ENGINEERING STUDENT COUNCIL

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

General Chemistry

1st Term Prelims Reviewer AY1516

Unit 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

I. Chemistry and Overview
Chemistry the study of matter, its composition and properties, the changes that matter undergoes, and the energy
associated with these changes.
MAIN CHALLENGE OF CHEMISTRY: To understand the connection between the macroscopic world that we experience
and the microscopic world of atoms and molecules.
A. Reaction of hydrogen and oxygen
1. Two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water
2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O
2. Decomposition of water
2H2O -> 2H2 + O2
3. Hydrogen and Oxygen are chemical elements that exist naturally as diatomic (two-atom) molecule.
B. Problem Solving in Chemistry (and life)
1. Making observations (collecting data)
2. Suggesting a possible explanation (formulating a hypothesis)
3. Doing experiments to test the possible explanation (testing the hypothesis)
II. The Scientific Method
Science is also a plan of action or a procedure for processing and understanding certain types of information. This
procedure is called the SCIENTIFIC METHOD.
Scientific Method process that lies at the center of scientific inquiry
A. General Framework/Steps in Scientific Method
1. Making Observations
Two Types of observation:
a. Qualitative observation based on physical appearance or what is seen by the naked eye; any observation
that does not involve a number
b. Quantitative can also be called a measurement, involves both a number and a unit.
2. Formulating hypothesis. Hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation, or an intelligent guess or
solution to the problem observed.
3. Performing experiments. Experiments are done to test a hypothesis. Scientists are able to gather new data that
would help validate the hypothesis. Experiments always produce new observations.
B. Scientific Models
Theory often called a model, is a set of tested hypothesis that gives an overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.
Difference between Observation, Theory, and Natural Law
Observation
Theory
- Something that is witness and can - an INTERPRETATION - a possible
be recorded
explanation of why nature behaves
in an particular way
- possible to change as more
information becomes available
- educated guess
- explanation of behavior; attempt
to explain why it happens

Natural Law
- statement formulated from a
generally observed behavior
- summary of observed
(measurable) behavior; a summary
of what happens

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C. Units of Measurement
Measurement a quantitative observation that has two parts: a number and a scale (called a unit). "The number
without the units is worthless!"
1. Two major systems:
a. English system used in US
b. Metric system used by most countries
2. SI system - International System (le Systme International in French); This system is based on the metric system and
units derived from the metric system.
The Fundamental SI Units

3. SI Prefixes
The Prefixes used in the SI system

4. Mass vs. weight

a. Mass - is a measure of the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion.
b. Weight the force that gravity exerts on an object to measure its mass
weight = (mass)(gravitational constant)

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D. Uncertainty in Measurements
1. Recording Measurements (Significant figures)
a. Record all digits that are certain this are the digits that remains the same regardless o who makes the
measurement.
b. Record the first digit that is uncertain (all measurements have some degree of uncertainty)
c. Uncertainty in the last number (estimated number) is 1, unless otherwise noted
2. Accuracy - The agreement of a particular value with the accepted value
3. Precision - The degree of agreement among several measurements made in the same way; refers to the
reproducibility of a given type of measurement
"You can be precise, but not accurate. If you are accurate, you are necessarily precise."

(a) neither accurate or precise (b) precise but not accurate (c) Both accurate and precise
4. Errors
a. Random Errors (indeterminate errors) - Measurements may be high or low; occurs due to 1) Interpretation of the
uncertain digit, and 2) Procedural ineptness
b. Systematic Errors - Always occur in the same direction, always high or always low; caused by poor measurement
calibration
E. Significant Figures and Calculations
1. Rules for Counting Significant Figures
Number
Rule
Example
Nonzero integers
Always significant
6.43 m (3 sig. figs.)
Leading zeroes
Never significant
0.00643 (3 sig. figs.)
Captive zeroes
Always significant
6.0043 (5 sig. figs.)
Trailing zeroes
Significant if after a decimal 63400 (3 sig figs)
point
0.63400 (5 sig figs)
Scientific notation
All digits are significant
6.3400 x 106 (5 sig figs)
2. Multiplication and Division - Keep as many sig figs in your answer as are in the piece of data with the least number
of sig figs
2.37 cm x 15.67 cm x 7.4 cm = 274.82046
(keep two sig figs) = 2.7 x 102 cm3
3. Addition and Subtraction - Keep the same number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement in your calculation
34.039 m + 0.24 m + 1.332 m + 12.7 m = 48.311 m
(keep one decimal place) = 48.3 m
4. Rules for Rounding
a. Round at the end of a series of calculations, NOT after each step
b. Use only the first number to the right of the last sig fig to decide whether or not to round
i. Less than 5, the last significant digit is unchanged
ii. 5 or more, the last significant digit is increased by 1

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F. Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis or unit factor method best way to convert units, you arrive in your answer thru cancellation of
units
EXAMPLE: Consider a pin measuring 2.85 centimeters in length. What is its length in inches?

