simulations in adhoc networks. The random way point as shown in Figure
14 is used to evaluate a lot of metrics which are pertinent to the performance of the
MANETs. The random way point is generated during ns2 simulations by using the
setdest tool from the CMU Monarch group [40] which is available with the ns2
simulation package. The speed that is commonly used in random way point is
distributed between 0 and Vmax. The node chooses a speed, direction and destination
which are independent of other nodes. When the node reaches the intended
destination it pauses for a time Tpause seconds before continuing on its trajectory. In
this way the nodes parameters depend heavily on the Vmax and Tpause. Adjusting these
parameters will alter velocity and the movement pattern of the node. This undesirable
scenario led to Johansson, Larsson and Hedman [82] to suggest a mobility
metric, S (i, j , t ) , which quantifies the nodal speed between node i and j at a time t as
shown in equation 3.1
(t )
S (i, j , t ) = Vi (t ) V j
M ,
(3.1)
where Vi and Vj are the speeds of node i and node j, the mobility trace M is the
measured speed averaged over all the users and over all the time. It can
mathematically be described as shown in equation 3.2 as follows:
M=
1
i, j
T
i =1 i =i +1
S (i, j, t )dt .
(3.2)
where i, j is the number of the node pairs involved (i,j) and N is the total number of
nodes in the simulation terrain and T is the simulation time.
Because of its availability and simplicity in implementation, the performance of
different routing protocols has been investigated using the random way point.
37
Chapter 3
However the realism of the random waypoint and its applicability in most simulations
has been considered and evaluated as presented in [6, 84]. Most criticisms about the
random way point have been its unrealistic movement, especially on the velocity and
the pause time that is used in simulations [6].
.
Figure 14: Random movement in the random way point model
3.2.2 The random walk model

Referred to as the Brownian motion, the random walk model was created to emulate
the unpredictable movement of particles in physics. In the random walk model, the
nodes in the simulation change their speed and direction at each time interval. It has
close similarities with the random way point in its movement pattern.
3.3 MOBILITY MODELS WITH SPATIAL DEPENDENCY.

When nodes move in space they are sometimes constrained by the movement of other
nodes in that particular environment. Their movement pattern is influenced by
neighbouring nodes and it is not as random as in the random way point or the random
walk models. This type of movement depends on the spatial velocity of other nodes.
Some common examples of spatial dependent models include the Reference Point
Group Model (RPGM) [31].
3.3.1 The reference point group model
38
Chapter 3
The RPGM [31] group movement model depends mainly on the movement of the
main node or the leader node. This type of movement is characterized by a leader and
group members who follow the leading node. The spatial velocity of nodes is heavily
dependent on the velocity of the group leader. Typical examples of spatially
correlated mobility patterns would consist of the column mobility, nomadic mobility
and the pursue mobility model.
3.4 MOBILITY MODELS WITH TEMPORAL DEPENDENCY.

This is memory driven type of movement in which the nodes next movement is
dependent upon its previous state [35]. These scenarios exhibit a behaviour in which
the movement of the node is constrained by the physical laws of velocity, acceleration
and change of direction. These type of models can be modelled as Gauss Markov
models in which the nodes previous velocity may have an effect on its current
velocity. In this situation, it is said that the node movement has a temporal
dependency on the velocity.
3.5 MOBILITY MODELS WITH SPATIAL RESTRICTION.

Recent mobility patterns developed for wireless LANs aim at depicting and modelling
the real mobility patterns that are presented in the spatial world. The mobility models
are constrained by geographic patterns that dictate the mobility of the nodes. It is
general knowledge that peoples movement in real life is constrained by corridors,
walkways and path ways, while those of vehicles are constrained to the freeways,
roads and sometimes to bush ways. Types of mobility models with spatial restriction
will include, but not limited to, the following: the path way mobility model, freeway
model, Manhattan model [31] (see Figure 15) and obstacle mobility models.
Figure 15: Free way model and the Manhattan mobility models [42]
39
Chapter 3
3.6 OVERVIEW OF RELATED WORK

Much of research has been done regarding simulation of MANETs [84]. MANET
simulations can be divided into two types: indoor simulations and simulations of
outdoor scenarios/environments. It is worthwhile to say that most simulations have
been concentrating at achieving robustness and protocol performance of MANETs in
outdoor environments [12, 14, 29, 32] and very few simulations have been directed at
indoor environments. In the next section we present work related to different
movement trajectories (mobility models) in space and time occurring in different
environments.
3.6.1 Outdoor MANET simulations.

Outdoor simulations can be rated according to their level simplicity. By that we mean
the measure or the extent to which realism of geographical patterns have been
included in these simulations. Some models such as the Freeway Mobility Model and
Manhattan Mobility Model [31] are more or less alike. Obstacles are included in the
simulation area in order to govern the node movement in the simulation terrain.
Nodes in the simulation environment are directed to move within grid areas of
Manhattan Model or Freeway model. A probable consideration in both models is that
nodes are constrained within lanes, and by the nodes ahead in the same lane.
Even though, these types of mobility models added a milestone to the MANET
community they, however, do no reflect the real scenarios represented in the
users/node daily mobility patterns. They are memory-less models, whose next
segment of the movement has no dependency on the previous movement.
Moreover, both models would fail to account for users whose movement is in an open
space or in rural areas where lanes do not constrain their movement. For example
these models fail to represent a scenario where a user accelerates gradually or turns
smoothly on a sharp bend.
While these two models may be useful in other scenarios, they cannot be taken as the
representative of models for MANET simulations.
40
Chapter 3
Some memory-models are however, proposed in [83]. In this paper a GaussianMarkov model which is a memory-dependent model is presented. In this model, the
velocity of the mobile node is correlated overtime and modelled as a Gauss-Markov
stochastic process.
Johansson et al [82] came up with three realistic mobility models depicting real life
scenarios. Their work models three different typical life scenarios which include:
Conference scenario: in which some nodes are stationary while some move at
a very low speed;
The event coverage scenario: Nodes are modelled as group of highly mobile
nodes which are constantly changing their position; and
The disaster relief scenarios: In which node mobility differs considerably. In
this scenario some nodes move slowly while others move very fast;
In all of the above scenarios, rectangular shapes are randomly placed on the
simulation field. Mobility is done by the node choosing a proper movement path from
source to destination. The trajectory tries by all means to avoid obstacles placed on
the simulation field. In their work, RF propagation is assumed that the signal is fully
absorbed when propagated through the obstacles. However, they fail to account for
other effects such shadowing, scattering and reflection of signals common in such
places.
Jardosh, Belding-Royer and Almeroth [33] also investigate the effect of obstacles on
mobility modelling by using Voronoi diagrams. In their work, they place obstacles on
the simulation field to model the building within the University of California at Santa
Barbara (UCSB) campus environment. They realised that people do not reflect off the
building as depicted in the random waypoint or random walk mobility models but
walk in defined paths. The placement of paths is half way between the rectangular
objects which is consistent with common sense that paths tend to lie halfway between
the buildings. Nodes are allowed to enter and exit the rectangular models, depicting
students and workers entering and leaving the building.
41
Chapter 3
The destination choice of the nodes is modelled by the Dijkstra algorithm [56, 57, 58]
which is based on the shortest route between the source and destination. Their work,
though a landmark in MANET simulations, needs to critically address other issues
such as selection of destination which is vague. Students on campus move because
they want to participate in some activities such as attend lectures or going to social
event The movement pattern of going in and through the building is based on a
narrow set of concepts.
The use of shortest path to a destination [56, 57] and the pause time at such a
destination does not depict the real life scenarios as shown by activity based models.
We will show in the next chapters that user mobility is governed by the activities that
induce travel patterns.
The use of Support Vector Graphics (SVG) in mobility modelling is introduced by
Gang Lu, Gordon and Demetrios [27]. In their paper, the present an environment
aware mobility model (EAM). Environment objects such as vehicular routes and
hotspots are introduced. The movement of the node is correlated with the sub area in
which it is located, and is allowed to be changed during the simulation.
They further go on to suggest the node heterogeneity, which describes the mobility of
nodes. Heterogeneity places nodes as either highly mobile node or low mobile nodes.
They also suggest that the EAM can integrate mobility models such as the random
way point, RPGM, with some modification to model complex environmental
scenarios.
In [32] the realistic graph based mobility model is implemented by J. Tian, et.al. The
graph can either be randomly created or carefully defined based on particular map of a
real city. The vertices of the graph symbolize the buildings of the city, and the edges
replicate the streets and freeways between those buildings. A comparison analysis of
results by using the random walk and their graph based mobility model (the path way
mobility model) using the three common routing protocols (DSDV, DSR, AODV)
showed that spatial constraints have a strong impact on the performance of adhoc
routing protocols.
42
Chapter 3
Mobility Integration of Radio Requirements in Real-world Simulations (MIRRORS)

is a mobility model presented by Wenjun Hu, and Jon Crowcroft [29] as a technical
report from Cambridge University. It is an outdoor modelling of MANETs with a
specific target in mind. In their research they put forward a Taxi model which is
compared with other models. However their overall mobility model cannot be used
for indoor environments because it does not give the finer details of speed dynamics
constrained by the geometry and activities in particular place. Moreover their model is
environmental specific, making it a better option for outdoor scenarios than indoor
scenarios.
3.6.2 Indoor Simulations

MANETs for indoor simulations with obstacle enhancement have not been presented
on large scale; this may be due to a lot of factors such as the space mobility of nodes
in a 3D environment. Notable publications in this field will include the work of A. L.
Cavilla, et al [30] in which they present a constrained mobility (CM) model for indoor
environments. This is to the best of our knowledge the first paper which tries to model
mobility in an indoor environment.
They model the movement of nodes as source-destination type of movement, not
movement induced by activities. The destinations of nodes in the spatial graph are
offices.
In modelling the RF propagation the attenuation factor (AF) type of propagation
modelling is used.
3.6.3 Mobility models based on Travel plans and activity patterns.

In transport science or civil engineering [50, 52, 53, and 49] mobility is derived from
the desire to participate in some event or activity. People do not move from one place
to another because they want to create some form of motion or movement. Peoples
movement is directly related to the desire of them performing an activity, which
would in turn meet their needs. Unlike in most analytical models, activity based
models are more realistic in modelling the behavioural movement of people. These
types of mobility models are based on the activity patterns in an indoor environment
43
Chapter 3
[45, 46, 47, and 48], and captures travel pattern by understanding the nature of
activity participation that inspires it. Evidently, the demand for travel is derived from
the inherent demand to perform activities at specific location in an indoor
environment, which may either be offices, classrooms, kitchens and toilets.
Activity based models are sensitive to institutional changes such as work time,
duration and out of office or in office activities Most models proposed so far are
based on heuristic approach which does not take into account the user decisions or
behaviour when modelling the choice of the path and the dynamics of the built
environment.
McNally [45] describes the activity based model with the following characteristics:
The desire to move is a function of activity participation;
The activity and travel decisions in a particular place are direct delimited by
temporal and spatial constraints in such an environment, which may include
the time of operation;
A connection exists between activities, locations times and individuals; and
Participating in an activity will involve spatial choice, generation and

scheduling.
Even though human behaviour is usually constrained in time and space, humans are
capable of operating within a single time and space continuum in a specified
environment. This ability of humans to move in space and experience the time and
cost of movement in such a particular space, make activity modelling ideal to predict
the mobility pattern in MANETs.
Activity in this case is defined as an engagement into physical work that will
eventually satisfy the user/persons needs. This enables the user to execute the
activities by connecting the locations of two consecutive activities. For example (refer
to figure 16) a person may move from an office to a tea room or from lecture hall to a
computer hall to perform an activity, depending on whether the activity is of higher
priority or not.
44
Chapter 3
Obviously, individuals constantly perform some trade-off between enjoying activities

