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Abstract
It was believed that fluid flow and the laminar to
turbulent transition delay were more easily controlled on smooth surfaces until the discovery of the
grooved shark skin surface that changed the whole
idea of how smooth the surface should be to have
high flow in submerged surfaces. Riblets have
gained renewed interest in academic fields of study
and in industry due to several advantages in manip-
ulating the turbulence boundary layer. Drag reduction using small, longitudinally grooved surface provides up to 10 % lower energy consumption in several
applications. This review provides an overview of the
mechanism of drag reduction with riblets, the different geometries and types, and the latest developments in drag reduction riblet technology.
Introduction
In fluid dynamics applications, energy is used to either maintain the motion of a fluid over a solid surface or to move a solid
body through a fluid. In both cases, a substantial amount of
energy is expended to overcome the drag force. Since the energy crisis in 1973, increased interest in energy conservation has
spurred researchers to seek alternative means to reduce energy
consumption. Several studies have been conducted to find solutions for enhancing drag reduction for aeroplanes and vehicles,
transport pipelines, and other industrial applications [1].
Since the discovery of the drag reduction phenomenon, researchers have sought to decrease the effect of the drag force to
minimize its impact on the environment and economy. Wall
drag force was first explained in 1904 by Prandtl [2] when he
proved that all friction losses for fluid flow occur within a thin
layer adjacent to a solid boundary. The flow outside this layer
can be considered frictionless, and the velocity near the boundary is affected only by boundary shear. The boundary layer
generates a drag near the wall as a result of the viscous interaction between the surface and the fluid [25]. This drag is typically referred to as skin friction. The drag force is a component
of the resultant force exerted by the fluid over a body and is
oriented toward the comparative motion of the fluid.
Skin friction drag represents a significant component of the
total drag force. It comprises nearly 50 % of the total drag force
on commercial aircraft, 90 % of the total drag force on submarines, and 100 % of the total drag force in long distance pipelines
[68].
Pipeline transportation is one of the most convenient methods of conveying fluids due to its safety and cost efficiency.
Elongated pipeline systems provide the long-distance transport
of water, natural gas, crude oil, and other materials [912].
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[1]
[2]
Turbulent skin friction drag can be reduced by introducing various foreign substances. These include long chain polymers,
surfactants, micro bubbles, powders or tiny solid particles, and
fibers.
Numerous drag reduction studies have been conducted using
polymers as an additive to enhance the flow in pipelines. All
have concluded that minor concentrations of long chain polymers engender drag reductions of over 70 % [1, 2123]. Additionally, several other variables, such as the polymer chain
length, particle size, injection technique, and polymer interaction within the turbulent flow, were considered [5, 2429].
Despite their apparent advantage in reducing drag force, polymer-based DRAs cannot be used in a variety of applications.
For example, in the pharmaceutical and food and beverage
industries, polymer-based DRAs may alter the original characteristics of the fluids [30]. Furthermore, these polymer DRAs
lose their effectiveness with time due to rapid degradation
kinetics at high Reynolds numbers [31, 32].
Surfactant-based DRAs modify the surface properties of
liquids or solids. The majority of surfactants appear to reduce
the turbulent skin friction drag only in the presence of electrolytes. The highest percentage of drag reduction achieved by
Cho et al. [33] was 80 % in a solution containing between 1000
and 2000 ppm at 70 C of stearyl amine oxide and betaine. Surfactant-based DRAs are stable against physical decomposition,
which is an advantage over polymer-based DRAs that break
down when the strain rate is sufficiently high [5, 3337].
Fiber suspensions have long been recognized (earlier than
polymers) as drag reducing agents and were first described
by a small circle of engineers working with paper pulps. The
effectiveness of these fiber suspensions depends on its properties, such as density and concentration. Drag reduction was
found to be possible when the concentration is high enough
for fiber-fiber interactions to occur, but lower than a critical
concentration above which the suspension viscosity is dramatically increased [38]. Early observations of suspensionbased DRAs used suspensions of natural products, such as
sediments and wood fiber. The developments of suspensionbased DRAs were motivated by the need to provide accurate
hydraulic transport criteria. Early attempts to establish the
systematic effects of solids concentration, specific gravity and
duct dimensions were unsuccessful, quite possibly because
the suspended particles were not uniform and did not have
reproducible dimensions and surface texture. Several factors
affect the effectiveness of suspension-based DRAs, including
the type of internal flows (horizontal or vertical), type of fluid (liquid or gas) and the type and size of fibrous or nonfibrous particles [20, 39, 40]. The concentration where the
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maximum drag reduction could be achieved using suspension-based DRAs is 4050 % [20, 41].