1. Unit Conversions Questions

a. What units am I given?
b. What units must be in my answer?
c. What is conversion factor?
2. Full credit can never be given for working a problem in which you do not do all of the following:
a. Observe significant figures rules
b. Label all steps of your work with the correct units
c. Correctly label and identify your answer
d. Solve the problem in a manner that can be understood by the reader.
3. Conversion Factors

G. Temperature
1. Three systems of measuring temperature:
a. Celsius scale used in physical sciences
b. Kelvin scale also used in physical sciences
c. Fahrenheit scale used in engineering sciences
2. Unit of temperature = DEGREE
3. Conversion
a. Celsius (C) and Kelvin (K)
Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15
Celsius = Kelvin - 273.15
b. Fahrenheit

TC = (TF - 32F)x (

T F = TC x (

)+ 32F

*Celsius and Fahrenheit is equal at -40o

EXAMPLE
If a normal body temperature is 98.6oF, what is the normal body temperature in Kelvin?
Soln: There is no direct conversion from Fahrenheit to Kelvin, you must convert oF to oC first.
5

TC = (98.g - 32F)x (

) = 37oC

Kelvin = 37 + 273.15 = 310.15oF

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H. Density
Density the mass(m) of substance per unit volume(v) of the substance

D=

EXAMPLE
Calculate the density of a substance if 643 grams of it occupies 87.3 cm3

D=

643

87.3 3

= .

I. Classification of Matter
1. Matter - Anything that occupies space and has mass
2. States of Matter
a. Solids - rigid, fixed volume and shape
b. Liquids - definite volume, no specific shape
c. Gases - no fixed volume or shape, highly compressible
3. Mixtures - Matter of variable composition
a. Heterogeneous mixtures - Having visibly distinguishable parts
b. Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) - Having visibly indistinguishable parts
4. Components of Mixtures can be Separated by Physical Means
a. Distillation
b. Filtration
c. Chromatography
5. Pure substances
a. Elements - Cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by physical or chemical means
b. Compounds - Constant composition; Can be broken into simpler substances by chemical means, not by physical
means

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J. Fundamental Chemical Laws
LAW
Law of
Conservation of
Mass

Statement
Mass is neither created
nor destroyed. (in a
chemical reaction)

Translation
In ordinary chemical
reactions, the total mass of
the reactants is equal to the
total mass of the products

Proponent
Antoine Lavoisier, French
chemist; Father of
modern chemistry,
regarded measurement
as the essential operation
of chemistry

Law of Definite
Proportion

A given compound
always contains exactly
the same proportion of
elements by mass.
When two elements form
a series of compounds,
the ratios of the masses
of the second element
that combine with 1
gram of the first element
can always be reduced to
small whole numbers.

Compounds have an
unchanging chemical
formula

Joseph Proust, French

chemist

Sometimes two elements

can come together in more
than one way, forming
compounds with similar,
though not identical
formulas

John Dalton; English

school teacher

Law of Multiple
Proportions

K. Daltons Atomic Theory

- published by Dalton in 1808, A New System of Chemical Philosophy
Daltons Atomic Theory
1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some
fundamental way or ways.
3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other. A
given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atomschanges in the way they are bound
together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.
Atomic Masses - atomic weights where mass is often determined by comparison to a standard mass a process called
weighing
Avogadros Hypothesis - At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same
number of particles.
L. Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
1. The Electron and J.J Thomson
J.J Thomson English physicist, studied electrical dischargers in partially evacuated tubes called cathode-ray tubes (the
ray comes out from the negative electrode or cathode). Thomson proposed that the ray was a stream of negatively
charged particles, now called electrons.
a. Determined the charge to mass ratio of the electron

