SEMICONDUCTOR PN

JUNCTION THEORY

Sub Topics
1.1 Energy Band
1.2 Insulator and Semiconductor Materials
1.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
1.4 Formation of p-n Junction
1.5 Forward-biased and Reverse-biased P-N Junction
1.6 IV Characteristic of Forward-biased P-N Junction
1.7 IV Characteristic of Reverse-biased P-N Junction
2

1.1 ENERGY BAND

1.1.1

Atom

All matter is made from atoms.

Atom - the smallest particles of an element that retains the
x-tic of that elements.
The configuration of electrons in an atom is the key factor
to differentiate a conductor, insulator or semiconductor.
Atom consists of

nucleus at the centre

orbiting electrons.

The nucleus carries most of the atom mass consist of:

Neutrons that are neutral and carry no charge.
Protons that are positively charged.

1.1.2 Atomic Number and Weight

Atomic number of an atom = no. of protons in the
nucleus = no. of e- orbiting in a neutral atom.
Example: no. of proton in Helium atom = 2,
atomic number for Helium = 2.
Atomic weight for an atom = no. of protons + no.
of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Example: Helium atom have 2 protons and 2
neutrons; therefore the atomic weight for Helium
is 4.
4

1.1.3 Valence Shell and Valence e Valence shell - The outermost shell in an atom
Valence electrons - e- in the valence shell
Every shell, which is located at a different
level, can contain max number of e-.
Basically the nth shell can contain max no of
electrons 2n2 e-.
The shell no 1 is the innermost and closest to the
nucleus.
5

1.1.3 Valence Shell and Valence e- (cont)

Fig 1.1 shows the copper atom with number of
proton and neutron 29.
1st Shell (K)
2n2 =2(1)2 = 2 electrons
2nd Shell (L):
2n2 =2(2)2 = 8 electrons
3rd Shell (M):
2n2 =2(3)2 = 18 electrons
4th Shell (N):
1 electron
Total:
2+8+ 18+ 1 = 29 electrons

Fig 1.1 Bohr model of copper atom

1.1.3 Valence Shell and Valence e- (cont)

Cu have 29 e- which fill up 4 shells.
The no of valence e- in an atom has significant
influence on the electrical properties of an element.
The fewer the valence e- , the more distant the
valence shell from the nucleus, the easier the
valence e- to break away from the parent atom &
become free e- with a min of external energy such as
heat.
7

1.1.3 Valence Shell and Valence e- (cont)

Example, a single valence e- in the 4th shell (valence
shell) of the Cu atom can break away easily at room
temperature (25C) create an abundance of free ein Cu which make it good conductor.
Free e- are abundance in good conductors because of
2 reasons:
The single valence e- is in a higher level shell
farther away from the nucleus; hence it is not
tightly bound by the +ve force from the nucleus.
The atom tends to complete the outer shell by
freeing the bound valence e-.

Example 1-1
Suppose an outside force removes the valence e- from a Cu
atom in fig 1-1. What is the net charge of the Cu atom?
What is the net charge if an outside e- moves into the Cu
valence orbit?
Solution
When the valence e- leaves, the net charge of the atom
becomes +1. Whenever an atom loses 1 of its e-, it
becomes positively charged. We call a positively charged
atom a positive ion.
When an outside e- moves into the Cu valence orbit, the
net charge of the atom becomes -1. Whenever an atom has
an extra e- in its valence orbit, we call the negatively
charged atom a negative ion.
9

1.1.4 Semiconductors and Covalent Bonding

The best conductors (silver, copper, and gold)
have 1 valence e-,
The best insulators have 8 valence e-.
A semiconductor is an element with electrical
properties between conductor and insulator.
The best semiconductors have 4 valence e-.