In the past decade, comprehensive improvements to the understanding and perception of turbulent boundary layers have
been made. Significant efforts have been devoted to find cheaper and environmentally-friendly alternative methods to reduce
the effects of drag force. Extensive reviews can be found in
Wilkinson et al. [42], Gad-el-Hak [1, 19], Walsh [43], Savill
[44], Raupach et al. [45], Meier et al. [46], Bushnell [47], Fish
and Lauder [48], and Paul et al. [49]. These studies focused on
turbulent drag reduction by passive means. Many techniques
have been proposed that involve mechanically altering flow
control surfaces. The main concept behind this technique is the
manipulation of the boundary layer by energy transfer which is
affected by the natural interaction dynamics of the fluid along
the solid boundary. In other words, the skin friction drag is
simply reduced by self-noise, applying these manipulators with
certain dimensions into the surface will shift away the turbulence structures from the wall, so the drag force will be reduced
by turbulence flow noise. These drag reduction methods do not
involve the use of additives. The passive means can be classified
into two groups based on the local position of the manipulators
relative to the turbulent boundary layer. (i) External layer
manipulators, or outer layer manipulations, where thin plates
are introduced into the external part of the flow, do not efficiently reduce the total drag in the turbulent boundary layers.
A few devices that are categorized as external layer manipulators include outer layer devices (OLDs), boundary layer devices
(BLADEs), large eddy breakup devices (LEBUs) and tandem
arrayed parallel plate manipulators (TAPPMs). (ii) Internal
layer manipulators, or thinner layer manipulators, restructure
the surfaces by altering the wall geometry in the form of small
stream-oriented striations, such as compliant walls, oscillating
walls, dimples and riblets [1, 20, 5053].
Several factors determine the percentage of drag reduction in
both types of manipulators. For the outer layer devices, these
factors include the angle of attack, the chord lengths of the
aerofoil or flat plate devices, the boundary height, the spacing
between tandem configurations, the thickness of the flat plate
device and the thickness of the boundary layer at the leading
edge of the device. For the inner layer manipulators, the height
and spacing between geometric striations are the only factors
that need to be considered in determining the percentage of
drag reduction [20]. Fig. 1 shows two schematics highlighting
these factors.
Most outer layer manipulators follow the same mechanism
as LEBUs, a popular drag reducing mechanism in the 1980s.
However, as shown by Wilkinson et al., LEBUs were not very
efficient at obtaining a definite total drag reduction in turbulent
boundary layers [42]. These devices were designed to break up
large vortices in turbulent flow and inhibit high Reynolds shear
stress near the wall. They consisted of metallic ribbons oriented
in the direction of flow. LEBUs developed substantial down-
a)
b)
Figure 1. Parameters that control the percentage of drag reduction in (a) outer layer manipulators and (b) inner layer manipulators [20].
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reported an 18.0 % drag reduction when using dimpled surfaces (i.e., pin fin-dimple hybrid structures) and Zhong et al. [94]
reported a 15.1 % drag reduction with direct numerical simulations. The reason for this disagreement is the vast difference
between initial fluid conditions, dimple geometry, measurement conditions and evaluation methods. However, there is a
general agreement that drag reduction is achievable with
dimples despite the fact that its heat transfer performance is
better and more obvious. Lienhart et al. [95] introduced a numerical and experimental investigation of the drag reduction
using dimpled surfaces using a channel test rig. They studied
the effect of the dimples design and arrangement on the drag
reduction performance as shown in Fig. 2. They concluded that
using shallow dimples can have good or acceptable improvement in the heat transfer performance without any increase in
the pressure drop. In another words; they concluded that the
dimples designs investigated are not effective when it comes to
the drag reduction and when compared to the heat transfer
performance.