that have a high reward value (for instance working) and non reward activities such as
walking or eating. These types of activities are known as random utility models.
These models assume that users in a particular spatial environment try to maximize
their own utility. Referring to Figure 16, users would choose to go lectures-halls or
kitchen depending on the level of prioritisation of such an activity. To illustrate this,
lets consider i to be the place of choice with high reward in an indoor environment, a
simple movement plan of (office-lecture halls -kitchen) can be presented by equation
(3.3):
Vi = Ri Cio Cik + ;
i ,
(3.3)
where Ri is the reward associated with the place i and depends more on the benefits,
which may either be food reward or income bringing place. For students this could be
attending a lecture in a hall. Cio is the cost associated with travelling from office to
the intended destination (lecture hall) and Cik is the cost from lecture hall to kitchen.
The symbol represents scale factor, i is the random variable that is specific to the
individual and the value. Therefore taking equation 3.3, it can be shown that the
probability of choosing a particular place (kitchen) in an indoor environment can be
represented by equation (3.4):
Pk =
exp(Vk / )
k
exp(V / )
i =1
(3.4)
45
Chapter 3
Office activity
Kitchen area
Movement from one office to

another
Lectures halls
Figure 16: Activity patterns in an indoor environment
Chapin et al [54] was the first to suggest activity based approaches in human travel
patterns modelling. His work centred on evaluating the characteristics of human
activity patterns and their relationships with socio-psychological propensity factors.
The cognitive manifestation of human mind was put forward by Colledge et al in his
book [55] where he looked at the representation of choices such as:
1. The choice of the destination point ;
2. The mode or means of traversing that link or path;
3. The time of departure; and
4. Route contingent on choice of activity.
The choices presented above are collectively referred to this as the travel plan.
Notable examples in activity based modelling are found in [49]. This work primarily
focuses on understanding how activity affects the mobility pattern within a specified
environment. They all propose the mobility of people based on the activities people
do in relation to space and time.
It thus describes three key factors that impacts user movement in outdoor
environment. These three factors are:
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Chapter 3
Outdoor environments movement constraints and points of interest which

are modelled by the spatial model;
User travel model which is modelled by the user trip model; and
User movement dynamics which tries to capture the speed and movement
of movement in the spatial model.
They further go on to consider the impact of road element such as the speed limits or
the number of traffic lanes. In this paper two dynamic models with reference to
pedestrians and vehicles are considered.
The use of activity based models in MANETS is presented in [28] where the authors
propose a comprehensive and extensible approach to model mobility of users in
outdoor scenarios. This model is based on user-oriented mobility Meta model. This
model tries to capture user behaviour and its influence on the mobility models of these
users. It reflects the main factors that influence user movement: spatial environments,
user travel decisions, and user movement dynamics and identifies model parameters.
A simulation environment based on GIS spatial information is used to implement their
approach.
Scourias and Kunz [49] present an outdoor stochastic mobility model based on daily
activity patterns of subscribers in a cellular network, providing a realistic balance
between completely deterministic and completely random mobility models.
A mobility model which simulates the daily movements of mobile subscribers,
incorporating realistic and individualized activity patterns and geographical focal
points is developed to model user mobility.
Kim and Bohacek [50] present a more realistic mobility model based on a US
Department of Bureau of Labour Statistics time-use study in an urban environment.
From this survey Kim and Bohacek derived a three hierarchical layer mobility pattern
different layers as described below:
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Chapter 3
The highest layer is an activity model that determines the high level activity
that the node is performing;
The second layer is a task model that determines the specific task within an
activity; and
The third layer is an agent model that determines how the person moves from
one location to another (e.g., how a node navigates down a crowded hallway).
Bowman et al [47] presents a daily integrated activity model based on discrete choice
model system of an individual's daily activity and travel schedule, intended for use in
forecasting urban passenger travel demand. In his dissertation bowman divides the
model into three sections comprising of:
The daily activity plan that includes the choice to travel and the days activity
plans;
The primary tour; and
And the secondary tour.
Both the secondary and the primary tour include the choice of time, destination and
mode of travel. The dissertation describes the tour models as being conditioned by the
choice of a daily activity pattern and the choice of a daily activity pattern is
influenced by the expected maximum utility derived from the available tour
alternatives.
Modelling of agents or users in spatial environments where users have limited,
accurate information about a small subset of the whole spatial environment is
presented by Marchal and Nagel [48]. In their work they present mobility as a
function of three systems which are the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for
the spatial representation of the environment, the transportation system is presented
through a vector quantity and the traffic system is presented by the use of an external
traffic model.
In order to understand movement trajectory in a corridor Palmius and Silvergran [53]
compares the ideal path routes with the empirical route path in an indoor environment.
48
Chapter 3
They perform a study in which students at a high school carried a camera-equipped

bag with a view of observing their path trajectory or movement in an indoor
environment. Their conclusion and observation was that, based on gender, women
tended to be more in the centre of the corridor when moving than their male
counterparts.
3.7 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have revealed different kinds of mobility models presented by
different researchers. Mobility models with random mobility, temporal dependency,
spatial dependency or geographic restriction have been discussed and studied in this
chapter.
An introduction to activity based modelling of human movement and the related work
regarding mobility modelling and activity based modelling from transport science has
been presented. It is clear from the mobility models that mobility patterns have strong
impact on the routing performance of Mobile Adhoc networks. In the next chapter, we
present the radio frequency propagation modelling with the related work that has been
done in this area.
49
Chapter 4
Radio frequency propagation models in WLANS or MANETs
CHAPTER 4
4. RADIO FREQUENCY PROPAGATION MODELS IN
WLANS OR MANETS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Wireless networks differ from wired networks in the way the signal is transmitted
from one source to another. Whereas the wired medium depends on the physical path
to be established before the transfer of data, the wireless medium does not require the
establishment of the physical path. However due to path characteristics the wireless
channel suffers from heavy attenuation and multipath fading effects which are natural
to the area in which they are deployed.
Techniques to enumerate these characteristics natural to the indoor/outdoor channel
environment are required, and research activity to date has focussed on the
development of empirical/semi-empirical models derived from experimental
measurement. A difficulty in this approach is that the models derived are site-specific
and their transportability to other indoor environments (in which measurements have
not been made) is uncertain.
In radio wave propagation, two types of channel variations occur in a wireless
channel, i.e. path loss and shadowing (large scale fading) [61]. Shadowing is caused
by attenuation of the signal by obstacles that are within the path of the transmitter and
the receiver. Objects such as chairs, people and other obstacles may cause shadowing
in an indoor environment. The objects within the path attenuate the signal power
causing severe variations in the received signal. Common types of shadowing are
reflection, scattering, absorption and diffraction.
Path loss on the other hand is caused by dissipation or attenuation of the power which
falls off with the distance separation between the transmitter and the receiver. Pathloss may either occur within the line of sight (LOS) or non line of sight (NLOS).
50
Chapter 4
4.2 SHADOWING
Shadowing is caused by reflection, diffraction or refraction of signals as they
propagate through the channel environment. This causes attenuation on the received
signal, resulting in heavily distorted received signal.
4.2.1 Scattering
Scattering is when the RF signals propagate through medium which has objects with
dimension that are small compared to the wavelength. Scattering in an indoor
environment may also be induced if the number of obstacles in an indoor environment
is large per unit volume. In some cases it can also be produced by different objects
such as stairs, ramps, and other objects that may have irregular surface area. Such
kinds of objects are a common feature an in indoor environment.
4.2.3 Diffraction
Diffraction in an indoor environment occurs when the wave from transmitter to
receiver passes through sharp edged surfaces such as the junction places in a building.
Waves produced in this manner become present in the space and behind the obstacle
giving rise to bending of the wave around the obstacle or a corner. Although
diffraction happens when propagating waves comes across obstruction in their paths,
its effects are usually most prominent for waves where the wavelength is on the order
of the size of the diffracting objects.
4.2.4 Reflection
Reflection is the bouncing back of the signal from an obstacle placed in the path of
the signal. Normally reflection will occur on walls, furniture and other materials that
are part of the built environment. It happens when a propagating electromagnetic
wave impinges upon an object that has very large dimensions compared to the
wavelength of the propagating wave.
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Chapter 4
Figure 17: Drawing showing (A) scattering (B) Diffraction (C) reflection
In shadowing the received signal from the transmitter is represented as:

S r = St + Gt + Gr Lp ,
(4.1)
In equation 4.1 above Sr is the received signal in decibels (dB), and St is the
transmitted signal in dB. Gt and Gr are the transmit and receive antenna gain
respectively. L p represents the propagation path loss which is very hard to predict
especially in an indoor environment due to the varying channel characteristics of this
environment [63, 79].
Different types of slope intercept equations have been proposed in order to predict the
general characteristics of this time varying channel. However the most common ones
will include (but not limited to) ray tracing methods and empirical models such as the
Hata models and Okumura models. In the next sections we will present different
slope-intercept models that have been presented by different academics.
52
Chapter 4
4.3 RAY TRACING MODELS.

In a characteristic indoor environment, a signal transmitted from a fixed source to the
receiver will encounter a lot of obstacles resulting in multipath effects. These
multipath effects can be delayed in time, shifted in phase or otherwise attenuated in
power. When these signals arrive at the receiver they cause the received signal to have
some distortion in the form of noise relative to the transmitted signal.
These multipath effects can be resolved using the Maxwell equation or more
commonly know as the Ray tracing techniques. Ray tracing models represent the
wave fronts of these multipath effects as simple particles. Several ray tracing
examples exist in literature. The common ones being the Two Ray Tracing Model and
the Ten Ray Tracing Model.
The Two Ray Tracing model is used when a single ground reflection dominates and
the received signal is composed of two rays only. The LOS ray can be represented by
the path loss model as represented in equation 4.2.
P L ( d B ) = 1 0 lo g
Pt
,
PR
(4.2)
In equation 4.2 Pt and PR represents the transmitting and receiving power

respectively.
ht
x
hr
Figure 18: The Two Ray Model diagram [73]
53
Chapter 4
The diagram in Figure 18 depicts the two ray propagation model which has two
dominant rays. The l-ray is the LOS ray between the transmitter and the receiver. If
the transmitted signal from one antenna to another is of a narrow band (narrowband in
radio communications refers to a situation where the bandwidth of the data does not
significantly go beyond the channel's coherence bandwidth) type, then we can
approximate the power of the received signal as

Pr = Pt
4
R Gre j
+
,
x+s
4
Gl
(4.3)
where = 2 ( x + s l ) / is the phase difference between the two received signals.
Gl is the product of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antennas field
radiation patterns, assuming that a line of sight exist between the transceivers. From
geometry we can compute the value ( x + s l ) as:
(x + s l) =
( ht + hr )
+ d2 +
( ht hr )
+ d2 ,
(4.4)
4.4 RF EMPIRICAL PATH- LOSS MODELS

Path loss, unlike shadowing, is the measure of the average RF attenuation which the
transmitted signal suffers when it reaches the receiver after traversing a path of
several wavelengths. Propagation channel types have different path loss effects on the
transmitted signal. Depending on the distance, the path loss effects may vary over a
wide range of different indoor channels. Path loss in telecommunication can be
defined as shown in equation 4.5
P L ( d B ) = 1 0 lo g
Pt
,
PR
(4.5)
When propagation is in a free space (high above the ground) the power in the free
space model falls as a function of distance separating the receiving antenna and the
transmitting antenna. If we take for simplicity sake an isotropic omni-directional
(radiating equally in all directions) antenna radiating or transmitting at a power level
of Pt watts, the received power density of the receiver antenna which is located at a
54
Chapter 4
distance of d meters will be defined by the Friis free space model equation [73] .The
free-space path-loss equation introduces a complex scale factor resulting in the signal
shown in equation 4.6 below:
j 2 d
Gl e
j 2 fct
r (t ) = R e
u (t ) e
,
4
In equation 4.6
(4.6)
Gl is the product of the transmitting antenna and the receiving
antennas field radiation patterns, assuming that a line of sight exist between the
transceivers. The value fc is the carrier frequency, r(t) is the received signal and u(t) is
the complex scale factor with in-phase component. Since the wave travels a distance
d, a phase shift represented as e
j 2 d
is introduced in the transmitted signal.
The equation in 4.6 can further be simplified giving rise to equation in 4.7 below
Pr =
(d )
Pt G t G r
(4 )
2
2
(4.7)
where Gt and Gr are the gain of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna
respectively. The symbol L represents the system path loss factors, and this figure is
not connected to the propagation. The symbol represents the wavelength of the
signal propagated in meters and d represents the separation between the transmitting
antenna and the receiving antenna.
4.4.1 The log distance path loss model