= 1.76 108 / where e = charge of electron in Coulumbs (C)

m = electron mass in grams

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b. Reasoned that all atoms must contain electrons
c. Reasoned that all atoms must contain positive charges
d. plum pudding model - model that Thomson proposed in which an atom consisted of a diffuse cloud and positive
charge with the negative electrons embedded randomly in it like raisins (electrons) dispersed in a pudding (the positive
charge cloud)
2. Robert Millikan and the Oil Drop
a. Oil drop experiments determined the charge on an electron
b. With charge information, and Thomson's charge/mass ratio, he determined the mass of an electron (9.11x10-31kg)
3. Radioactivity
a. in 19th century, scientists discovered that certain elements produce high-energy radiation
b. Henri Becquerel In 1896, he discovered accidentally that a piece of mineral containing uranium could produce its
image on a photographic plate in the absence of light and called this phenomenon (the spontaneous emission of radiation
by uranium) as radioactivity.
c. Three Types of radioactive emission:
1. Gamma () rays - high energy light
2. Beta () particles - high speed electrons
3. Alpha () particles - nuclear particle with a 2+ charge, a charge twice that of the electron and with the opposite
sign; mass of an particle is 7300 times that of the electron
4. The Nuclear Atom
a. Ernest Rutherford's Metal Foil Experiment
1. Most alpha particles pass straight through thin metal foil because the atom in mostly open space.
2. Some particles were greatly deflected ("like a howitzer shell bouncing off of a piece of paper")
i. Could not have been deflected by electrons or single protons
ii. Must have been deflected by a positively charged object of substantial mass
3. Disproved Thomson's "plum pudding" model
b. Nuclear atom an atom with a dense center of positive charge (the nucleus) with electrons moving around the
nucleus at a distance that is large relative to the nuclear radius.

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M. The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
1. Atomic Structure - it consists of a tiny nucleus (with a diameter of about 10-13 cm) and electrons that move about the
nucleus at an average distance of about 10-8 cm from it.
2. Nucleus one of the components of an atom and is small in size (D =10-13 cm) compared to the overall size of an
atom; extremely high density; It accounts for almost all the atoms mass
COMPONENTS: a. Protons POSITIVE CHARGE, equal in magnitude to the electrons negative charge
b. Neutrons virtually the same mass as a proton but has NO CHARGE
3. Electron NEGATIVE CHARGE; constitute most of the atomic volume
a. The number and the arrangement of electrons causes different atoms to have different chemical properties
b. the number of electrons possessed by a given atom greatly affects its ability to interact with other atoms
Particle
Mass
Charge
Electron
9.109 x 10-31 kg
- 1.60 x 10-19 C
Proton
1.673 x 10-27 kg
+ 1.60 x 10-19 C
Neutron
1.675 x 10-27 kg
None
4. Mass and Atomic Number
a. Atoms has no net charge, so NUMBER OF PROTONS = NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
b. Atomic Number, Z number of protons
c. Mass Number, A the total number of protons and neutrons
d. isotopes - atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; most elements contain
mixtures of isotopes
Mass Number

Atomic Number

EXAMPLE
Atomic Number
Mass Number
No. of Proton No. of Electron No. of Neutron
Z
A
=Z
=Z
=A-Z

79
34

34

79

34

34

45

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Unit 2: ATOMIC STURCTURE AND PERIODICITY

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
1. De Broigles Matter-wave electron bound to an atom behave both as a particle and a wave.
2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle - It is impossible for us to know simultaneously the exact momentum and the exact
position of a particle in space. The more precisely the position of the particle is measured or determined, the less precisely
its momentum can be known, and vice versa.
3. Schrodingers Equation
= E
Where, = wave function, a function of the coordinates of electrons position in three-dimensional space. A specific wave
function is called an orbital.
= operator, set of mathematical terms that produce the total energy of the atom when they are applied to the
wave function.
E = the total energy of the atom (the sum of the potential energy due to the attraction between the proton and
electron and the kinetic energy of the moving electron)
4. Quantum (wave) mechanical model
a. 1s orbital - wave function corresponding to the lowest energy for the hydrogen atom
b. We do not know how the electrons are moving.
c. 2 = the probability of finding an electron near a particular point in space. The square of the wave function is most
conveniently represented as a probability distribution (electron density map; electron density and electron probability), in
which the intensity of color is used to indicate the probability value near a given point in space; the darkness of a point
indicates the probability of finding an electron at that position

Fig _. The probability distribution for the hydrogen 1s orbital in three-dimensional space
d. radical probability distribution When the total probability of fi nding the electron in each spherical shell is plotted
versus the distance from the nucleus
e. For the hydrogen 1s orbital, the maximum radial probability (the distance at which the electron is most likely to be
found) occurs at a distance of 5.29 x 10-2 nm or 0.529 from the nucleus.
i. 1 = 10-10 m; the angstrom is most often used as the unit for atomic radius because of its convenient size. Another
convenient unit is the picometer: 1 pm = 10-12 m
A. Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers characterizes the orbitals
1. Principal quantum number (n) = SIZE ANF ENERGY OF THE ORBITAL
Represented by: POSITIVE INTERGRAL VALUES 1, 2, 3,
As n increases, the orbital becomes larger and the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus. An increase in
n also means higher energy, because the electron is less tightly bound to the nucleus, and the energy is less negative.
2. Angular momentum quantum number (l) = SHAPE OF ATOMIC ORBITAS, sometimes called as a subshell)
Represented by: INTERGRAL VALUES from 0 to n-1 for each value of n
Values of l
0
1
2
3
4
Letters Used
s
p
d
f
g
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml) = ORIENTATION OF THE ORBITAL IN SPACE RELATIVE TO OTHER ORBITALS
Represented by: INTERGRAL VALUES from l to l, including 0