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and Thomas [123] and Savill [106] showed reduced burst freexperimental studies on riblets with turbulent drag reduction
quencies of up to 30 %. Tardu et al. [124] also conducted visuusing several types and shapes of riblets. Since then, a wide
alization studies, which showed that the ejection frequency
variety of interesting studies have emerged and have focused
decreased by 1020 %. Furthermore, Tardu [125] observed that
on five areas: the effect of riblet geometry on drag, the effect of
the riblets shortened the time necessary for the spatio-temporal
heat transfer on wall roughness, the effect of riblet grooves on
development of the instability of low speed streaks in drag
non-Newtonian fluid flow, the effect of riblet grooves on lamireducing configurations. Baron and Quadrio [126] confirmed
nar and transition flows, and simulation analyses and numerithat the duration of the ejections tended to be reduced over the
cal modeling studies of riblets in several applications. Moreriblets and that the reduction compensated for the observed
over, many reviews have been conducted, e.g., Savill [106],
increased burst frequency. Furthermore, they observed that the
Wilkinson et al. [42], Vukoslavcevic et al. [107], Nieuwstadt
ejections tended to be more closely grouped over the riblets.
et al. [108], and Walsh et al. [109, 110].
Bacher and Smith [122] investigated the interactions of the
In 1990, Walsh [43] authored a comprehensive review about
counter rotating longitudinal vortices with the resultant small
the research on drag reduction using riblets on flat-plate turbueddies near the peaks of the riblets. They claimed that the seclent boundary-layer flows. According to Walsh [43], the approondary vortices would act to weaken the longitudinal vortices
priate riblet dimensions for drag reduction vary depending on
and maintain the fluid at low speeds within the grooves.
their shape and the state of the boundary layer in which they
Bechert and his co-authors [112, 121, 127, 128] performed
are placed. Ji-sheng and Heng [111] showed in their study that
theoretical and experimental investigations on triangular, trathe coherent structure of the wall region directly influenced the
pezoidal, blade, semi-circular scalloped, and convex riblets in
production of turbulence energy. The authors concluded that
oil and wind channels. The highest drag reduction percentage
manipulating this structure can reduce the drag force.
was 8.7 % with a riblet spacing of between approximately 2 and
The drag reduction mechanisms of fluid flow over a rib sur10 mm in the oil channel. They focused their investigations on
face are fairly good understood because the structure of turbuthe longitudinal and cross-flow directions. They suggested a
lence flow is at presence well investigated due to numerous themechanism dependent on protrusion heights, where the virtual
oretical, experimental and computational works [112114].
origin of a riblet surface is located at the extrapolation of the
However, it is well known that rib surfaces only rearrange the
streamwise velocity profile. The difference between this origin
turbulence structures near the wall and only influence that
and the riblet peak was defined as the protrusion height for the
localized region near the wall. Additionally, longitudinal ribs
longitudinal flow (hpl). Then, by extrapolation of the spanwise
can develop a lower shear stress flow than a smooth surface
velocity profile, they showed that there was a second protrusion
[43, 115, 116].
height for the cross flow (hpc). The difference in size of these
The influence of riblets on the development and structure of
two heights was dependent on the ratio of height h and spacing
a boundary layer flow is an important research area. Extensive
of the riblets s where the maximum possible difference was
work has been performed by Choi [117], Baron and Quadrio
0.132 s. The theory was based on the hypothesis that the riblets
[118], Park and Wallace [119], and Suzuki and Kasagi [120].
impeded the instantaneous cross-flow in the viscous sublayer,
A grooved surface (riblets) impedes the cross flow or the
which was generated by the turbulent motion, and reduced the
direction of the flow closest to the wall. Therefore, a grooved
momentum and the wall shear stress. The net effect of the
surface prevents random low speed streaks from converging
reduced turbulence intensity was a thickening of the viscous
into an ejection. The riblet protrusion height is an important
sublayer, which translates into a reduction of the wall shear
parameter and is considered to be the offset between the virtual
stress. Fig. 3 shows schematics of the mechanism of fluid flow
origin in the streamwise shear flow and some mean surface
over the longitudinal and cross-flow directions on a ribbed surlocation. Compared with a smooth wall, this offset would result
face.
in a greater separation between the wall and the turbulent
Choi [117] suggested that drag reduction occurs due to the
streamwise vortices, reducing the momentum exchange at the
structural changes in the near-wall boundary layer caused by
wall [121].
the riblets. The authors explained that the riblets would funcSavill [44] suggested that riblets have two drag reducing
tion as small fences to inhibit the lateral turbulence near the
mechanisms. First, riblets shift the turbulence away from the
wall surface. This phenomenon would also limit the lateral
wall, and second, riblets buffer the spacing between the structures to reduce the vicinity of the maximum reduction position. Researchers
a)
b)
have conflicted observations on burst
mechanisms, which plays an important
part in turbulence development [70].