Often the path loss in both outdoor and indoor environments is expressed by using the
path loss value n. The path loss n is an expression of the power loss across an average
distance between that of the transmitter and the receiver points.
For example suppose the distance between the receiver and the antenna is d then the
path-loss equation may be written as in equation 4.8 or 4.9.
55
Chapter 4
d
PL ( dB ) = PL ( d o ) + 10n log ,
do
(4.8)
Or
n
d
PL = PL k o ,
d
(4.9)
the value of n is what is known as the path loss exponent and indicates the rate at
which path loss increases with distance d between the transmitter and the receiver. K
is the unitless constant which depends on the antenna characteristics and the average
attenuation, d o is the reference point for the antenna far field. If plotted, the distance
d versus the PL (path loss) becomes a straight line [73] with a slope equal to 10n.
Table 3 below represents the path loss values in different environments
.
Table 3: Path-loss exponent n for different environments [73]
Environment
Urban macrocells
Urban microcells
Office building same floor
Office building multiple
Store
Factory
home
Typical path-loss exponents

n range
3.7-6.5
2.7-3.5
1.6-3.5
2-6
1.8-2.2
1.6-3.3
3
4.4.2 Okumura model [7]

Okumura, a Japanese scientist conducted a lot of measurements in urban city
macrocells. He used a transmitter and receiver which were separated by a distance of
1-100km and the antenna heights measuring 30-100m .When the power or signal
strength measurements were plotted against the distance, the slope intercept model
was produced, where the received signal followed the power law equation.
Okumuras empirical path-loss equation at a distance d parameterized by the carrier
frequency f c is presented as:
56
Chapter 4
PdB
= L ( f c d ) + A ( f c d ) G ( hr ) G ( ht ) Garea ,
l
(4.10)
where L is the free space path loss at a distance d and carrier frequency fc represents
the median attenuation in addition to the free-space path-loss in all the macrocells.
G ( ht ) and G ( hr ) are the base station antenna height and receiver height gain factor
respectively. The value Garea represents additional gain with regard to the specified
surroundings in which the measurements are carried.
4.4.3 Hata model [73]

The Hata model is based on the measurements which Okumura published. The
experimental measurements were taken using the frequency ranging between 1501500MHz.
4.4.4 COST 231 propagation model [73]

Operating in the 2GHz, the COST231 model is an extension to the Hata model. It was
introduced by the European cooperative for scientific and technical research (EUROCOST). The COST 231 can be modelled and represented as shown in the equation
4.10:
L(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9log f MHz 13.82log h1 a(h2 ) + (44.9 6.55log h1 )log dkm K , (4.10)
where h1 is the height of the transmitting antenna,h2 height of receiving antenna and f
is the frequency of the propagating signal in a specified environment and K is the loss
constant to a particular environment.
4.5 RELATED WORK-PROPAGATION IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT.

Literature documents a lot of empirical and analytical studies of indoor propagation
[60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67,]. A lot of work has been done to predict the effects of
obstacles on the transmitted signal in an indoor environment.
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Chapter 4
Propagation in an indoor environment is not influenced by terrain like the outdoor

environment but it is affected by the building material, obstacles and
architectural/geometrical layout of the building [60]. It is with reason that the signal in
an indoor environment will always reach the receiver through different paths due to
scattering, reflection and diffraction of signal by different obstacles present in the line
of transmission.
Obstacles have severe effects on the signal [73] that is reaching the receiver; and
therefore, it is imperative that statistical and analytical models predicting the
performance of the signal must capture these characteristics. Measurement of path
loss across a wide range of building floors has been performed, showing that
attenuation is different across a range of floor and wall demarcations [62, 63, 64].
In [75, 76] the researchers showed that at 900MHz, the attenuation of the signal when
the receiver and the transmitter is separated by single floors ranges between 10-20dB.
In order to capture this behaviour analytical (or empirically) an equation (equation
4.12) has been proposed to take into account the attenuation caused by the floors and
the wall/partitions.
Indoor environments have different architectural design and are made up of different
materials which together present challenges to the RF propagation. Materials of the
built environment do not have similar die-electric properties; this may cause the RF to
have losses through reflection, scattering, diffraction, penetration or absorption.
With reference to Table 4, it can be seen that the metals represents a set of materials
with the highest loss in dB, and soft materials such as the cloth with the least loss in
dB
The power received by the antenna as the signal propagates in a partitioned indoor
environment can be represented by the path loss equation as shown in 4.12:
Nf
Np
i =1
i =1
Pr = Pt PL FAFi PAFi
(4.12)
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Chapter 4
where the FAF is the Floor Attenuation Factor for the ith floor, PAF represents the
partition attenuation factor for the ith partition, Pt is the transmit power, Pr is the
received power and Pl is the pathloss of the channel. Pt, Pl and Pr are all in decibels
meter (dBm). Nf and Np are the number of floors and partitions respectively. Table 4
shows different partition losses for different materials.
Table 4: Partition loss of different materials [73]
Typical partitions losses
Partition Type
Partition loss in (dB)
Cloth partition
1.4
Double plaster board wall
3.4
Foil insulation
3.9
concrete wall
13
Aluminium sliding
20.4
All Metal
26
Papers on signal propagation losses in different environments have been proposed

[63, 75] by different scholars and researchers.
M. Boulmalf et al [76] conducted a series of tests to characterize the performance of
the IEEE 802.11 g in a typical cubical office setting. They observed that the
throughput performance of UDP and TCP traffic behaves different from unrealistic
scenarios when evaluated under realistic circumstances. Their results showed that the
performance of IEEE 802.11g degrades very rapidly due to co-channel interferences
especially for TCP traffic. Additionally, they also proved that the video signal quality
is greatly affected when streamed over a WLAN in the presence of adjacent and cochannel interferences. They went on to show that the PSNR of a video frame is
degraded by up to 13 dB in some cases due to ERP-OFDM modulation scheme.
Daniel.B.Faria et al [68] conducted a series of experiments in an indoor environment
using a Cisco Aironet 1200 at 2.4 GHz of the IEEE 802.11 standards. Their
measurements both from outside and inside environments indicated that the log
distance models used for indoor modelling closely approximates attenuation outside
the building. Despite the attenuation inside the building being higher than that from
outside, the path-loss exponent between the two environments were closely related.
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Chapter 4
Dinesh [66] conducted comprehensive measurements with view of predicting the

indoor propagation model at frequency of 2.4 GHz. The work involved a comparative
analysis of chipsets from different vendors. He conducted experiments in different
indoor places; involving a closed corridor, classroom and a lab area.
To predict the effects of indoor Dinesh used the log-distance path-loss model, the log
normal shadowing (empirical models) and the two ray models to determining pathloss exponents from the described scenarios. The results from these experiments
revealed that:
For an open corridor path-loss exponent n is 1.688 fro the D-Link and 1.63 for
the LinkSys;
For the classroom the path loss exponent was found to be 1.258 and 1.263 for
the D-link and the LinkSys respectively; and
And for the Lab the path-loss exponent was found to be 1.447 for the D-link
and 1.48 for the LinkSys.
The impact of radio wave propagation models in MANETs is evaluated by Arne and
Martin [67]. They propose a model that uses a ray tracer to model radio propagation
in MANETs accurately. In their results they found that the physical layer simulation
of wireless systems has a great impact on the routing protocol efficiency.
Performance of the physical layer of WLANs 802.11g was evaluated by Boulmalf,
Sobh and Akhtar [77]. Their work involved the comparison of two modulation
techniques using simulink simulation block-set which is part of the Matlab. In
conclusion their results showed that simulation of 64 bit modulation of OFDM is
better than the 16 bit Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) of the OFDM in terms
of the bit error ratio (BER) versus the signal to noise ratio (SNR). In their evaluation
the noticed that when increasing the SNR the BER decreases. They were capable of
sending Data with small errors when the SNR was greater than 35dB.
Radio frequency in an indoor environment is affected by a lot of things which obstruct
the free propagation of the signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The effect of
60
Chapter 4
Human obstruction on the transmitted signal is usually neglected in the modelling of

RF propagation in an indoor environment.
Ziri-Castro, Evans and Scanlon [85] carried a measurement campaign to determine
the effect of body interference on 802.11 standards with a 5.2 GHz propagation
frequency in an indoor environment. They compared the two results of the first and
the second order statistics of the empirical signals with a Gaussian derived
distribution used in wireless networks (802.11 standards). Their results from the
experiment showed that for some reason human obstruction also affects the
propagation of signal from the transmitter to the receiver. They derived a novel
statistical model that predicts the characteristics of the received envelope as a function
of indoor pedestrian activity.
A propagation model for short range wireless channels with predictable paths in
particular environments is presented by Domazetovic, Greenstein, Mandayam and
Seskar [86]. They consider a short range communication device which has low power;
low antenna heights such as the one deployed at toll gates where there is no
shadowing and where distances are short.
The experimental campaign involved the determination of both the deterministic part
and the stochastic component of the signal for their propagation model. In the end
they combined both the deterministic part of the signal and the stochastic for
modelling of dedicated short range communication gadgets in well-defined path or
geometry.
4.6 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have shown different types of propagation models that are
frequently used in wireless networks. Different propagation models have been used to
model the behaviour of the wireless networks in different environments.
In the related work, it is clear from the measurements obtained by different
academics, scholars and researchers that different types of environments behave
differently to RF due to the characteristics of such an environment.
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Chapter 4
It is therefore sensible to say that RF propagation performed in an indoor environment

models presents a difficult challenge. The transportability of these models to different
environments is impossible because of the nature of the different in materials and
geometry of the place.
In the next chapter, we present the algorithm, graph abstraction and CAD drawings
which we will together linkup to create out Activity Model (AM) that we are to use in
our simulation in Ns2. We will show in the coming chapter on how to adjust the
setdest tool in Ns2 to get the desired mobility model.
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Chapter 5
Mobility Modelling and Implementation
CHAPTER 5
5. MOBILITY MODELLING AND IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is very vital for mobility models to reflect the movement of targeted real life
applications in a reasonable way. If this is not the case the results drawn from these
simulations may be inaccurate and misleading.
A more realistic mobility model which is based on activity patterns displayed in an
indoor place is proposed in this chapter. The inspiration of using activity based model
is drawn from the Advanced Traveller Information Systems (ATIS) [47, 48].
This chapter focuses on building a comprehensive, scalable and a flexible mobility
model for an indoor environment. In this model we aim to establish a relationship
between node mobility, node density and path choice behaviour in an indoor
environment. We derive an algorithm to show a relationship between node density
and path choice.
We also argue that movement in an indoor environment is not random as represented
by some models, but a well organised and a defined chain of sequences which are
driven by the desire to perform activity.
We are of a view that, Similar to the transportation planning, mobility modeling in an
indoor environment should include indoor characteristics such as:
Graphical representation of the scenario being simulated;
Node density distributed according to the activities being carried in specific

areas and along specific links; and
Destination and route choice that determines the node density.
The model being presented in this chapter is based on activity patterns common in an
indoor environment. An interest is taken in the path choice, the architectural design of
indoor surroundings, and the point of interest to the user such the primary destination
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Chapter 5
areas (offices and classrooms) and the secondary areas which are places the users visit
later on. For example these places may include areas such as the kitchen, toilets, and
computer labs.
Our mobility model comprises of different sub models which when linked together
will form the mobility pattern which emulates the movement pattern in an indoor
environment.
Network graph model- The architectural floor plan of the area is transformed into a
network graph representing a simulation area in which corridors are represented as

edges and destination points as vertices
Route choice model- Additionally, the AM model incorporates route choice which is
very important in determining how node density distribution varies among the
routes/edges that exist within the network graph. It is this node density distribution
along the edges of graph which determines the performance/behaviour of the Physical
and the MAC layer of the network.
5.2 TOPOLOGY THE SPATIAL ENVIRONMENT