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EXAMPLE
PRINCIPAL,
n
n =1,2,3,
1
2
3

ANGULAR
MOMEMTUM, l

CORRESPONDING
LETTER of l

l = 0 to n-1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3

s
s
p
s
p
d
s
p
d
f

SUBLEVEL DESIGNATION

MAGNETIC, ml

*combination of n and
corresponding letter
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4f
4d
4f

ml = l to l
0
0
-1, 0, +1
0
-1, 0, 1
-2, -1, 0, 1, 2
0
-1, 0, 1
-2, -1, 0, 1, 2
-3.-2, -1, 0,1, 2, 3

NUMBER OF
ORBITALS
*just count the
number of ml
1
1
3
1
3
5
1
3
5
7

B. Orbital Shapes and Energies

Orbitals - areas of probability for locating electrons
Nodal surfaces, or nodes - orbitals contain areas of high probability separated by areas of zero probability. The number of
nodes increases as n increases
1. s Orbital SPHERICAL SHAPE

Fig _. Representation of 1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals

2. p Orbital two lobes separated by a node at the nucleus; Each orbital lies along an axis (2px, 2py, 2pz); Occur in levels
n=2 and greater

Fig _. The electron probability distribution for a 2p orbital.

3. d Orbitals - Occur in levels n=3 and greater
Two fundamental shapes:
a. Four orbitals with four lobes each, centered in the plane indicated in the orbital label (dxz, dyz, dxy, and dx2-y2)
b. Fifth orbital is uniquely shaped - two lobes along the z axis and a belt centered in the xy plane (dz2)

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a)
b)
Fig _. The boundary surfaces of all five 3d orbitals
4. f Orbitals - Occur in levels n=4 and greater; Highly complex shapes; Not involved in bonding in most compounds

Fig _. Representation of the 4f orbitals in terms of their boundary surfaces

5. Orbital Energies
a. All orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy - "degenerate orbitals"
b. The lowest energy state is called the "ground state"
c. When the atom absorbs energy, electrons may move to higher energy orbitals - "excited state"
C. Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle
1. Electron spin quantum number (ms) = MAGNETIC properties of the atom
Represented by: + (up) or (down) only
- means that the electron can spin in one of two opposite directions
a. concept of electron spin - developed by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck, University of Leyden in the
Netherlands; a spinning charge produces a magnetic moment, it seemed reasonable to assume that the electron could
have two spin states, thus producing the two oppositely directed magnetic moments
2. Pauli exclusion principle - postulate of Wolfgang Pauli:
In a given atom no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms).
a. since only two values of ms are allowed, an orbital can hold only two electrons, and they must have opposite spins.

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D. The History of Periodic Table
The periodic table was originally constructed to represent the patterns observed in the chemical properties of the
elements.
1. Johann Dobereiner (1780 1849) - found several groups of three elements that have similar properties, triads
e.g. chlorine, bromine, and iodine
2. John Newlands English elements, in 1864 suggested that elements should be arranged in octaves, based on the idea
that certain properties seemed to repeat for every eighth element in a way similar to the musical scale, which repeats for
every eighth tone.
3. Julius Lothar Meyer (1830 1895) German chemist; one of the chemists (other is Mendeleev) which conceived the
present form of the periodic table
4. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834 1907) Russian chemist; arranged the elements according to their atomic
masses.
a. In 1872 when Mendeleev first published his table, the elements gallium, scandium, and germanium (which
Mendeleev called ekasilicon) were unknown but there were gaps in his table which was later filled by the elements.
5. The only fundamental difference between this table and that of Mendeleev is that it lists the elements in order by
atomic number rather than by atomic mass.
E. The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table
Electron Configuration - describes how electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an atom
2 # of e- in sub level
ENERGY LEVEL 1s
(n, principal quantum number)
Sub level (s,p,d,f)
Electron Configuration Chart

1. Aufbau Principle As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons are similarly
added to these hydrogen-like orbitals.
a. orbital diagram graphic representation of elements configuration; an arrow represents an electron spinning in a
particular direction.
2. Hunds Rule - The lowest energy confi guration for an atom is the one having the maximum number of unpaired
electrons allowed by the Pauli principle in a particular set of degenerate orbitals.