Hooshmand et al. [116] observed an increase in burst frequency and found
that the streamwise velocity was independent of the spanwise position far
away from the surface. However, Walsh
[109] and Bacher and Smith [122]
found no changes due to bursts. VisualFigure 3. (a) Longitudinal and (b) cross-flow on a ribbed surface [112].
ization studies conducted by Gallagher
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a)
b)
Park and Wallace [119] conducted a comprehensive investigation on the spacing between riblets, i.e., V-groove valleys.
They concluded that drag reduction was primarily derived
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from greatly reduced wall shear stresses near the bottom of the
riblet valley. The authors noted that the turbulence intensities
of all three velocity components were reduced in the riblet valleys. The intensities increased over the peaks when the height
was less than the viscous sublayer thickness.
Wang et al. [131] and Ma et al. [132] found in a visualization
study that riblets effectively reduced the number of the low-speed
streaks and suppressed the formation of vortices (i.e., hairpin
vortices, ring vortices and horseshoe vortices) and thereby reduced the frequency and intensity of turbulence bursts.
Boiko et al. [133] conducted an experimental investigation
on the effect of riblets on streaky flows and found that riblets
have the ability to reduce the velocity gradient of streamwise
streaky flows in the boundary layer.
delaying this transition, the dolphin skin reduces drag over its
surface [141].
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Description
Symmetric V-groove
Rectangular
Spaced triangular
Peak curvature
Valley curvature
Peak and valley curvature
Notched peak
Spaced V-groove
Unsymmetrical groove
Oblique V-groove
Nonetheless, several challenges face the development of surface textures and their translation into industrial applications.
No single universal riblets design can be used for all applications due to completely random turbulent regime structures
and fluid to fluid differences of the viscous sublayers and
streamwise vortices. For example, the ideal riblet structure for
gas turbines compressor blades have spacings of 20 to 120 mm
[121, 151153]. Furthermore, the ability to accurately manufacture riblets is another field of study as there are plenty of
techniques that may be used to fabricate micro-grooves
[154, 155]. Other challenges include determining the appropriate material type and optimizing the type of fabrication process, such as rolling, grinding, etching, and laser etching [136].
NASA machined the first riblets in the late 1970s. These riblets were made from aluminum sheets for aeroplane applications. Later in the 1980s, NASA started using vinyl rib films
manufactured by 3M because of its more cost-effective design.
A polyvinylidene fluoride-based thin plastic film with an adhesive backing was used in the manufacture of micro-patterned
riblets by grinding and rolling processes [156158]. 3M vinyl
rib films have been used for many test surfaces and various
applications, such as aerospace surfaces, submerged vehicles,
and pipes and channels [159167]. In addition, one of the
advantages of the 3M vinyl rib film is the flexibility of the thin
plastic sheets film which can be applied in nearly any orientation, except within small pipes or micro channels, which would
need to be split open to apply the 3M vinyl rib films [136].
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Table 2. List of experimental wind studies over flat plates with different types of riblets.
Original authors
Year
Riblet type
Riblet dimensions
Liu [104]
1966
Square
h = 45110
s+ = 190370
3%
1977
Rectangular
h = 60 000 mm
s = 20 000 mm
No drag reduction
1979
V-groove
h+ = 25, s+ = 20
h = 510 mm, s = 250 mm
24 %
Walsh [172]
1983
V-groove
h+ = 10
s+ = 15
8%
1984
V-groove
h+ = 13
s+ = 15
78 %
1987
Triangular
h = 170 mm
s = 250 mm
78 %
Rectangular
h = 215 mm
s = 260 mm
79 %
1988
Rectangular
h+ =8
s+ = 10
8.5 %
Choi [176]
1988
Trapezoidal groove
h+ = 12, s+ = 20
h = 1500 mm, s = 2500 mm, t =
200 mm
4%
1990
V-groove
h+ = 8, s+ = 20
h = 200 mm, s = 500 mm
5%
1991
V-groove
810 %
1993
V-groove
h+ = s+ = 12
h = s = 700 mm
6%
1993
V-groove
h+ = s+ = 13
h = s = 640
5%
1994
V-groove
h+ = 14
s+ = 28
4%
1995
V-groove
s+ = 1215, a = 53
h = 140 mm, s = 320 mm
89 %
1997
V-groove
h = s = 730 1830 mm
6%
2000
Trapezoidal groove
6.85 %
s = 16, a = 45
2001
Semi-circular
s = 25.2
Drag decrease
2007
Trapezoidal groove
h = 150 mm
s = 2h
25 %
2008
V-groove
s+ =10.4
(h = 178.6 mm s = 300 mm)
4%
2010
Trapezoidal groove
h = 150 mm
s = 2h
25 %
stream sweep angle. To improve the riblet drag reduction performance, three rib geometries were tested: a peak curvature, a
valley curvature, and a notched peak V-groove. The results
showed that the maximum drag reduction was 8 % for a
V-groove geometry with a valley curvature and a V-groove
geometry with sharp peaks and valleys with h+ = 812 and
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200 mm and 500 mm, respectively. Net drag reductions were calculated using momentum thicknesses at the beginning and the
end of both the rib and smooth plates under the same flow
conditions. The highest percentage of drag reduction, 5 %, was
obtained for a free stream velocity of 16 m s1.