10

1.1.4 Semiconductors and Covalent Bonding (cont.)

Si and Ge are widely used in semiconductor fabrication
industry. However, Si is the most popular for its
tolerance to higher temperatures.
Fig 1.2 shows that both Si & Ge atoms have 4 valence ein the outer shells.
They need 4 additional e- to complete the structure.
Atoms in semiconductor materials tend to share their 4
valence e- with the neighboring atoms.
This sharing of valence e- in semiconductor is called
covalent bonding which produce stable, tightly bond,
and lattice structure called crystal.
11

1.1.4 Semiconductors and Covalent Bonding (cont.)

Fig 1.2 Valence electron: (a) Silicon, (b) Germanium

12

1.1.4 Semiconductors and Covalent Bonding (cont.)

The covalent bonding of silicon is shown in Fig 1.3.
The e- in the outer shell is shared to build up
covalent bonding.
Figure 1.3 Covalent bonding
in semiconductor crystal

13

1.1.5 Energy Band

In the atomic structure, shells and subshells represent
distinct energy levels.
The more distant the shell or subshell from the
nucleus, the higher the energy level of the orbiting e-.
Hence, valence e- of atom posses the highest level of
energy and it can easily break away from the parent
atom by acquiring a sufficient amount of external
energy and becoming free e-.

14

1.1.5 Energy Band (cont.)

When atoms bond together to form molecules of matter, the
energy level which existed before for single atom will form
energy band.
Energy band diagram in Fig 1.4 illustrate the different energy
levels to which the orbiting e- belong.
The amount of energy that the valence e- must attain to be
elevated to the next level (conduction band) is measured in
electron volt. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules
Fig 1.4 Energy
band diagram;
(a) insulator;
(b) semiconductor;
(c) conductor

15

1.1.5 Energy Band (cont.)

Forbidden band = Energy gap between the valence
band and conduction band
Valence e- can only leave the valence band toward
conduction band if they have acquired sufficient
amount of energy to jump across the forbidden
band.

16

1.1.5 Energy Band (cont.)

Fig 1.4(a) - Forbidden band for insulator wide eneed large amount of energy to jump across the
forbidden band which is impossible to make.
Fig 1.4(b) - Forbidden band for semiconductor is smaller
and relatively narrow e- can jump and make transition
between valence band to conduction band after
acquiring sufficient amount of energy. Eg: at room
temperature (25C) the energy gaps for Si is 1.1 e V and
for Ge is O.67eV.
Fig 1.4(c) - Energy gap for conductor almost nonexistent.
The valence band and conduction band are overlapping
and e- from valence band can move freely to conduction
band.

17

1.2 INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Electrical insulator
material/object which has no free e- to permit the eflow.
No current flow through the insulation material when
voltage is applied across an insulator.
Example: Silicon dioxide, Teflon, plastic materials.

Semiconductor
materials that neither good electrical conductors nor
good electrical insulators.
Ability to conduct electricity is intermediate.
Examples: Si, Ge.
18

1.2 INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS (cont)

Previously, Ge was the only material suitable for making
semiconductor devices. But Ge had a fatal flaw (their
excessive reverse current) that engineers could not
overcome. Eventually, Si became practical and made Ge
obsolete in most electronic applications.
Si atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons. Fig. 1.5 shown:
- 1st orbit:
2 e- 2nd orbit: 8 e- valence orbit: 4 eIn Fig. 1.5, the core has a net charge of
+4 because it contains 14 protons in the
nucleus and 10 e- in the 1st two orbits.
Fig 1.5 Silicon atom

19

Example 1.2
What is the net charge of the silicon atom in Fig. 1.5:
(a) If it loses 1 of its valence e-?
(b) If it gains an extra e- in the valence
orbit?
Solution
(a) If it loses an e-, it becomes a +ve ion with a charge
of +1.
(b) If it gains an extra e-, it becomes a ve ion with a
charge of -1.
20

1.3 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

1.3.1 Intrinsic semiconductors
- Pure semiconductor. A Si crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor if
every atom in the crystal is a Si atom. At room temperature, a Si
crystal acts like an insulator because it has only a few free e- and
holes produced by thermal energy.
Flow Of Free Electrons
- Fig 1.6 - Si crystal between charged
metallic plates.
- Thermal energy has produced a free
e- and a hole. The free e- is in a large
orbit at the right end of the crystal.
- Because of the -ve charged plate,
the free e- is repelled to the left.
- This free e- can move from one large
orbit to the next until it reaches the
+ve plate.

Fig 1.6 Hole flow through

a semiconductor
21

1.3.1 Intrinsic semiconductors

(cont)
Figure 1.6 Hole flow through
a semiconductor

Flow Of Holes
Hole at the left of fig 1.6 attracts the valence electron at
point A. This causes the valence electron to move into the
hole.
When the valence electron at point A moves to the left, it
creates a new hole at point A. The effect is the same as
moving the original hole to the right. The new hole at point
A can then attract and capture another valence electron. In
this way, valence electrons can travel along the path shown
by the arrows. This means the hole can move the opposite
way, along path A-B-C-D-E-F, acting the same as a positive
charge.
22

1.3.1 Intrinsic semiconductors (cont)

Two types of flow
Fig 1.7 shows an intrinsic semiconductor. It has the same
number of free e- and holes. This is because thermal energy
produces free e- and holes in pairs.
Applied voltage force the
free e- to flow left and
holes to flow right.