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3. Valance electrons - the electrons in the outermost principal quantum level of an atom; it is important because they
are involved in bonding
a. The elements in the same group (vertical column of the periodic table) have the same valence electron
configuration. Elements with the same valence electron configuration show similar chemical behavior.
b. s-block = Group 1A and 1B; p-block = Group 3A 8A; d-block = transition metals; f-block = Lanthanide and Actinide
series
c. Main/Representative elements Group IA to VIIA = the total number of valence electrons for the atoms in these
groups, ns np ; member of these groups has the same valence electron configuration.
2

4. Core electrons inner electrons of atoms

Para mas malinaw:

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EXAMPLE
Element
S
Mn
Kr
Mg
(TRY!)

Atomic
No.

Last
configuration

ml

ms

Period

Group

16
25
36

3p4
3d5
4p6

3
3
4

1
2
1

-1
2
1

-1/2
+1/2
-1/2

3
4
4

6A
7B
8A

No. of
valance
e6
2
0

Classification
non-metal
metal
non-metal

ans. 12, 3s1, 3, 0, 0, -1/2, 3, 2A, 2, metal

F. Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties

1. Ionization Energy - the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
a. Ionization energy increases for successive electrons
b. Ionization energy tends to increase across a period
i. electrons in the same quantum level do not shield as effectively as electrons in inner levels
ii. irregularities at half-filled and filled sublevels due to extra repulsion of electrons paired in orbitals, making them
easier to remove
b. Ionization energy decreases with increasing atomic number within a group
i. electrons farther from the nucleus are easier to remove
2. Electron Affinity - the energy change associated with the addition of an electron; measures the ease of an atom to
accept an electron
a. Affinity tends to increase across a period
b. Affinity tends to decrease as you go down in a period
i. electrons farther from the nucleus experience less nuclear attraction
ii. Some irregularities due to repulsive forces in the relatively small p orbitals
3. Atomic Radius distance between atoms in chemical compounds
a. determined by measuring half of the distance between radii in a covalently bonded diatomic molecule (covalent
atomic radii) or in metal atoms (metallic radii)
b. Radius decreases across a period because of increased effective nuclear charge due to
decreased shielding
c. Radius increases down a group due to addition of principal quantum levels
4. Electronegativity - a chemical property describing an atom's ability to attract and bind with electrons
a. From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases. If the valence shell of an atom is less than
half full, it requires less energy to lose an electron than to gain one.
b. From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases. This is because atomic number increases down a
group, and thus there is an increased distance between the valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.
5. Metallic Character - how readily an atom can lose an electron
a. From right to left across a period, metallic character increases because the attraction between valence electron
and the nucleus is weaker, enabling an easier loss of electrons.
b. Metallic character increases as you move down a group because the atomic size is increasing. When the atomic
size increases, the outer shells are farther away.

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SUMMARY:
Trend
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
Atomic Radius
Metallic Character

Left to Right,
Across the period
Increasing
Increasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Decreasing

Down to Up,
Up the period
Increasing
Increasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Decreasing

Increasing: Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity

Decreasing: Atomic Radius, Metallic Character
Increasing:
Ionization Energy,
Electron Affinity
Decreasing: Atomic
Radius, Metallic
Character

EXAMPLE
1. Which is more electronegative, Fluorine or Sodium? ANS. Fluorine
2. Arrange the ff. elements by increasing atomic radius, Antimony, Nickel, Barium, Palladium, and Xenon?
ANS. Xenon, Antimony, Nickel, Palladium, Barium
3. Which has the lowest ionization energy among Helium, Yttrium, and Cobalt? ANS. Yttrium

Unit 3: GENERAL CONCEPTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING

A. Types of Chemical Bonds
Chemical bond - forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as a unit; A bond will form if the
energy of the aggregate is lower than that of the separated atoms.
Bond energy the energy required to break the bond
1. Ionic Bonding (electron-transfer)- Ionic substances are formed when an atom that loses electrons relatively easily
reacts with an atom that has a high affinity for electrons.
a. Electrons are TRANSFERRED
b. Happens when metals react with nonmetals which results to an ionic compound
2. Coulombs Law calculates the energy of interaction between a pair of ions

= (2.31 1019 )( 1 2 )

where E = energy, J
r = distance between the ion centers, nm
Q1, Q2 = numerical ion charges.
a. If the answer is negative (-), it indicates an attractive force; The ion pair has lower energy than the separated ions.
b. can be used to calculate the repulsive energy when two like charged ions are brought together; this will a POSITIVE
sign.
3. Bond length - the distance at which the system has minimum energy.
a. For proton-electron, Attractive forces work