In order to evaluate the mobility more efficiently we need to understand the
topography and the topology of the environment in which we are to carry out our
simulation. The topography in this scenario means how we set up our experiment to
obtain data readings. We will concentrate on this in the next chapter as we delve
through the methodology of our experiment. In this chapter our attention is more in
the topology scenario or the architectural drawings of the building.
5.2.1 Graphical Representation of the spatial environment
To support our mobility patterns we build a topological graph from the architectural
drawings of the buildings. Figure 19 represents the Electrical Engineering building (a)
and the Canterbury building (b) from which we show how to abstract a network graph
model.
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Chapter 5
Electrical Engineering Dept (a)
Canterbury (b) [55]
Figure 19: Similarities in graphs presentation in (a) and (b)
65
Chapter 5
Though the two drawings might be different in architectural representation, the

similarities in the graphs are distinct. In both the graphs, the vertices are joined to the
main link/edge of the graph. This point of connection represents an area that is
common to most indoor environments.
From our two buildings the point of interest such as the offices, lecture halls, kitchen
or toilets are represented as dots in a Cartesian coordinates system on the graph
(Figure 19).
Corridors and hallways on our graph are represented as edges/path in a directed graph,
such that there is always a connection between two points or vertices. It is in this
edge/path that nodes move to the offices (represented as vertices) to perform some
activity.
5.2.1.1 Coordinate system

Points in the spatial information map should be articulated in some type of coordinate
system. A coordinate system is defined by a representation (e.g., Cartesian, polar, or
long-lat coordinates) and a reference frame (i.e. the point of origin)
In our model the coordinates of the vertices in the spatial graph are represented in text
form by Cartesian coordinates as follows
[Floor 1] [Room six] [Space coordinates 645,234]
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Chapter 5
5.2.2 Deriving the network graph

In MANETs, a network graph structure as shown in Figure 20 can be represented by a
graph [57]. Lets consider a simple weighted directed pair of graph (digraph) G
represented by equation 5.1:
G = (V, E t ,W IDv locvt , ) ,
(5.1)
Figure 20: Network diagram
where V is a finite number of vertices or nodes and E t is a set of ordered pairs of time
varying edges called directed edges, arcs, or arrows, IDv is the unique identification
number for node v and locvt is the velocity of the of the node v at particular space and
time. If we assume that each path { E ij
ij V } in the graph G is associated with
link weight/obstruction w, then the link weight in path P, where P contains edges
e1 , e2 , e3 ...ek 1 , can be represented by the summation of weights of edges in path P:
W(P)) =
k 1
i=0
w ( ei ) ,
(5.2)
where w(P) is the amount of obstruction associated with each link (path) or the
resistance which that path offers to the users movement. (Assuming all the weights
in the graph are non-negative 1
n k
).
67
Chapter 5
ij V } in the graph G is associated
If we assume again that each link { E ij
with
link length l, then the link length in path P can be represented by:
L (P ) =
k 1
i= 0
l (ei ) ,
(5.3)
where l(P) is the link length in a particular path. From 5.3 and 5.2 above we can thus
represent the amount of obstruction on a particular path p ij from i to j as a vector
dependent on the number of obstacles and length as shown in equation 5.4:
W L(P )
k 1
i= 0
l ( e i )w ( e i ) ,
(5.4)
where W L ( P ) is an additive metric of path resistance l (ei ) w(ei ) (obstacles and

length) found on the path P .
Without loss of generality, nodes in a network will always prefer the shortest route
between two points. In order to represent the distance vector equation of particular
path choice that endeavours at minimizing the length and the obstacles within the path
we have to minimize the two parameters w(ei ) and l (ei ) . The equation can be
represented as shown in equation 5.5
m in P = m in
(w (ei ), l (ei ) ) ,
(5.5)
where P is a minimal shortest distance between two nodes (i,j)

The traversing of the path or the choice of a particular path will depend on the sum of
the obstacles (ramps, doors, stairs shortest etc) path on that path. Other wise the user
chooses the other path.
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Chapter 5
5.3 NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTIONS PATTERNS

In realistic mobility patterns, the end point/destination selection mechanism, as
opposed to the selection of an initial direction, gives rise to non-uniform spatial
distribution of nodes asymptotically [27]. Due to the activities being carried out in an
indoor place and defined movement in pathways, characteristics such as the average
node density, are likely to differ when compared with other mobility models. For
instance the common Random Way Point representation of node density as shown in
Figure 21(a) shows nodes randomly distributed within a simulation area. In our
mobility model the node distribution varied considerably with the corridors having
high node density whilst the offices and other places have low node density. This
entails that, our mobility model Figure 21(b) has areas which are highly congested
and blank-out regions in the area being simulated.
(a)
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Chapter 5
(b)
Figure 21: Node density distribution (a) Randomway point (b) Activity model
Node density in a particular area is the representation of how user distribution is

exhibited in a particular indoor area (location). The node movement in an indoor
environment differs from place to place hence giving rise to node density variations as
shown in Figure 22 below
(a)
(b)
Figure 22: Picture of node density distribution at particular times of the day (a)
break times and (b) during working hours
For example, people may walk in groups or walk alone in corridors; this movement
pattern dictates the type of node density that is observed in such an environment. It is
fair to say that node distribution in an indoor environment is somehow aligned to the
activity that user wants to do at particular time.
For example at a certain times, passages may have high node density while at certain
times the will become literally empty. Consider our observation place, which is the
main building and the Electrical dept building, it is common to see little movement
during the time period from 7:30 to 12:55. At this time every body is busy with work
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Chapter 5
and hence there less movement or no mobility at all along the corridors and office
places. After 12:55 a lot of movement (node density) is seen in the main corridors of
the two buildings.
5.3.1 Notation
We assume that a particular square meter area in a spatial environment (wh) has a
number of nodes n the node density will represented as:
Node density =
n
,
( w h)
(5.6)
If we take for simplicity sake that the node density is directly related to the number of
obstacles in a particular path we can then formulate the relationship between the node
density and the amount of obstacles as follows.
Node density =
n
,
( w h)
(5.7)
where wus is an additive value of obstacles in a particular path as shown in equation

5.4. By adjusting the value of wus , the node density in a particular path can be
modelled as function of the number of obstacles as shown in the equation 5.7.
5.4 USER MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION-THE DYNAMICS.

In order to model mobility correctly user movement in an indoor environment must be
modelled in a realistic fashion. The movement dynamics describes patterns in speed
and direction changes of mobile users during their movement between two locations.
We model the dynamics of pedestrians as a time varying speed motion. The speed is
randomly chosen at the start of the movement from a certain interval of speed that we
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Chapter 5
measured. For example, for the user walking freely in an indoor place the typical
values that we measured are between 0.5-2.5 m/s.
The movement speed at particular location, at a particular time and along the link
e = (i, j ) can thus be represented by equation 5.8

2.5if actvity takes
locvt (i, j ) = {0.5
0 otherwise
place
(5.8)
5.5 PATH CHOICE: SHORTEST PATH / ALL-OR-NOTHING

5.5.1 Overview
Path selection in an indoor environment is linked to what we would term as the
resistance to mobility w offered by the built environment. It is common for people to
select the path which offers the least resistance [ m in P = m in ( w ( ei ), l ( ei ) ) ] in
terms of mobility. In generating different paths that may be of importance to those
moving from source to destination, users or nodes may take different views/functions
in route or path choice as shown in Figure 23. Many factors such as doors, ramps
stairs and elevators (see Figure 24) can dictate the choice of routes in an indoor
environment.
From our conducted surveys, university workers and students in an indoor
environment preferred the less resistant (least obstacles) paths in an indoor
environment. If a path had many obstacles like doors, stairs, and steps that path was
less likely to be traversed unless if there was no alternative to the destination. For
example, Figure 23 shows a group of people making a choice between the ramp and
the stairs in the main administrative building.
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Chapter 5
Path 1
Path 2
Figure 23 Common scenarios in an indoor environment; picture showing the choice

of path between the stairs and the ramp
Figure 24: Picture showing different route choices in an indoor environment
On the whole, researchers opt to use the shortest path algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm)
based on heuristic approaches to model route choice in their simulations. The Dijkstra
algorithm has been a subject of criticism in the manner in which it determines the
shortest route among possible routes. Most researchers argue that in order to use the
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Chapter 5
Dijkstra algorithm [52, 53], users will be required to have advance knowledge of the
paths (links) and costs or constraints available in a particular link. If a user is not
aware of the route cost, the probability that they will select the shortest paths is not
feasible.
The above paragraph is true to some extent when dealing with certain scenarios
especially the outdoor scenarios. For instance using Global Positioning System (GPS)
receivers, Jan, Horowitz and Peng [85] examined how drivers choose their route
choice in transit. It was observed that the drivers did not choose the shortest route.
The question to why they did not chose the shortest path; Jan, Horowitz and Peng did
not show the analysis or state why the drivers did not do so. Unlike Jan, Horowitz and
Peng our analysis states as to why people chose particular paths in an indoor
environment.
5.5.2 Modelling the path choice of users

To model the path choice of user we consider the following steps:
We select the shortest path using the Dijkstra algorithm; and
After selecting the shortest path using the Dijkstra algorithm, the user can then
weigh the number of obstructions within each path using the Stochastic User
Equilibrium or multinomial Logit (MNL) equation [52, 55].
For example, consider a user currently located at position s (which may either be an
office or classroom in an indoor environment) and he/she wants to perform an activity
at a destination d in a particular place. The user would choose the path that contains
the least obstacles so that he/she reaches the destination with the least effort in
t
traversing such a path. If we consider a time varying edge E to be the path between
the source s and the destination d, with the cost of that link being w and l, where w is
the number of obstacles within a particular path and l the length of the path. By using
the Dijkstra algorithm, we can select the shortest probable paths among numerous
paths available as shown in the algorithm.
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Chapter 5
Our use of Dijkstra algorithm [56] is based upon the fact that users in an indoor
environment tend to be more familiar with their surroundings (cognitive
representation). For example, it is common knowledge that university workers and
students on a campus environment or any working environment tend to be more
familiar with the nature of their surroundings. It becomes undemanding for them to
remember different obstacles that are available within a particular route or path.
In biological sciences [55] it is usually assumed that users become more familiar with
their surroundings, the cognition process of path knowledge and path finding becomes
more prevalent. They become more aware of the length and the obstacles that lie
ahead or how much resistance does a certain path offer to movement. It is common
tradition that users will select the routes based on shortest path, shortest time, shortest
distance, least cost, turn minimization, longest leg first, minimizing obstacles (such as
stairs, ramps and doors), user congestion, hazardous areas, restriction to a known
corridor and minimizing the number of route segments. Users become more
probabilistic in the choice of their paths.
Shortest path Algorithm [56]