When the free e- arrive at the

left end of the crystal, they enter
the external wire and flow to the
+ve battery terminal.
Fig 1.7 Intrinsic semiconductor has
equal number of free e- and holes
23

1.3.1 Intrinsic semiconductors (cont)

The free e- at the -ve battery terminal will flow to the right end
of the crystal. At this point, they enter the crystal and recombine
with holes that arrive at the right end of the crystal.
A steady flow of free e- and holes occurs inside the
semiconductor. There is no hole flow outside the semiconductor.
Free e- & holes move in opposite directions.
Therefore current in a semiconductor
is the combined effect of the 2 types
of flow: the flow of free e- in 1
direction & the flow of holes in the
other direction.
Free e- and holes are called carriers
because they carry a charge from 1
place to another.
24

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors

Doping - increase conductivity of a semiconductor.
- adding impurity atoms to an intrinsic crystal to alter its
electrical conductivity.
-A doped semiconductor called extrinsic semiconductor.
Increasing the free e How to dope a Si crystal?
Melt a pure Si crystal breaks the covalent bonds and changes
the Si from a solid to a liquid.
Add pentavalent atoms to the molten silicon to increase the
number of free e-. Pentavalent atoms have 5 e- in the valence
orbit. Examples: arsenic, antimony, and phosphorus.
Pentavalent atoms will donate an extra e- to the Si crystal, and it
call donor impurities.

25

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

Fig 1.8(a) - doped Si crystal appears after it
cools down and reforms solid crystal
structure.
A pentavalent atom is in the center,
surrounded by 4 Si atoms.
The neighboring atoms share an e- with the
central atom but left 1 extra e- . Each
pentavalent atom has 5 valence e-. Since
only 8 e- can fit into the valence orbit, the
extra e- remains in a larger orbit as a free e-.
Each pentavalent or donor atom in a Si
crystal produces 1 free e-. This is how a
manufacturer controls the conductivity of a
doped semiconductor..

Fig 1.8(a) Doping to

get more free e-

The more impurity that is added, the greater the conductivity. In

this way, a semiconductor maybe lightly or heavily doped. A lightly
doped semiconductor has a high resistance, whereas a heavily
doped semiconductor has a low resistance

26

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

Increasing The Number Of Holes
To get an excess holes - dope pure silicon
crystal with trivalent atom which have 3
valence e-. Examples - aluminum, boron, and
gallium.
Fig 1.8(b) -trivalent atom in the center
surrounded by 4 silicon atoms, each sharing 1
of its valence e-.
Trivalent atom originally had only 3 valence eand each neighbor shares 1 e-, only 7 e- are in
the valence orbit. This means that a hole exists
in the valence orbit of each trivalent atom.

Figure 1.8(b)
doping to get
more holes

Trivalent atom also called an acceptor atom

because each hole it contributes can accept a
free e- during recombination.
27

Example 1.3
A doped semiconductor has 10 billion Si atoms
and 15 million pentavalent atoms. If the ambient
temperature is 25C, how many free e- and holes
are there inside the semiconductor?
Solution Each pentavalent atom contributes 1
free e-. Therefore, the semiconductor has 15
million free e- produced by doping. There will be
almost no holes by comparison because the only
holes in the semiconductor are those produced
by heat energy.
28

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

2 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor can be doped to have an excess of free eor an excess of holes. Because of this, there are 2 types of
doped semiconductors.
n-Type Semiconductor
Si that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity is called
an n-type semiconductor, where the n stands for -ve. Fig
1.9 shows an n-type semiconductor.
Since the free e- >> the holes ,
free e- - majority carriers
holes - minority carriers
29

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

Applied voltage will move:
- free e- to the left &
- holes to the right.
When a hole arrives at the right end of the crystal, 1 of the free
e- from the external circuit enters the semiconductor &
recombines with the hole.
The free e- in Fig. 1.9 flow to the left end of the crystal, where
they enter the wire and flow on to the +ve terminal of the
battery.