Baron and Quadrio [118] performed experiments in a low
speed wind tunnel with triangular grooves of 700 mm height and
700 mm spacing, i.e., h+ = 12 and s+ = 12 wall units. By testing the
velocity profile over the surface, the main velocity profile showed
an upward movement when plotted in the law of the wall structure. This is a well-known characteristic of drag reduction systems and is directly related to an increase in the thickness of the
viscous sublayer. A similar behavior was reported by Choi [117],
in which the author stated that the drag reducing effectiveness of
riblets was not due to only a purely viscous effect, but likely
due also to a direct interaction with the turbulence-producing
structures of the turbulent boundary layer.
The effectiveness of riblets on skin friction drag reduction
under the influence of both zero-pressure and adverse pressure gradients was investigated by Nieuwstadt et al. [108].
Their experiments were conducted using two triangular riblets having the same hight h and space s dimensions (640
and 360 mm). It was found that the maximum skin friction
reduction was 5 % at s+ = 13 with a zero pressure gradient.
However, with an adverse pressure gradient, the results
showed a decrease in the total drag, which indicates there
was no significant difference.
To study the characteristics and effect of the flatness factor on
ribbed surfaces, Park and Wallace [119] measured the streamwise
velocity profiles over a V-groove riblet with dimensions h+ = 14
and s+ = 28 using a hot-wire probe. The results showed that the
maximum drag reduction was 4 % compared with that on a
smooth surface. Grooved riblets reduced the vertical flux of a
streamwise flow momentum within the riblet valleys. In addition, there remains a small probability of a negative axial flow velocity component within the valleys. The vertical flux of streamwise momentum was greatly reduced within the riblet, even for a
dimensionless size somewhat above the drag-reducing range.
Gudilin et al. [54] used a surface with isosceles ribs having a
vertex angle 53, a rib height h = 140 mm, and a distance
between vertices s = 320 mm. The maximum drag reduction for
the ribbed surface was 89 %.
Choi and Orchard [177] studied the effect of riblets on heat
transfer and drag reduction on the lower wall of a flat plate in a
low speed wind tunnel. A triangular riblet with dimensions
s/h = 1 and s = 183 mm was tested. The results showed an
increase of 10 % in the heat transfer coefficient relative to that
of a smooth surface. Also, a 6 % increase in drag reduction was
observed, compared with a smooth wall.
Bechert et al. [128] found that a turbulent boundary layer on
a shark skin surface can help to reduce turbulent shear stress.
The authors duplicated shark skin using three dimensional
trapezoidal riblets to cover 64 % of the surface area of a
400 mm 500 mm test plate. In their study, the highest drag
reduction of 6.85 % was observed at s+ = 16 and a fin height of
h = 0.5 s.
Lee and Lee [7] analyzed the flow field of a turbulent boundary layer inside a semi-circular riblet valley using a smokewire technique for flow visualization and a PIV for velocity
10
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11
Table 3. List of experimental studies conducted in water on flat plates with different types of riblets.