Graph G = <V, E, l>
-- l[i] is the best (known) path cost
-- From source to vertex i
Calculate the distance
Done: = {v1}
For vertex i in V-{1} calculate the distance
l[i] := E[1,i] --direct edges
End for
Loop |V|-1 times
Find closest vertex to v1 in V - done
Done +:= {closest}
For vertex j in V - done
l[j]:=min (l[j], --update knowledge on shortest paths,
l [least] +E [closest]) --perhaps better?
End for
End loop
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Chapter 5
From 5.5 the relationship between the amount of obstacles w, distance l within a
particular path and the time varying edge Eijt = (i, j ) can be represented as shown in
the equation of 5.12:
Eijt = min{ p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 ... pk 1} ,
(5.12)
The multinomial logit (MNL) model can be consistently estimated on a subset of

alternatives. The probability that an individual n chooses an alternative path p1 over
p2 among numerous paths is then conditional on the choice set Cn defined by the
modeller. This conditional probability is shown in equation 5.13 [51, 52]
( p
/ c
e
k 1
i = c
(5.13)
,
p
( k 1 )
where P( p1 ) is the probability of the node or the user using path p(1) and Cn is the
choice set of feasible paths within an indoor environment. In the above equation
p1 and p2 represents the obstruction or the cost of traversing the paths
( i1 J 1 )
and ( i2 j2 )
respectively. The value e p is a utility coefficient or obstacle parameter and can be

used to determine the node density within a particular path or link.
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Chapter 5
5.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MOBILITY MODEL IN NS2
Generate mobility trace for an indoor environment
Speed
Node density
Spatial information
systems
User activity based

models
Auto CAD digital
Application server for mobility generation
Figure 25: Generating a mobility trace in Ns2 using activity based model
The implementation of the mobility pattern is made by adjusting the setdest, a small
independent application provided by the Monarch Wireless Extensions. Setdest,
program which is bunched together with the Ns2 simulator, produces an OTcl script
which when adjusted properly will represent node movement in a typical indoor
scenario.
In executing the random way point the following parameters are taken into
consideration when simulating:
1. The total amount (T) simulation time;
2. The amount or the number of nodes specified by setdest;
3. The topological dimensions of the simulation field (rectangular); and
4.
The pause and the speed of the nodes usually specified by P and Vmax (Vmin is
fixed at 0 m/s).
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Chapter 5
5.6.1 Graphical representation
Figure 26: Generated CAD drawing of an indoor environment
To generate our mobility trace as in Figure 25 a few changes were seriously looked
into or taken into consideration:
By using the coordinate system, our graphical representation of the building

was transported to the Ns2 simulator in a Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)
file with coordinates of offices and other places known using the CAD
drawing (Figure 26); and
In our graph only the x-y coordinates are used in to model the graph. Even if it
is true to say that graph representation for indoor mobility must include the
use of lifts (represented by the z coordinate) we leave this part, because
modelling of these factors adds another layer of complexity to our model, we
leave the inclusion of these factors for future work. While the inclusion of the
z coordinate is a step towards accurate modelling of realistic indoor
environments, it is however at this time a herculean task which is reserved for
future work.
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Chapter 5
5.6.2 Ns2 movement description

We altered the setdest script for node movement in our graph. Each node was given
an initial coordinate point and its destination coordinates were also chosen. This
enabled the nodes to move within a specified link at a specified time.
The movement of the nodes between the vertices was modelled as a function of
activities. For example, at a 10 A.M at the University of Johannesburg users will
move from offices to kitchen or from classrooms to labs or student centres. At
particular times students will move from the lecture halls to other places in the same
place.
It is therefore correct for us to say that at particular times during our simulation,
certain links will exhibit high node density. This, in Ns2, is done by adjusting the
pause time of each and every node so that at a certain time instance, some nodes start
to move to a particular chosen destination in our graph (office vertex or Kitchen
vertex). It is worthwhile to say that not all nodes in our simulation are mobile. The
stationary nodes will represent the users who are immobile, such as those users who
would not want to take a break. This is comparable to the lecturers, students and
workers who are not willing to take a break.
The node density in the simulation environment is a function of movement at
particular time. Unlike in most simulations, node density in AM is simulated in an
incremental manner (that is starting with 10, 15, 20 and so on). The figures below
show the variation of node density in the Random Way Point and the Activity
Mobility model.
5.6.3 Speed descriptors

By using the setdest tool, the speed will be distributed according to Table 6 in the
range of 0.5 to 2.5 as from our measurements. The complete generation of the
mobility must take into account several mobility components as shown in Figure 25.
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Chapter 5
5.7 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we presented a mathematical model of the Activity Model and
derived few parameters that we will be necessary to effectively and efficiently
understand the performance characteristics of Mobile Adhoc Networks (MANETs)
and in deciding which path a user will choose. Unlike in random way point, mobility
in an indoor area is not a random movement but a defined movement which is
governed by the activities in such an area.
Additionally, in this section, we presented a way in which to abstract a graph, assign
speed, pause time, choice of feasible paths and node density distribution when
simulating.
Whilst the random way point presented the movement in a hap-hazard fashion, our
results in this survey shows that movement in an indoor area is defined by the
corridors or paths available to the user.
We suggested the use of Dijkstra algorithm for the path choice and the MNL
equations from the transport science to predict the user choice of path based on the
geometry and obstructions available in such an environment. We further showed
mathematically on how to distribute the node density among feasible paths.
However, particular attention was placed on the obstacles or geometry of the area as it
dictates the movement pattern on the users in an indoor environment as shown from
our survey. It is this mobility pattern that we will use to emulate both the random way
point and the activity based mobility models/patterns.
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Chapter 6
Methodology or Experimental planning
CHAPTER 6
6. METHODOLOGY OR EXPERIMENTAL PLANNING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this section, our key aim is to give answers to the questions or objectives that were
raised at the beginning of the dissertation (chapter 1). The objectives that need to be
answered are:
Analysis of activity patterns of both students and workers at the University of

Johannesburg. This analysis will include time allocation to activities,
movement pattern and node density. This in turn will enable us to propose a
more realistic mobility pattern for an indoor office environment for MANETs
based on activity based models
How to propose realistic wireless link models for an indoor office

environment and to see how the physical layer of 802.11 behaves when
mobility (comparison of random way point and our mobility pattern) is added
to the RF propagation
Implementation of this activity mobility pattern in ns2 and to see the variation
of the mobility model and the random way point.
6.2 METHODOLOGY
In order to answer the problems which were proposed in the foregoing paragraph, we
divide our experiments into two sections and propose the following:
First section: The first section our experiments involves determining the
parameters by conducting real time experiments on the radio frequency

behaviour and movement patterns in an indoor environment and;
Second section: The second and our main experiment involve the application
of these parameters to Ns2. This will enable us to compare the activity model
and the random way point in a more realistic way.
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6.2.1 Section 1 and 2: Parameter setting

Setting up of simulation parameters for the Ns2 was divided into parts as follows:
The observation of peoples movement for some days on our campus

environment. We noted and recorded the mobility patterns at different times of
the day, the nodal density and how users choose their path in each
environment;
Creating a two node network from which data was extracted using one of the
performance analysis software. Empirical readings of signal strength versus
the distance were documented. Two types of movement patterns were used in
this experiment which were the activity based which followed the geometry of
the place and the random way point in an open space;
Performance data was recorded from various positions in the environment

using different metrics.
6.2.2 Section 3: Main experiment

In this experiment all the parameters obtained from section one were used in the Ns2
simulation for the comparison analysis of the random way point and the activity
Model (AM).
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL DESCRIPTION

Observed and experimental measurements in this report were performed at the
University of Johannesburg Electrical Engineering Department and the main
administrative building.
The University of Johanesburg is made up of Different building materials. For
example the post graduate room is an open plan office made from wood. The
department walls are made from red bricks. Concrete bricks are a common feature in
the main administrative building which has similar architectural patterns to our own
department.
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Chapter 6
The department of Electrical Engineering building is comparatively rectangular in

shape. It is a two floor building with open stairs as illustrated in the pictures shown in
Figure 27. The corridors are a closed type, rectangular in shape. The offices for both
lectures and workers are close to being a square in shape. Some measurements were
performed in this area. While stairs, ramps and lifts are common in the main
administrative building, only stairs connect the two floors in the Department of
Electrical Engineering.
The two typical environments to the best of our knowledge, represents common
architectural design for most buildings. To the best of our knowledge both buildings
are a representative of most common indoor environments like malls and offices (a
corridor on the middle and offices or shops on the sides). The drawings in Figure 27
represent the corridors and the offices found in the Electrical Department building
where measurements were performed
Figure 27: Picture description of the environment
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Chapter 6
6.4 EXPERIMENT 1. UNDERSTANDING INDOOR TRAVEL PLANS AND

ACTIVITY PATTERNS.
Observations for this experiment were performed in the main building at the
University of Johannesburg and our Electrical Engineering Department. We observed
and recorded movements of students at campus with a view of finding out how users
in an environment choose their path between source and destination and; how they
spent their time carrying out their daily activities. We divided this section into three
parts i.e. measuring user speed, node density measurement and route choice.
6.4.1 Experiment 1a: Measuring indoor speed.

This experiment was conducted without any difficulty as it required observing several
users movement. In this experiment we used the stop watch and a simple measuring
tape to calculate the variations of speed in different places of an indoor environment.
This will later on help us to adjust the nodal speed in the Ns2 simulator.
6.4.1.1 Procedure
We marked a distance of 5 meters in the corridor. We then selected at random any
individual who passed by that way. Our time measurement began when the individual
stepped on the first mark in the measurement arena up until when the person stepped
on the last mark. The time required to traverse the distance were recorded by an off
the shelf stop watch. In calculating the speed we used the simple formula depicted in
equation 6.1:
s=
D
,
T
(6.1)
In the above equation s is the average speed in meters/second (m/s), D is the distance
in meters separating the two marks and T is the total time(in seconds) taken to
traverse the distance D.
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Chapter 6
The experiment was repeated with several users in different parts of the environment.
The variation of speed interval in different places was recorded
6.4.2 Experiment 1b: Node density distribution and activities time distribution in an
indoor environment
This experiment was quite challenging in that it needed some bit of reasoning unlike
the first one. In this experiment our aim was to measure users density in a particular
place at a specific time and also the activities time distribution. Our main concern was
the node density in the corridors and the offices and also how time activity is
distributed amongst different users in the university. (See Figure 28 and Table 5
respectively).
Figure 28: Node density measurement area

Table 5: Activity time distribution in an indoor place
Time range
Total work time
students
10 hours
7 hours
Time
percentage
100%
70%
work
Break
University
workers
workers
8 hours
80%
1 hours
10%
students
2 hours
20%
Time for
movement
1 hour
workers
Students 1hour
10 %
10%
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Chapter 6
6.4.2.1 Procedure
In this experiment we recorded/counted a number of people traversing a particular
route (corridor or hallway) at certain times of the day for a week. We chose the
common corridors where user traffic is common. Our foremost aim was to determine
the number of people in a particular place at a particular time. We selected times like
lunch time, work time and break time. The variations in the user density at particular
times of the day were recorded.
Secondly, In order for us to calculate the amount of time users spend on work and
movement we used the time table which shows the allocation of time use for
university workers and students at large. Our time range was taken from 7:00hrs to
17:00hrs in the evening with short breaks of one hour each at 10:30 and 12:30. This
period is when there is a lot of movement in the corridors and other paths at the
university. Note however that students time of work is less than that of the workers
as them are not dictated to by the working conditions of the University working
policy, but to the university set class time table.
6.4.3 Experiment 1c: Selection of Routes in an indoor environment

Our preliminary point was the observations of student movement and their selection
of paths in the spatial environment, in this case our campus buildings. We took some
time to observe how users in the environment would select their paths given a choice
of two or more paths. In figure 23 (in the previous chapter) we see clearly the effects
of a path in the selection of routes in an environment as exhibited by a group of users
on the ramp than the stairs. Our main focus in this area was to compare route choice
among common indoor paths such as elevators, flat path, ramp path and stair path.
6.4.3.1 Procedure
This measurement setup was simple; we recorded how many users traversed a
particular path at a particular time. We recorded our measurements in different places
of the university. Our target was particularly the lifts, stairs and the ramp paths
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Chapter 6
(refer-to Figure 23 and 24). When we interviewed a few individuals as to why the
preferred the lift instead of the stairs, different responses such as tiring and longevity
were put forward. This showed us that individuals or users would prefer the shortest
and less obstructed path. In our results we expect that the choice of paths between the
lifts the stairs and the ramp will vary accordingly with the lifts being the first choice
followed by the ramp and finally the stairs.
6.5 EXPERIMENT 2: MODELLING THE OBSERVED CHANNEL

CHARACTERISTICS-EMULATING THE MOBILITY PATTERNS.
In this experiment our main aim was to compare the effects of the random way point
and the indoor movement pattern on the signal strength and link quality. Our
measurement also looks at how certain office areas may affect the signal strength
quality. For example to determine the signal strength decay in an open plan office we
had to measure how the signal strength degrades over a certain distance in open plan
office.
We set up our experiment as shown in Figure 31. Our experiments which we
conducted were as follows:
1. Line of sight measurements
2. Open plan office measurements
3. Effects of human obstruction on signal strength
4. Two nodes moving apart in an indoor location
5. Effects of one node moving and the other stationary on the signal strength
6. Emulation of the random way point in an open area.
6.5.1 Equipment description and connectivity
We ran our test experiments on two Dell computers each fitted with the Ralink PCI
cards. The two computers were each running on the Windows Operating system with
Pentium 4 [69]. We equipped our two computers with Ralink 802.11g turbo wireless
PCI card (Figure 29) which is a product of the Canyon tech.
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Chapter 6
6.5.1.1 Configuration
We used the Ralink drivers which are provided with the cards. The cards were set to
adhoc mode which was the proper selection for non infrastructure (without wired
APs) network.
We set the transmissions rate to 54 Mbps and operated in channel 1 (note that any
channel can selected, however, in some countries there may be some restrictions on
channel use) of the industrial scientific and medical (ISM) band. The 802.11g of the
IEEE standards was selected and set the card power to 200mW. The 802.11g card can
be configured using multiples of 6; from 12 to 54 Mbps. We enabled the radio
measurement and turned on the Cisco centralized key management - fast roaming
(CCKM) on, for our measurements. It enabled us to connect between the two points
or antennas that we were using without necessary going through the server process.
The Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol (LEAP) was used to provide
mutual authentication between two wireless stations that we had. LEAP has a
dynamic wired equivalent privacy (WEP) that provides a secure scheme in Wi-Fi
networks.
Figure 29: Features of the 802.11g PCI card
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Chapter 6
6.5.1.2 The performance analysis software for the link dynamics.