Fig 1.9 n-type semiconductor

has many free e30

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

p-Type Semiconductor
p-type semiconductor - Si doped with a trivalent impurity,
p stands for +ve.
Fig 1.10 shows a p-type semiconductor.
Since the holes >> the free e- ,
holes - majority carriers
free e- - minority carriers
Applied voltage will move:
- free e- to the left
- holes to the right.
Fig. 1.10 - holes arriving at the right
end of the crystal will recombine with
free e- from the external circuit.

Fig 1.10 p-type

semiconductor has
many holes
31

1.3.2 Extrinsic semiconductors (cont)

There is also a flow of minority carriers in Fig. 1.10.
The free e- inside the semiconductor flow from right to
left.
Because there are so few
minority carriers, they have
almost no effect in this circuit.

32

1.4 THE UNBIASED DIODE

pn junction - border between p-type and n-type.
The pn junction has led to all kinds of inventions
including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
Understanding the pn junction enables us to understand
semiconductor devices.
The unbiased diod
Each trivalent atom in a doped
silicon crystal produces 1 hole.
Fig. 1-11 (a) Illustrate a piece
of p-type semiconductor:
Each circled minus sign is the
trivalent atom,
and each plus sign is the
hole in its valence orbit.

Fig 1.11 p-type semiconductor

33

The unbiased diod (cont)

Each pentavalent atoms in a doped Si crystal produces
1 free e- of an n-type semiconductor
Fig. 1-11(b) - Each circled plus sign
represents a pentavalent atom, &
each minus sign is the free e-.
Each piece of semiconductor material
is electrically neutral because the
number of pluses and minuses is
equal.

Fig 1.11 n-type

semiconductor

34

The unbiased diod (cont)

Fig. 1-12 Product of a single crystal with p-type
material on 1 side and n-type on the other side.
The junction is the border where the p-type and the
n-type regions meet, and junction diode is another
name for a pn crystal.
The word diode is a contraction of two electrodes,
where di stands for "two."
Fig 1.12 The pn junction

35

The Depletion Layer

Because of their repulsion for each other, the free e- on the n

side of Fig 1.12 tend to diffuse (spread) in all directions.
Some of the free e- diffuse across the junction.
When a free e- enters the p region, it becomes a minority
carrier.
With so many holes around it, this minority carrier has a short
lifetime.
Soon after entering the p region, the free e- recombines with
a hole hole disappears and the free e- becomes a valence e-

36

The Depletion Layer (cont)

Each time an e- diffuses across a junction, it creates a
pair of ions. When an e- leaves the n side, it leaves
behind a pentavalent atom that is short 1 -ve charge;
this pentavalent atom becomes a +ve ion. After the
migrating e- falls into a hole on the p side, it makes a
-ve ion out of the trivalent atom that captures it.

37

The Depletion Layer (cont)

Figure 1-13a - circled plus signs: +ve ions
- circled minus signs: -ve ions.
The ions are fixed in the crystal structure because of
covalent bonding, and they cannot move around like free eand holes.

Fig 1.13 (a) Creation of ions at junction; (b) depletion layer.

38

The Depletion Layer (cont)

Each pair of +ve and -ve ions at the junction is called a
dipole.
Dipole means that 1 free e- and 1 hole have been taken out
of circulation.
As the number of dipoles builds up, the region near the
junction is emptied of carriers.
We call this charge-empty region the depletion layer (see
Fig. 1-13b).

Fig 1.13 (a) Creation of ions at junction; (b) depletion layer.

39

Barrier Potential
Each dipole has an electric field between the +ve and -ve ions.
If additional free e- enter the depletion layer, the electric field tries
to push these e- back into the n region.
The strength of the electric field increases with each crossing euntil equilibrium is reached. To a 1st approximation, this means that
the electric field eventually stops the diffusion of e- across the
junction.
In Fig. 1-13a, the electric field between the ions is equivalent to a
difference of potential called the barrier potential.
At 25oC , the barrier potential
- 0.3 V for Ge diodes
- 0.7 V for Si diodes.