Original authors
Year
Riblet type
Riblet dimensions
+
1984
V-groove
h = 15
h = s = 1650 mm
No drag reduction
1986
V-groove
h+ = s+ = 15
Drag decrease
Reidy [160]
Reidy and Anderson [186]
1987
1988
V-groove
s = 13.1
h = s = 76.2 mm
8.1 %
1989
V-groove
h+ = s+ = 15
s = h = 2000 mm
4%
1989
Triangular
h = 2500 mm
10.6 %
Walsh [183]
1990
V-groove
h = 35.56 mm
s = 40.89 mm
6%
Liu [187]
1990
V-groove
s+ = 13
7%
1991
Triangular
h = s = 1015
h = s = 152 mm
13 %
1992
V-groove
h+ = s+ = 12.2
h = s = 72.6 mm
9%
1999
V-groove
h/s = 0.221
6.83 %
2000
Trapezoidal grooves
h = 1000 mm
s = 2000 mm
2012
V-groove
h = 254 mm
h/s = 0.3,0.5,0.7
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Figure 10. Direct drag data for the V-groove ribbed, with riblet
surface 1 (h/s = 0.22, h = 0.25 mm) and riblets surface 2 (h/s = 1,
h = 0.5 mm) [185].
12
In this section, the literature that studied the effects of combining riblets with active means on reducing the drag force is summarized. Reidy and Anderson[159], as mentioned earlier, conducted investigations over a flat plate system and in a pipeline
system with smooth and ribbed surfaces. They also studied the
effect of adding 2 wppm of polyacrylamide to the water flow
over the ribbed surface in the pipeline system. The resultant
maximum drag reduction was 28 %, which is approximately
equal to the sum of the drag reductions of the two techniques
used separately. Rohr et al. [192] conducted experimental studies at low Reynolds numbers with 2.5, 10 and 40 wppm solutions of polyethyleneoxide on smooth and ribbed surfaces in a
pipe. 3M V-groove riblets with dimensions h = s = 76 mm were
used in a 12.7 mm pipe. The riblets had no observable effect on
the polymer solutions, as the calculated drag for the combined
system was the same as the drag reduction ratio of the polymer
solution alone.
Christodoulou et al. [193] investigated the effects of the
combined systems of V-groove riblets with dimensions of
h = s = 110 mm and 250 wppm of Polyox 301 or polyacrylamide in a 25.4 mm pipe. At low concentrations of either polymer, i.e., 210 wppm, and with h+ < 10, the maximum drag
reduction achieved was 4 %. Anderson et al. [165] conducted
an experiment at low polymer concentrations over ribbed
surfaces in turbulent pipe flow. Polyox 301 (at 2, 4, and
8 wppm) and guar gum (at 100 wppm) solutions with
V-groove riblets heights (4 < h+ < 90) were used in this study.
It was found that at low concentrations of polymers, 57 %
drag reduction was observed for a riblet dimension of h+ = 12.
Bewersdorff and Thiel [194] investigated the friction behavior of diluted polymer and surfactant-based DRAs in a smooth
pipe and two rough pipes, with k and d-type roughness. The
surfactant solution exhibited a drag reduction in the smooth
and rough pipes; the polymer and surfactant solutions had no
influence on the roughness of the solutions.
Koury and Virk [195] used aqueous solutions of a polyethyleneoxide polymer (3 to 100 wppm) as a drag reducing agent
with 150 mm wide V-groove riblets in a pipe at Reynolds numbers of 300 to 150 000. It was found that the drag reduction in
the ribbed pipe was 1.6-factors higher than that of smooth
pipes when using 3 wppm polyethyleneoxide polymer. They
observed that with an increasing polymer concentration, the
drag reduction by the riblets decreased to 0.8 for smooth pipes
Table 4. List of experimental studies conducted in oil on flat plates with different types of riblets.
Original authors
Year
Riblet type
Riblet dimensions
1997
Blade riblets
h = 0.5 s
9.9 %
2000
Trapezoidal 3D-riblets
s = 16
h/s = 0.85
7.3 %
2011
Trapezoidal groove
h+ = 8.5
s+ = 17
7.6 %
2011
Blade riblets
s+ = 20.5
4.9 %
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13
Conclusion
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Acknowledgment
This work was supported financially by the University Malaysia
Pahang (UMP) through the Fundamental Research Grant.
14
Symbols used
h
h+
hpc
hpl
s
s+
[mm]
[]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[]
riblet height
non-dimensional riblet height
height for the cross flow
height for the longitudinal flow
riblet spacing
non-dimensional riblet spacing
Abbreviations
BLAD
DRA
LEBU
OLD
PIV
TAPPM
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