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b. For electron-electron/proton-proton, Repulsive force work
c. Energy is given off (bond energy) when two atoms achieve greater stability together than apart
4. Covalent Bonding (electron-sharing) - electrons are shared by nuclei; two identical atoms share electrons equally. The
bonding results from the mutual attraction of the two nuclei for the shared electrons.
a. polar covalent bonding - the atoms are not so different that electrons are completely transferred but are different
enough that unequal sharing result
b. non-polar covalent bonding - Electrons are shared evenly
c. bond polarity - development of the partial positive (+) and negative (-) charges on the atoms
B. Electronegativity
Electronegativity - the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
1. Linus Pauling American scientist, developed the most widely accepted method for determining values of
electronegativity
The difference () between the actual (measured) and expected bond energies:
= (H X)act (H X)exp
a. If H and X are identical atoms (having same electronegativity), the difference () is ZERO. The electrons in the bond
are shared equally, and no polarity develops.
b. if X has a greater electronegativity than H, the shared electron(s) will tend to be closer to the X atom
c. The greater is the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms; the greater is the ionic component of the bond
and the greater is the value of . Thus the relative electronegativity of H and X can be assigned from the values.
Identical Atoms
ZERO electronegativity difference
Electrons shared equally
Different atoms
Noticeable electronegativity difference Electron transfer occur

C. Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

1. Dipole Molecules molecules that said to have a dipole moment
a. Dipole moment - when a molecule has a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge
- has a partial positive end and partial negative end
- any diatomic (two-atom) molecule that has a polar bond and polyatomic molecules can exhibit
dipolar behavior
b. Representation of charge distribution
i. Arrow and tail the arrow pointing to the negative charge center and the tail indicating the positive charge center

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ii. Electrostatic potential diagram Variation in charge distribution is represented by colors of visible light. Red
indicates the most electron-rich region (negative) of the molecule and blue indicates the most electron-poor region
(positive).

EXAMPLE
No Dipole Moment CO2

With Dipole Moment H2O

TYPES OF MOLECULES WITH POLAR BONDS BUT NO RESULTIONG DIPOLE MOMENT

D. Ions: Electron Configuration and Size

1. Bonding and Noble Gas Electron Configurations
a. Ionic bonds - Electrons are transferred until each species attains a noble gas electron configuration
b. Covalent bonds - Electrons are shared in order to complete the valence configurations of both atoms
2. Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds usually referring to the solid state of that compound since at solid state, ions are close together
a. To predict the formula of the ionic compound, we simply recognize that chemical compounds are always electrically
neutralthey have the same quantities of positive and negative charges.
CaO

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Common Ions with Noble Gas Configuration in Ionic Compounds
Group 1A
Group 2A Group 3A Group 6A Group 7A
Electron Configuration (of Noble gas
the ions would like to achieve
= lose 1 e
= lose 2 e
= lose 3 e
= gain 2 e = gain 1 e
H-, Li+
Be2+
[He]
+
2+
3+
2Na
Mg
Al
O
F
[Ne]
K+
Ca2+
S2Cl[Ar]
+
2+
2Rb
Sr
Se
Br
[Kr]
Cs+
Ba2+
Te2I[Xe]
b. Take note of this rule: Ions generally adopt noble gas electron configurations in ionic compounds.
c. Formulas for compounds are balanced so that the total positive ionic charge is equal to the total negative ionic
charge
Ex. 2+3 32 Total positive = +6; Total Negative = -6
3. Sizes of Ions
a. Anions are larger than the parent atom
b. Cations are smaller than the parent atom
c. Ion size increases within a family
d. Isoelectronic ions
i. Ions with the same number of electrons
ii. Size decreases as the nuclear charge Z increases
E. Lewis Structures
1. Lewis Structure of molecules show how the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in the molecule
2. Most important requirement for the formation of a stable compound is that the atoms achieve noble gas electron
configurations.
3. In writing Lewis structures, only the valence electrons are included. Use dots to represent the electrons
4. Duet rule - Hydrogen, lithium, beryllium, and boron form stable molecules when they share two electrons (helium
configuration)
5. Octet rule - Elements (carbon and beyond) form stable molecules when they are surrounded by eight electrons (noble
gas configuration)
EX. F2 molecules