40

1.5 FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION

To forward bias the p-n junction, connect an external
DC source E:
- +ve terminal connected to the p-type material
- -ve terminal connected to n-type material

Figure 1.14 Forward

biasing the p-n junction
with external source

41

1.5 FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION (cont)

Since similar charges repel each other, the negatively
charged e- in the n-type semiconductor are repelled by the
-ve terminal of the voltage source.
The holes in p-type semiconductor are repelled by the +ve
terminal connected to the junction.
As a result, the
depletion region
narrows and e- are
force to diffuse
across the junction
and recombine
with holes.

42

1.5 FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION (cont)

For every e- recombines with a hole, an e- leaves the
covalent bond in the p-region and enters the +ve terminal
of the source. Thus, the amount of current entering and
leaving the external source is always equal.
The direction of
conventional current
flow (I) is considered
opposite to the eflow, hence the
current I leaves the
+ve terminal of the
DC source and return
to the -ve terminal.
43

1.6 REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION

In reverse-bias, the p-n junction is biased with external DC
source, E but with an opposite polarity compared with the
forward bias.
The +ve terminal is connected to the n- type and the -ve
terminal is connected to the ptype as shown in Fig 1.15.

Fig 1.15 Reverse biasing p-n junction with external source

44

1.6 REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION (cont)

There are very few e- present in the p-type semiconductor
and very few holes present in the n-type semiconductor.
The minority carriers, e- in p-type semiconductor are called
minority e- and the minority carriers in ntype semiconductor
are referred as minority holes.
When the p-n junction is reverse-biased,
- the negatively charged majority e- in n-type
semiconductor are attracted to the +ve
terminal of the external source.
- the holes in p-type
semiconductor are
attracted to the -ve
terminal of the external
source away from the
junction.
45

1.6 REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION (cont)

Attraction of majority charge carriers will widen the
depletion region and thus:

the majority e- cannot diffuse across the junction and

recombine with holes.
The minority carriers which are actually fwdbiased establish a
minority current flow that is <<< than the current flow under
fwd-biased. This current flow is referred as reverse saturation
current Is (or IR ).

If the source voltage is

increased in the reversebiased circuit, a point will be
reached that the p-n junction
will allow a substantial
current flow. The voltage at
this reverse current flow
occurs is called the reverse
breakdown voltage VBR

46

1.7 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF FORWARD BIASED PN

JUNCTION
1 simple example of pn junction is diode. The IV x-tics
of fwd-biased pn junction can be obtained by
constructing simple circuit as shown in Fig 1.16.

Fig 1.16 Fwd-biased voltage

47

1.7 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF FORWARD

BIASED PN JUNCTION (cont)
When fwd-biased voltage is applied across a diode,
there is fwd current (IF). The resistor in circuit is used
to limit the fwd current to a value that will not
overheat the diode and cause damage.
As the supply voltage increases from 0V to max value,
the IV characteristic obtained is shown in Fig 1.17.

Fig 1.17 IV x-tic of fwd-biased

pn junction
48

1.7 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF FORWARD

BIASED PN JUNCTION (cont)
If 0V across the diode no current flow.
As fwdbiased voltage gradually increases forward
current & the voltage across the diode gradually increases.
When the fwd-biased voltage is increased to a value where
the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7V
(barrier potential), the fwd current begins to increase
rapidly.
As the supply voltage continues
increases, the current continue to
increase rapidly but the voltage
across the diode increases only
gradually above 0.7V. This is due to
the dynamic internal resistance of
the semiconductor material.

49

1.8 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF REVERSE BIASED

PN JUNCTION
The IV x-tic for reverse-biased pn junction can
be obtained by constructing a circuit as shown
in Fig 1.18.

Fig 1.18 Reversebiased voltage

50

1.8 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF REVERSE BIASED PN

JUNCTION (cont)
When a reverse-biased voltage is applied across a diode,
there is only extremely small reverse current (IR) through
the pn junction. When the diode is supplied with 0V, there
is no reverse current.
As the reverse-biased voltage is increases, there is very
small reverse current and voltage across the diode (VR).

51

1.8 IV CHARACTERISTIC OF REVERSE BIASED PN

JUNCTION (cont)
When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where
the reverse voltage across the diode reaches the
breakdown voltage (VBR), the reverse current begins to
increase rapidly as shown in Fig 1.19.
As the bias voltage continues increases, the reverse current
continues to increase rapidly but the voltage across the
diode increases very little above the VBR. Breakdown is not
a normal mode of operation for most pn junction.

Fig 1.19 IV x-tic of reversedbiased pn junction

52