The software used to measure link quality and the received signal strength in this
research was a free download from Wirelessmon [78] and the Ralink utility graphical
user interface (GUI) which is provided with the Ralink wireless drivers. Below is the
screen shot of the Wirelessmon graphical user interface (Figure 30).
Figure 30: Screenshot of the wirelessmon GUI
Wirelessmon is wireless LAN performance indication software which we used to

observe the signal strength and link quality in our experiment. The choice of
wirelessmon, which is the product of Passmark [78], software, does not indicate its
superiority over many performance analysis software, but its easy-to-use, cost and
easy of understanding made us choose it.
Wirelessmon is software that is capable of monitoring the status of WLANS in terms
of signal strength, data rates and the positions of the antennas. Moreover the
Wirelessmon is able to incorporate Global Position System (GPS) when dealing with
antenna location. But since we were dealing with an indoor environment the GPS use
was not so significant, hence it was not used in our measurement.
In all our experiments we took great care in the orientation of the antenna. We made
sure that the two antennas were facing one another all the time or had line of sight
between them. We positioned them such a way that the antennas had no obstructions
from the PCs that we were using. In order to reduce the effects of human obstructions
[79] we avoided being in the way of the antenna and, we positioned the computers, in
such a way that the screen was facing our side for readings.
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Chapter 6
Antenna
Ralink
PCI card
Ralink
PCI card
PC
PC
Figure 31: Setup connection of the experiment
6.5.2 Measurements
The experiment was set up as shown in Figure 31 to measure the line of sight
measurements in the corridor (Figure 32). For every experiment we conducted three
sets of measurement were taken just to make sure that our measurements were
accurate. Our antenna tripods heights were set to height of 1.5 meters throughout our
measurements.
6.5.2.1 Experiment 2a: line of sight measurements

In this experiment we conducted measurements to understand the effects of a corridor
without and with human obstruction on the signal strength.
(a) Procedure
We started with a source node sending to a receiver at a given distance in a corridor
without stairs in the EE department. The transmitter was then moved in an
incremental step whilst maintaining the receiver sight. The spacing between the first
and the next measurement was of regular increments of about 5 meters until up to a
distance of 70 meters
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Chapter 6
Measurements of signal strength were taken using the Wirelessmon software. Care
was taken that the orientation of the two antennas was the same all the time. In the
first round of this experiment we avoided any human obstruction in the path of the
signal. We recorded the signal strength versus the distance in line of sight corridor
(Figure 32). In the second round of our experiment we conducted the measurements
with the human obstruction following the same procedure as before. All the
experiments were repeated twice just to verify our results.
.
Figure 32: Line of sight measurement area
6.5.2.2 Experiment 2b: Open plan office measurement

The configuration pattern in this experiment was similar to the one in procedure one.
The only difference was that in this experiment, we measured the effects of the
received signal strength in an office which is made from wood partitioned offices as
shown in Figure 33.
(a) Procedure
We maintained one transmitter in one office whilst moving the receiver in different
offices or partitions. Our main aim was to find out how far the signal strength would
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Chapter 6
degrade in such an environment. These measurements in turn will enable the

modellers to accurate model the transmission rate in an indoor office plan.
Figure 33: Open plan office measurements area
6.5.2.3 Experiment 2c: Stair corridor versus signal strength.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of stairs and mobility,
on signal strength and link quality (Physical layer of 802.11g) in the built
environment. In many cases, stairs and walls in the built environment can drastically
affect the quality of links, throughput and received signal strength between the
transmitter and the receiver.
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Chapter 6
(a) Procedure
We used the corridor with stairs and carried our measurement campaign as in the line
of sight (LOS) measurement. The antenna orientation and the experimental setup from
above procedure was maintained, the only difference was that in this experiment the
corridor terrain was not flat as in the first one. We observed and recorded the readings
of signal strength versus distance in a stair obstructed corridor.
6.5.2.4 Experiment 2d: Two nodes moving apart

In this experiment our main objective was to emulate a typical indoor environment
and find out how the signal strength versus distance behaves in an indoor environment
when two users move in opposite direction.
(a) Procedure
The transmitter and the receiver were placed at a centre mark of 35 meters and the
two nodes were moved apart at our normal walking speed. Our speed selection was
random; it was entirely on the users speed. This is in line with common sense that
users speed is purely a choice of the person concerned. The path traversed along the
corridor did not represent a straight line movement. We did this in order to get as
close as possible to the real movement of people in a corridor. We recorded our
results of distance and the signal strength decay.
However, we did not carry out the experiment of two nodes moving towards one
another because this type of experiment will be a replica of the two nodes moving
apart.
6.5.2.5Experiment 2e: One node stationary and the other mobile.

In this experimental setup, our main objective was to analyse how the signal strength
would behave when one node is located in the office and the other one mobile. This
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Chapter 6
scenario demonstrates some of the typical movement patterns of transmitter-receiver

communication in an indoor environment
(a) Procedure
We placed one node in one office and we kept another mobile in the corridor. Like
before we walked at our own pace without any adherence to a known speed. The
results of the experiment were recorded.
6.5.2.6 Experiment 2f: Emulation of the random way point

In this experiment our aim was to emulate the random way point and observe the
variation of signal strength when the user moves in a zigzag (random) mode. The
results from this experiment will be compared with the indoor results with a view of
observing how the signal strength varies in different places, under different types of
mobility patterns. Capturing these realistic behaviours is an important step towards
making simulations close to reality within the Ns2 simulation package.
(a) Procedure
In order to be close to the random way point movement as possible (with no
obstructions and no wall reflections), we opted to carry our experiment in an open
area .The movement emulated was the random way movement in a wide and non
obstructed parking lot (see Figure 34). This space was at least close to size of our
office building.
Despite the fact that we tried very much to emulate the random movement in the
department, the Random movement in the corridor was impossible because of the
wall restrictions or rather the geometry of the building which dictated the movement.
From [46] it is clear that the environmental layout and the activities patterns carried in
an indoor environment dictates the movement pattern of the users. Our experiment
was done on Saturday when there were no cars and therefore less obstruction. Our
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Chapter 6
movement trajectory was in a zigzag fashion or pattern as illustrated in Figure 35 of

(a) and (b) of our methodology.
In order to avoid interference from our own bodies, in an obstacle free area, we made
sure that the transmitter and the receiver are in sight of one another every time we
perform our measurement.
In this experiment three types of measurements were taken to emulate the random
way point in real life. Our movements were as follows:
1. Two nodes starting from the same age of the field moved in a zigzag pattern
until when the met at the centre. We recorded the observed signal strength
indicators for our evaluation.
2. Two nodes moved in opposite directions to one another but still repeating the
same pattern of a zigzag movement.
3. One node was stationary and the other node traversed a zigzag movement
pattern across the field.
Figure 34: Open space area where emulation of the random way point was conducted
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Chapter 6
(a)
(b)
Figure 35: Two types of random way point movement which we emulated
6.5.3 Conclusions
The parameters set in the preceding chapters will be used in Ns2 to configure the
radio frequency settings and the mobility parameters will be used to set up the node
mobility in Ns2.
6.6 SECTION 3: MAIN EXPERIMENT, NS2 SIMULATIONS.

In this section our aim is to perform a comparative analysis of our activity mobility
model and the random way point. To establish the impact of the mobility and
pathways on the performance of routing, we employ the DSDV and AODV routing
protocols for route finding and path set up. In these simulations, we also compare the
results with the performance of AODV using the random waypoint model. The
metrics used are the:
1. The throughput; and
2. Delay under the two mobility patterns.
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Chapter 6
6.6.1 Definition of the metrics

(a) Throughput- is the amount of digital bits that traverses a particular path link or
per unit time or the amount of data that is delivered at a certain terminal.
(b) EndEnd Delay- is the difference time between when the node source initiates a
sending of the packet over the link to the point when the packet is received by the
receiving node.
End End delay = Tdestination
receives packets
Tsource
sents packets
Where T is the time taken for receiving and sending packets over the link.
6.6.2 Procedure
We loaded the Ns2 with our mobility pattern as described in chapter 5 of this
dissertation. We adjusted the setdest tool to produce the mobility pattern that we
desired as demonstrated in chapter 5. All of the simulations were run using the
network simulator (Ns2) [1]. The simulation area is 760 760m, and the maximum
node transmission range is 70m. However, in the presence of different building
materials and indoor geometry, the actual transmission range of each individual node
is likely to vary greatly. The propagation model is the two-ray path-loss model. At the
MAC layer, the IEEE 802.11 DCF protocol is used, and the bandwidth is 2Mbps.
Because we are modeling an indoor environment, the movement speed of the
users/nodes, unless otherwise stated, is arbitrarily selected between 0.5 and 2.5 m/s to
represent walking speeds. The pause time in our simulations is also randomly
selected. Hence, when a node reaches its intended destination, it pauses for a certain
period of time and then selects a new destination and speed and continues movement.
Each data point is an average of five simulation runs with the nodes distributed in
different initial positions. To evaluate the characteristics of the network topologies
created by the two mobility models, we randomly distribute the nodes at the
beginning of the simulation. The data packet sending rate is set to 1mbps throughout
our simulations and in all our simulation we compare the random-way point and our
activity model as described in section 5.
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In the first scenario we calculate the behaviour of throughput under DSDV protocol
with the 1024 bytes payload. We compare the throughput versus time. The nodes are
distributed according to our mobility model as described in Chapter five. Paths that
are more likely to be traversed by users are loaded with different node densities.
In the second scenario, still with the payload of 1024 and using the DSDV protocol
we evaluate the delay of packets with time in our simulation environment. The
number of nodes is kept constant like in the preceding paragraph. Like above we
compare the random way point and our activity model (AM)
In the third scenario, we alter the payload to 512 bytes still maintaining the same
mobility patterns and routing protocol as in scenario one. In a likewise manner we
compare the throughput and the delay for both our mobility patterns (random way
point and our activity model).
The fourth scenario, repeats exactly the third scenario setup but instead of measuring
the throughput we measure the delay of packets among the nodes. Likewise we
compare our two mobility models using the same metrics.
The fifth scenario uses AODV as a routing protocol. The mobility pattern is set as
described in section 5 of this dissertation. A packet payload or data packet size of
1024 bytes is used. Using the metrics above we compare how the two mobility
patterns behave.
In the sixth scenario we repeat the scenario described in scenario number five but in
this we measure the delay of the packets between the nodes.
6.7 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have presented the methodology of our experiments and how we
have carried out the experiments for us to achieve our desired results. We have
presented how we have emulated the two mobility patterns, with one being carried out
in an open field and the other indoors.
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Chapter 6
Simulation procedure using the Ns2 has also been presented and how we used our
metrics to compare the two mobility patterns.
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Chapter 7
Evaluation and Discussion of Results
CHAPTER 7
7. EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we discuss and evaluate the results of our study. Different types of
measurements were conducted in order to achieve our desired objective (realistic
Mobility Modelling in an indoor environment). Results from different experiments
(section 1 and Section 2) that were conducted are presented.
7.2 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT 1A: SPEED IN AN INDOOR LOCATION.