Determine the number of a) Bonding pair = 1 (pertains to the molecules shared electrons)
b) Lone pair/s = 3 (pertain to electrons not involved in bonding)
5. Writing Lewis Structures
a. Add up the TOTAL number of valence electrons from all atoms
b. Determine the central atom.
*Tip: Kapag may carbon ung compound na pinapadrawing, kadalasan un ung central atom. Or minsa ung element na
may pinakamadaming bonds ka na maiikakabit
c. Use a pair of electrons to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms. Lines are used to indicate each pair of
bonding electrons. Dots are used to represent lone pairs
*mas maganda siguro kung gawa ka muna ng single bonds, tpos kapag may mga kulang tsk aka magadd ng double
bond
d. Arrange the remaining atoms to satisfy the duet rule for hydrogen and the octet rule for the second row elements

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*always double check your structure, count the number of electron of your structure (for each bond, 2e - and for each
dot, 1e-) and make it sure it is equal to the calculated total number of valence

EXAMPLE
Draw the Lewis structure of HNO3
(a) Determine the number of valence electron:
H: 1 x 1e- = 1
N: 1 x 5e- = 5
O: 3 x 6e- = 18
24e(b) Determine number of electron to achieve octet/duet rule:
H: 1 x2- = 2
N: 1 x 8e- = 8
O: 3 x 8e- = 24
34e(c) Number of bonding electrons: No. of octet e-- - No of valance = 34 24 = 10e(d) Number of bonds: No. of bonding e-/2 = 10/2 = 5 bonds
(e) Nonbonding e-: No. of valence e- - No. of bonding e-- = 24 10 = 14eyou can now construct the structure:
O=NOH

ONOH
O
(resonance could
O
occur thru e delocalization)
F. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
1. Boron Trifluoride
a. Note that boron only has six electrons around it; total of 24e=
b. BF3 is electron deficient and acts as a Lewis acid (electron pair acceptor)
c. Boron often forms molecules that obey the octet rule
2. Sulfur Hexafluoride
a. Note that sulfur has 12 electrons around it, exeeding the octet rule
b. Sulfur hexafluoride is very stable
c. SF6 fills the 3s and 3p orbitals with 8 of the valence electrons, and places the other 4 in the higher energy 3d orbital
3. More About the Octet Rule
a. Second row elements C, N, O and F should always obey the octet rule
b. B and Be (second row) often have fewer than eight electrons around them, and form electron deficient, highly
reactive molecules
c. Second row elements never exceed the octet rule, since their valence orbitals (2s and 2p) can accommodate only
eight electrons.
d. Third row and heavier elements often satisfy (or exceed) the octet rule
e. Satisfy the octet rule first. If extra electrons remain, place them on elements having available d orbitals
i. When necessary to exceed the octet rule for one of several third row elements, assume that the extra electrons be
placed on the central atom
G. Resonance
Resonance - When more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a particular molecule. The resulting electron
structure of the molecule is given by the average of these resonance structures.
1. Nitrate ion - Experiments show that all N-O bonds are equal
a. A single Lewis structure cannot represent the nitrate ion

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b. A resonance structure is drawn by writing the three variant structures, connected by a double-headed arrow (the
arrow shows show that the actual structure is an average of the three resonance structures
c, The correct description of NO3` is not given by any one of the three Lewis structures but is given only by the
superposition of all three.
2. Odd Electron Molecules - Molecules in which there is not an even number of electrons; does not fit localized electron
model
3. Formal Charge - Number of valence electrons on the free atom minus Number of valence electrons assigned to the
atom in the molecule
FC = no. of valance e- - no. of lone pairs (no. of shared or bonded e-)
a. Lone pair (unshared) electrons belong completely to the atom in question
b. Shared electrons are divided equally between the sharing atoms
c. The sum of the formal charges of all atoms in a given molecule or ion must equal the overall charge on that species
d. If nonequivalent Lewis structures exist for a species, those with formal charges closest to zero and with any negative
formal charges on the most electronegative atoms are considered to best describe the bonding in the molecule or ion.
H. Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model
Molecular structure - the threedimensional arrangement of the atoms in a molecule.
1. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)-. The structure around a given atom is determined principally by
minimizing electron-pair repulsions;. Non-bonding and bonding electron pairs will be as far apart as possible
a. Lone (unshared) electron pairs require more room than bonding pairs (they have greater repulsive forces) and tend
to compress the angles between bonding pairs
b. Lone pairs do not cause distortion when bond angles are 120 or greater
2. VSEPR and Multiple Bonds
a. For the VSEPR model, multiple bonds count as one effective electron pair
b. When a molecule exhibits resonance, ANY of the resonance structures can be used to predict the molecular
structure using the VSEPR model
3. Molecules Containing No Single Central Atom
a. Apply the principal of distancing shared and unshared electron pairs
3. Look at real 3-dimensional, rotatable models to develop predictive skills

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ENGINEERING STUDENT COUNCIL

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Arrangement of Electron Pairs Around an Atom Yielding Minimum Repulsion
A = Central Atom; X = bonded pairs, E = lone pairs
No. of
Bond Lone
electron
FORM
NAME
pairs pairs
pairs