In this section results from experiment one are presented. A variation of speed among
different users was observed in an indoor building (See Table 6). Depending on the
location within an environment users had different measured speeds. For example the
offices represented the speed of zero because minimal movement, which we
neglected, was observed. On the other hand corridors and the hallways represented
varying speeds. In the corridors and hallways speed kept varying between 0.5 m/s to
2.5 m/s in conformity with a typical measured speed [28, 27, 30]. Higher speeds of
3m/s -3.5m/s were rarely measured, so these were not taken into consideration. Table
7 represents the average of different speeds exhibited by user in an indoor
environment between the two buildings.
100
Chapter 7
Table 6: Speed variation of users in an indoor environment

Experiment 1a speed variation in an indoor place
Amount of people
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Standard deviation
average
median
Range is
Speed
0.5
1.4
2
1.6
2.1
2.2
2.5
0.9
1.5
1.9
1.4
1
2.34
2.1
2.2
2.17
0.9
2.2
2.7
3.2
1.2
2.7
2.1
2.3
1.9
2.4
2.45
2.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
2.61
2.3
1.98
0.3
0.7
2.5
2.41
2.02
1.87
0.760648
1.80125
2.06
0.5-2.5
Table 7: Average speed measurements in different indoor locations
101
Chapter 7
Place
Office/working place
Normal mobility (corridor)
Speed
0m/s
0.5 2.5 m/s
Movement direction
stationary
In different ways
7.3 RESULTS FOR EXPERIMENT 1B: NODE DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AND

ACTIVITY DISTRIBUTION
People may walk in groups or walk alone in corridors; this movement pattern dictates
the type of node density that is observed in such an environment. As a result it is
reasonable to say that node distribution in an indoor location is somehow aligned to
the activity that is taking place.
In this section we present the results of how the node density is distributed in an
indoor environment at certain times of the day. Our results show that node density is
not uniform throughout the day as shown in Figure 36. The graph clearly shows that
the variation of the node density is controlled by the activities of the day and the
amount of obstruction within a particular route. From the graph of Figure 37 we
observe clearly how the activities of workers and students are displayed in a campus
area. Evidently it can be seen that movement in an indoor environment occupies a
smaller amount of the total activity time during the day.
From our results, routes that are commonly used have high node density per square
meter. Of particular interest also is that, at particular times of the day the node density
will be high at specific times of the day especially at break times as shown in Table 8.
This scenario represents a situation where certain routes in an indoor area will have
high node density and others will have none or less depending on the activity that is
taking place. For example at 10:00hrs the route to the kitchen in the Electrical
Department has high node density.
102
Chapter 7
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
:0
0
17
:0
0
16
:0
0
15
:0
0
14
:0
0
13
:0
0
12
:0
0
11
:0
0
10
:0
0
09
08
07
:0
0
node density dstribution
:0
0
percentage
Node density distribution of users in an indoor enviroment (main building and EE dept)
Time
Figure 36: Probability of node density in corridors at specific times of the day
Table 8: Node density distribution in different places of an indoor environment
Node density distribution at particular times of the day

Venue
place
Morning
high
Mid
morning
low
Main
building
Passage
offices
Low
low
Campus
indoor EE
Dept
Offices or High
classrooms
low
Passages
or
corridors
Afternoon
High
Mid
afternoon
low
Evening
high
low
low
low
Moderate Low
High
Low
Moderate Low
Low
High
103
Chapter 7
Activity patterns in an indoor enviroment

students
100
lecturers and wokers
Percent time
80
60
40
20
0
1
1: working 2: movement 3: miscelenous
Figure 37: Percentage use of time in an indoor environment
7.4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT C: SELECTION OF ROUTES IN AN INDOOR

ENVIRONMENT
It was clear from the observation that people opted for the lifts than the ramp and the
ramp for the stairs. The observation can be seen in Figure 23 where we see a group of
users opting for the ramp than the stair way.
Although some users would use the stair ways, we observed that it was not due to
their natural choice. This phenomenon was because users tried to avoid the congestion
that was choking the ramp route. The choice of the elevators was clear in the amount
of people opting for the elevators than the stairs as represented in Table 9.
Table 9: Choice preference of routes from the University of Johannesburg

Preference
of routes
from the
survey
Frequency
of usage
Why the
preference
of such a
route
LIFTS
1st choice
Very often
STAIRS
3rd choice
RAMP
PATH
2nd choice
Not very
often
Often
Short quick
and not
tiring
Long and
tiring
Not tiring
but long
Route type
104
Chapter 7
7.5 GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS: EFFECTS OF DISTANCE ON THE

SIGNAL STRENGTH.
In this section, discussions and results regarding the effects of building geometry and
mobility, on the signal strength in an indoor environment is presented.
It is common assumption that a relationship between the transmitter and the receiver
must follow the power law equation [73].
This equation holds if we take into
consideration ideal conditions that the science behind the relation holds true. In actual
fact a real environment is a poor match to the ideal conditions assumed. Variations
due to obstruction, reflection, refraction, scattering, fading and shadowing in practice
cause considerable variation from ideal behavior. This is more commonly observed
when the transmitter and the antenna are separated at a distance d from one another
and are obstructed by different materials of varying thickness.
The noise level observed on our reading was high. This could have been due to
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) and the interference caused by reflected and
refracted waves, which was high when the separation between the transmitter and the
receiver was small and low when the separation was large. This phenomenon was
caused by cards which were internally generating some noise and was transmitted
with the frames. Another observation was that the link quality remained constant
throughout the measurements. The only drop in the link quality from 100 percent to
91 percent was when the LOS measurement was close to 70 meters mark in the
Electrical Department corridor. It was clear that the link quality was also dependent
on the separation of the transmitter and the receiver. Exceptional link quality was
observed to be proportional to the distance.
105
Chapter 7
7.5.1 Results for Experiment 2a: Comparison variation of received signal strength
with and without human obstruction (corridor)
Figure 38 shows the variations of signal strength with distance across a corridor in our
Department. From the graph, it is clear that the signal strength decaying with
increasing distance is very evident in this graph. This phenomenon in some way also
follows the power law and is true in accordance with the signal-distance experiments
conducted by a lot of researchers [79, 80, and 81].
Table 10: Variations of signal strength with distance
Transmitter receiver
No human obstruction
With human obstruction
-20
-30
-30
-35
10
-31
-37
15
-37
-38
20
-39
-39
25
-41
-42
30
-45
-48
35
-50
-53
40
-52
-58
45
-57
-61
50
-60
-61
55
-61
-67
60
-69
-69
65
-70
-71
separation
106
Chapter 7
Comparison of human obstruction with non obstructed LOS measurement
0
-10
-20
signal dBs
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Distance Meters
1: No human obstruction (LOS)

2: Human Obstruction
Figure 38: Variations of signal strength with distance
7.5.2 Results for experiment 2b: Analysis of signal strength versus distance in open
plan office experiment.
Figure 39 shows how the signal strength behaves with distance in an open plan office.
The variations of signal strength versus distance in an open plan office differ very
much from the LOS corridor measurements. The signal strength in an open plan office
tends to fail after a few meters mainly due to the obstructions involved in such an
area. Modelling such an area, from our study/results requires the scrupulously
understanding of obstacles within such an environment.
The link quality and the noise level remained almost similar to the LOS corridor
measurements observed earlier, only after beyond a certain point of more than 8
107
Chapter 7
meters did the signal strength begun to fluctuate heavily. A divergent sharp drop was
observed in an open plan office, where the link between the transmitter and the
receiver was out of range after traversing 3 cubicles each measuring 1.74 meters in
length, made out of plywood with thickness of 2cm.
Table 11: Signal strength decay versus distance in an open plan office
Signal strength
separation
0
-29
-36
-40
-45
-63
signal
0
-10
dBs signal
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0
meters (T-R) separation
8
signal
Figure 39: Signal strength decay versus distance in an open plan office
108
Chapter 7
7.5.3 Experiment 2c: Disparity of signal strength with distance in corridor with stairs
The graph of Figure 40 was conducted in an indoor environment with stairs. Like in
our previous experiments, we kept the antenna orientation and moved the computers
at our walking pace, which is the similar to the normal walking pace of users in such
an environment. The stair height measured 80cm in height.
In order to get accurate results the computers were moved at a distance interval of 5
meters and periodically paused for measurement. This was done in stepwise manner
until when the 60 meters distance was reached.
The link quality and the noise level were at 100% and 97dB respectively. However
the link quality was affected at distance of more than 60 meters. At a distance beyond
60 meters the link quality started to fluctuate between 96% and 99%. Nonetheless the
signal strength varied as before, except after the stairs when there was a great signal
strength variation due to a change in the corridor elevation caused by stairs. This type
of layout, where a corridor has a change in elevation, is more common in some
buildings and it is imperative that effects of such an environment are taken into
consideration.
The comparison of Figure 40 and Figure 38 shows a great incongruity in the values of
the signal strength versus distance. Figure 40 shows a sharp curve after the 30 meters
mark, which shows the effect of stairs on the signal strength in a stair corridor. A
consistency fall-off of signal strength versus distance is displayed in Figure 38 line 2
of the graph.
109
Chapter 7
Table 12: Variations of signal strength with distance in a stair corridor
Transmitter receiver separation
Signal strength
-21
10
-31
20
-32
30
-35
40
-55
50
-60
60
-60
Figure 40: Variations of signal strength with distance in a stair corridor
7.5.4 Interpretation of results experiment as observed in experiment 2d, 2e and 2f:

Emulation of random way point and the activity model
From the experiments and observation that we carried it is clear that the mobility
patterns or the movement exhibited by users in an indoor environment is not as
random as presented by the random way point mobility model.
110
Chapter 7
In this section we compare the results as shown Figures 40, 41, 42, 43 and 44.
In Figure 40, 41, 42, the experimental results show great variation in the signal
strength versus the distance when movement is carried out in an indoor environment.
A sloping graph which somehow follows the power law is observed. In all the figures
the graph starts at a very high signal strength and gradually decreases as the distance
increases.
Similarly we emulated two types of movement for the random waypoint in an open
area (see Figure 34). The movement that was followed was a zigzag mobility as
shown in Figure 35. Figure 43 displays the results of both nodes starting from the
centre and moving in zigzag manner away from the centre. The signal strength
decreased as shown in the graph of Figure 43. Figure 44 shows two nodes moving
apart from the centre. The crest on the graph represents the times when the nodes are
vertically opposite one another and the troughs represents the times when the nodes
were diagonally opposite to one another. Figure 45 displays more or less the type of
characteristics similar to the Figure 44 one. The discrepancy in results of signal
strength decay versus distance in both areas is astonishing as displayed by the graphs.
From the graphs it is clear that the signal strength variations in the random way point
is not similar to an indoor one. From the graph of Figures 40, 41, 42 indoor
environments will present the power law type of signal strength vs. distance graph
whereas the random way point movement presents a completely different type of
graph as displayed in the results as in Figures 43, 44 and 45
This is a clear indication that the random way point cannot be used for modelling
indoor mobility patterns because of its improper mobility patterns which are not
suitable for an indoor environment. The use of the random way point in performance
analysis is certainly not viable for indoor environments.
111
Chapter 7
Table 13: Variations of signal strength with one node stationary and one mobile
Signal strength
separation
0
-31
10
-45
20
-51
30
-57
40
-61
50
-64
60
-67
Figure 41: Variations of signal strength with one node stationed in an office and one
mobile along the corridor
112
Chapter 7
Table 14: Variation of signal strength versus distance when tow nodes are moving
apart in an obstacle free corridor
Transmitter-receiver
separation
0
10
20
30
40
Signal strength
50
60
-45
-53
-21
-29
-32
-39
-41
Two nodes moving apart LOS
signal strength (dBs)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0
10
signal strength decay
20
30
40
50
60
Distance in meters
Figure 42: Variation of signal strength versus distance when two nodes are moving
apart in an obstacle free corridor
113
Chapter 7
Table 15: Signal strength versus distance with both nodes moving in the same
direction but in a random manner figure (a)
separation
0
20
40
60
Signal strength in
decibels
-21
-39
-41
-61
Figure 43: Signal strength versus distance with both nodes moving in the same
direction but in a random manner figure (a)
114
Chapter 7
Table 16: Variation of signal strength versus the distance in an emulated random
movement with two nodes moving oppositely Figure (b)
separation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Signal strength in
dBs
-26
-43
-50
-45
-61
-50
0
Figure 44: Variation of signal strength versus the distance in an emulated random
movement with two nodes moving oppositely Fig (b)
115
Chapter 7
Table 17: Signal strength disparity versus distance in random movement keeping one
node constant
Transmitter
receiver
separation
0
10
20
30
40
50
Signal strength
in dBm
60
-59
-21
-47
-41
-50
-43
-65
Figure 45: Signal strength disparity versus distance in random movement keeping
one node constant
7.6 SECTION 2 MAIN EXPERIMENT: SIMULATION RESULTS AND

ANALYSIS.
The main objective of our simulation was to comprehend the impact of our mobility
model and the random waypoint movement pattern on the mobility distribution of an
ad-hoc network which in turn has an impact on the network performance. To acquire
quantitative information concerning the proposed mobility model and contrast it with
the random way point model, we have simulated our algorithm for an ad-hoc
environment under certain movement constraints as proposed in chapter 5.
116
Chapter 7
The results portrayed in Figure 46, 47 and 48 shows that the overall protocol
performance depends on the movement pattern of the nodes in the simulation area,
and the node density within the simulation area. The Figures of 46 and 47 show the
throughput and the delay of the DSDV under a different payload. Results in Figure 48
shows protocol performance under AODV under a different packet payloads. The
results show that the throughput of our proposed mobility model is high compared to
the random way pointing in all the results. On the other hand the end-end delay of
packets is lower with our mobility model than with the random way point. The
explanation of this is linked to the fact that the nodes in our proposed mobility model
are close to one another and therefore the connectivity between different nodes is
high.
Figure 46 shows the end-to-end data packet delivery delay. These results are a
contrast between defined connectivity and non defined connectivity in the random
way point. The Figure shows that the data delivery delay for the activity based model
(AM) is considerably lower than in the random waypoint model. Because of defined
connectivity among nodes and fewer data sessions that are able to be completed, there
is a reduced amount of data traffic in the overall network. Accordingly data packets in
this network experience a lesser amount of contention for transmission and are able to
be delivered more quickly to their destinations.
The throughput in our results as shown in Figures 46, 47, 48 is higher with our
mobility model than with the random way point. It is evident from the graph that,
unlike RWP model, our proposed model is able to capture the movement pattern
which is the replica of activity driven movement in a particular place. Additionally
our mobility model does not assume random pause time like in RWP but a scaled
down pause time. Nodes reaching the primary areas such as the office take on a high
node pause time and secondary points take on shorter pause time. Because nodes in
our simulations are moving in particular defined path ways it generates very high
node connectivity, this established connectivity can only be maintained for a short
time because later they will head for a particular destination.
117
Chapter 7
The results point out that throughput and delay performance degrades when the
random way point is used in an indoor environment. The grounds that clarifies this
claim is that, the network graph experiences more link breakages due random
movement of the random way point.
(a)
(b)
Figure 46: results for DSDV throughput (a) and delay (b) using the 1024 bytes packet
payload
(a)
118
Chapter 7
(b)
Figure 47: Throughput (a) and delay (b) results for 512 bytes packet payload using
DSDV
.
(a)
(b)
Figure 48: Throughput (a) and delay (b) results for AODV with 1024 bytes payload
119
Chapter 7
7.7 CONCLUSIONS
In this section we present our finale of chapter 7. From our study it is clear that the
mobility modelling serious affects the RF propagation in an indoor environment.
While it is common for most simulators to use the random way point movement
pattern, it is certainly not applicable for an indoor environment. The signal strength
heavily attenuates in an open plan office and less in corridors where the LOS is a
predominant case. Less attenuation is observed in the corridors with stairs.
The comparison of the Random Way Point parameters and our indoor parameters
yielded different parameters for our two mobility models. When these the results
(parameters) of these two mobility models were compared the graphical results were
surprising as displayed in our chapter seven. These parameters also brought out
different results when loaded in the network simulator two as shown in our Ns2
simulation results
120
Chapter 8
Conclusion and future work
CHAPTER 8
8. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Protocol performance analysis in different environments requires that a person
performing the simulation is quite aware of the mobility pattern he/she will be using.
Failure to use the right mobility pattern for the simulation gives rise to incorrect
results.
A more reliable way of performing simulation in an indoor is to follow the mobility
model as dictated by the activities that are performed in such an area. The movement
pattern should follow the geometry and at all cost try to avoid the obstacles that are
found within a particular link or path.
8.2 CONTRIBUTIONS
The objective of this study was to investigate or formulate a more realistic indoor
movement pattern based on the activity models drawn from the transport science. This
methodology consisted of four components: (1) abstraction of a graph from the
architectural drawings, (2) evaluate reasonable node density in realistic paths, (3)
modelling movement as a function of activities, and (4) modelling route choice in a
way that reflects user perceptions of the network. A comparison analysis of the
indoor activity mobility model and the random-way point was done in order to
effectively see how the two behave in an emulation and simulation process.
8.3 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

In chapter one, we gave an initial introduction to the MANET world and our
objectives of our study. Chapter one also outlined how the whole dissertation would
follow afterwards.
In chapter two, we presented our background of our study. We gave an overview on
wireless LANs (MANETs) and went on to outline different routing protocols that are
used in MANET simulations. We went on to give an overview of related technologies
121
Chapter 8
and simulation tools that have been used within the wireless and the wired
communities.
In chapter three, an overview of different mobility models that are used in the
simulations of MANETs and any related work to mobility modelling was given.
Chapter four gave an overview on Radio Frequency propagation models that are used
in the wireless community and the Ns2 simulator.
Chapter five presented our mobility modelling based on activities that are done in an
indoor place. A mathematical approach using the graph theory was used. However in
our mobility modelling, we described movement as a function of activities. Nodes
only visited the vertices that in normal circumstances users or people would visit.
Chapter 6 presented a methodology of our study. A comprehensibly outline of
different procedures on how we carried out our study was presented in this chapter. A
comparison analysis of the random way point and the activity mobility model is
drawn
Chapter 7 presented the results of both our emulation and simulation of our studies.
Graphs and tables to different experiments are presented in this section.
8.4 LIMITATIONS OF OUR STUDY

Our study, though it was insightful venture into activity based modelling, it was
however, not without limitations. Our limitations were more particularly on the
simulation of an indoor environment. The unavailability of the z-coordinate in the
Ns2 made it impossible for us to simulate path choice through the lifts. In such an
eventuality our simulations were more limited to the simulation of the x-y coordinate
system. Paths such as the lifts were very difficult to simulate. We left these for future
research. Other limitation was the inability to obtain a more realistic antenna
propagation distance in our simulation because of great variation of propagation
distance in an indoor area.
122
Chapter 8
8.5 CONCLUSIONS OF RESULTS

In our results, it is apparent that there is marked difference between the random way
point and our mobility model based on activities in an indoor environment.
Astonishingly the variation of the results in both the simulation and the emulation of
our mobility models, as presented from the graphs, gave a clear indication that the
random way point cannot be used for protocol performance in an indoor environment
8.6 FUTURE WORK

Future work on this work may include the inclusion of the z-coordinate in the ns2 if
proper simulations of the indoor environment are to be done. Most simulations in this
area (MANETs) only use the x-y coordinate system which may not really present a
true reality of an indoor environment. We have however, laid a foundation for
modelling path choice and node density in an indoor environment based on activity
patterns in indoor area.
8.7 CONCLUSION
This chapter gives a conclusion to our study. It has looks at the summary of the
chapters, results, limitations and future work on our study.
123
Colophon
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This thesis was written or typed with Microsoft Word 2003 and the running copy was
printed on a Hewlett-Packard LaserJet 6L. Body text is 12 point Times New Roman
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133
Appendix
APPENDIX 1
Questionnaire 1: choice of a path within an indoor

environment
1. Are you a student at the University of Johannesburg?
.no (tick )
yes
2. When moving around campus what type of paths/route would you

prefer
1. A stairs
2. B ramp
3. C lifts
3. Why would you prefer such kind of the route?
1. A short
2. B quicker
3. C Not tiring
4. If you were given routes with following obstacles in it which one
would prefer assuming the length of all the routes are the same?
1. lifts
2. stairs
3. Ramp
5. How often do you use the following routes with the named obstacles
in it? List them in the order with which you would use them.
(a) Stairs
Very often
Often
Not very often
(b) Lifts
Very often
Often
Not very often
(c) Ramp
Very often
Often
Not very often
Thank you for cooperation and participation in this survey.
134
Appendix
APPENDIX 2
RESULTS TO THE SURVEY QUESTIONAIRE
Question 2: preference of the route: number of people

Stairs
Lifts
Ramp
23
98
34
RANDOM RESULTS OF PREFERENCE OF ROUTES

A
STAIRS
VERY
OFTEN
LIFTS
RAMP
23
123
45
OFTEN
33
36
54
NOT
12
12
45
VERY
OFTEN
135

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INDOOR MOBILITY MODELLING FOR MANETS:

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Supervisor: Dr. W. Clarke

3.4 MOBILITY MODELS WITH TEMPORAL DEPENDENCY. ............................................ 39

6.6 SECTION 3: MAIN EXPERIMENT, NS2 SIMULATIONS. ........................................... 96

6.7 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 98

7.4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT C: SELECTION OF ROUTES IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT

7.6 SECTION 2 MAIN EXPERIMENT: SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.............. 116

FIGURE 24 COMMON SCENARIOS IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT; PICTURE SHOWING THE

FIGURE 25: PICTURE SHOWING DIFFERENT ROUTE CHOICES IN AN INDOOR

FIGURE 28: PICTURE DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT WHERE EMPIRICAL

FIGURE 29: NODE DENSITY MEASUREMENT AREA ........................................................ 85

FIGURE 38: PERCENTAGE USE OF TIME IN AN INDOOR ENVIRONMENT ......................... 104

FIGURE 45 VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS THE DISTANCE IN AN EMULATED

FIGURE 46: SIGNAL STRENGTH DISPARITY VERSUS DISTANCE IN RANDOM MOVEMENT

TABLE 3: PATH-LOSS EXPONENT N FOR DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS [73] ...................... 56

TABLE 16: VARIATION OF SIGNAL STRENGTH VERSUS THE DISTANCE IN AN EMULATED

TABLE 17: SIGNAL STRENGTH DISPARITY VERSUS DISTANCE IN RANDOM MOVEMENT

Definitions and Terminology

Ad-hoc on-demand Distance vector

Advanced Traveller Information Systems

Body Area Network

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

Complementary Code Keying

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency

Distributed Coordinated Function

Dynamic source routing

Direct Sequence Destination Vector

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Fisheye State Routing Protocol

Ground Position System

Georgia Tech Network simulator

Industrial Scientific and Medical band

Location aware routing protocol

Local Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network

Medium Acces Control

Mobile Adhoc NETworks

Mobility Integration of Radio Requirements in Real-world

Network Allocation Vector

Non Line Of Sight

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing OPNET

Optimized Network Engineering Tools

Personal Digital assistants

Packet Delivery Ratio

Personal Area Network

Radio Frequency IDentification

Reference Point Group Mobility

Random Way Point

Wireless Local area Network

Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives

1.2 DEFINITION OF MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS

1.3 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND

Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives

emergency/rescue operations (such as in the September 9/11);

The research community is currently busy trying to understand the scalability of

Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives

Overview of Dissertation: Introduction and Objectives

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

To analyze activity patterns of both students and workers at the University of

To emulate the observed mobility pattern as dictated to by the geometry and