STRUCTURE

ANGLES

AX2

Linear

1800

AX3

Trigonal Planar

120o

AX2E

Bent (V shaped)

<120o

AX4

Tetrahedral

109.50

AX3E

Trigonal pyramidal

<109.5o

AX2E2

Bent (V shaped)

<109.50

Trigonal bipyramidal

90o
120o

AX4E

Seesaw

<90o
<120o

AX3E2

T-shaped

<90o

AX5

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AX2E3

Linear

180o

AX6

Octahedral

90o

AX5E

Square pyramidial

<90o

AX4E2

Square Planar

<90o

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ENGINEERING STUDENT COUNCIL

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UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

Unit 4: STOICHIOMETRY OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

A. Counting by weighing
1. Get the average mass of objects.
a. For purposes of counting, the objects behave as though they were all identical, as though they each actually had the
average mass.
b. to relate the mass to a number of atoms, we must know the average mass of the atoms.
B. Atomic Masses
1. C12, the Relative Standard C12 is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu)
a. Masses of all elements are determined in comparison to the carbon - 12 atom (12C) the most common isotope of
carbon
b. Comparisons are made using a mass spectrometer (most accurate method currently available for comparing the
masses of atoms)
2. Atomic Mass (Average atomic mass, atomic weight)
a. Atomic masses are the average of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element
b. Atomic mass does not represent the mass of any actual atom
c. Atomic mass can be used to "weigh out" large numbers of atoms
C. The Mole
Mole - the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C
1. Avogadro's number - One mole of something consists of 6.022 x 1023 units of that substance
6.022 x 1023 units = 1 mole
2. Measuring moles
1. An element's atomic mass expressed in grams contains 1 mole of atoms of that element
2. 12.01 grams of carbon is 1 mole of carbon
3. 12 grams of carbon-12 is 1 mole of carbon-12
EXAMPLE
A silicon chip used in an integrated circuit of a microcomputer has a mass of 5.68 mg. How many silicon (Si) atoms are
present in the chip?
Ans. 5.68

1
1000

1
28.09

6.022 1023
1

= .

*gamitin ang factor-label method. Gawing clues ang mga units ng given mo, dapat magcancel ung same units hanggang
matira ung desired mo.
D. Molar mass
Molar Mass (Gram molecular weight) - The mass in grams of one mole of a compound. The sum of the masses of the
component atoms in a compound
Ex. Molar mass of ethane (C2H6):
Mass of 2 moles of C = 2(12.01 g)
Mass of 6 moles of H = 6(1.008 g)
30.07 g

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E. Percent Composition of Compounds
1. Calculating any percentage - "The part, divided by the whole, multiplied by 100"
2. Percentage Composition - Calculate the percent of each element in the total mass of the compound
Mass Percent/Weight Percent = (#atoms of the element)(atomic mass of element) x 100
(molar mass of the compound)
EXAMPLE
Mass percent of each element of Ethanol, C2H5OH
Element

Number of
Moles

Molar Mass,
g/mol

12.01

H
O

6
1

1.008
16.00

Mass (Mol x MW)

2 mol C x

12.01

Mass Percent
100)

= 24.02

52.14%

6.048
16.00
SUM = 46.07 g

13.13%
34.73%
100%

F. Determining the Formula of a Compound

1. Determining the empirical formula

a. Determine the percentage of each element in your compound
b. Treat % as grams, and convert grams of each element to moles of each element
c. Find the smallest whole number ratio of atoms
d. If the ratio is not all whole numbers, multiply each by an integer so that all elements are in whole number
ratio
2. Determining the molecular formula
a. Find the empirical formula mass
b. Divide the known molecular mass by the empirical formula mass, deriving a whole number, n
c. Multiply the empirical formula by n to derive the molecular formula
EXAMPLE
Determine the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound that gives the following percentages on analysis (in mass
percent): 71.65% Cl; 24.27% C; 4.07% H
The molar mass is known to be 98.96 g/mol.
Soln:
BY Empirical
Basis = 100 g
Element
Percentage
Mass (%*100)
Moles
Cl

71.65%

71.65

C
H

24.27%
4.07%

24.27
4.07

71.65 g Cl x

35.45

2.021
4.04

= 2.021

1
1
2

Therefore, CClH2
BY molecular
Empirical formula mass = 49.48 g/mol
Molar mass is given = 98.96 g/mol
Molar mass
Empirical formula mass

98.96 g/mol = 2
49.48 g/mol

Molecular formula= (ClCH2)2 = C2Cl2H4 = dichloroethane.

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