53

PROBLEMS

in Table 3.5. The term y is used in engineering practice to represent mole (or
volume) fraction of gases; the term x is often used for liquids and solids.
3.19

PartialPressure I
The exhaust to the atmosphere from an incinerator has a S02 concentration of
0.12 mm Hg partial pressure. Calculate the parts per million of S02 in the
exhaust.
Solution: First calculate the mole fraction y. By Dalton's law
y=

Pso2

(3.27)

Since the exhaust is discharged to the atmosphere, the atmospheric pressure,

7 60 mm Hg, is the total pressure P. Thus,
y= (0.12mmHg)/(760mmHg)

ppm

(y)(l06)

(1.58

1.58 x 10-4

10-4) (106)

= 158 ppm
3.20

PartialPressure II
A storage tank contains a gaseous mixture consisting of 30% C02, 5% CO, 5%
H20, 50% N2, and 10% 02, by volume. What is the partial pressure of each
com- ponent if the total pressure is 2 atm? What are their pure-component
volumes if the total pressure is 2 atm? What are the pure-component volumes
if the total volume is 10 ft3? What are the concentrations in ppm (parts per
million)?
Solution: Dalton's law states that the partial pressure Pa of an ideal gas is
given by
Pa

YaP

where Ya= mole fraction of component a

P = total pressure
Thus
Pco2

= 0.30(2) = 0.60 atm

Peo =
PH20

0.05(2)

0.10 atm

= 0.05(2) = 0.10 atm

PN2 = 0.50(2) = 1.00 atm

Po2
P

= 0.10(2) = 0.20 atm

=

2.00atm

(3.27)

54PROBLEMS

FUNDAMENTALS:

GASES54

Amagat' s law states that the pure component volume Va of an ideal gas
is given by
Va= Ya V

(3.29)

where V is the total volume.

Thus
Vco2

= 0.30(10) = 3.00 ft3

Veo = 0.05(10) = 0.50 ft3

VH20

= 0.05(10) = 0.50 ft3

VN2

= 0.50(10) = 5.00 ft3

Vo2

= 0.10(10) = 1.00 ft3

= 10.00 ft3

By definition, the parts per million (ppm) is given by

ppma

= Yal06

Thus
ppmc02 = 0.30(106) = 3.00 x 105 ppm
ppmc0

0.05(106)

0.50 x 105 ppm

ppmH2o = 0.05(106) = 0.50 x 105 ppm

ppmN2 = 0.50(106) = 5.00 x 105 ppm
ppm02 = 0.10(106) = 1.00 x 105 ppm
Unless otherwise stated, ppm for gases is by mole or volume and is usually
designated as ppmv. When applying the term to liquids or solids, the basis is
almost always by mass; the notation may appear as ppmw or ppmm.
3.21

Vapor PressureCalculation
Two popular equations that are used to estimate the vapor pressure of
compounds are the Clapeyron and Antaine equations. The Clapeyron equation
is given by
lnp ' =A-- B
T

(3.40)

where p' and Tare the vapor pressure and temperature, respectively, and A and
B are the experimentally determined Clapeyron coefficients. The Antaine
equation is given by
Inp' =A

B
T+C

(3.41)

where A, B, and C are the experimentally determined Antaine coefficients.

Use the Clapeyron and Antaine equations to estimate the vapor pressure of
acetone at OC. The Clapeyron coefficients have been experimentally
determined to be
A=
B

15.03

= 2817

for p' and T in mm Hg and K, respectively. The Antaine coefficients are

A=
B =

e=

16.65
2940
-35.93

with p' and T in the same units.

Solution: First, calculate the vapor pressure p' of acetone at OC using the
Clapeyron equation:
In p' = 15.03 - [2817/(O+ 273)]
= 4.7113
p' = 111.2mm Hg
Calculate the vapor pressure of acetone at OC using the Antaine equation:
lnp'

p'

16.65 - [2940/(273 - 35.93)]

= 4.2486
70.01 mm Hg

The Clapeyron equation generally overpredicts the vapor pressure at or near

ambient conditions. The Antaine equation is widely used in industry and
usually provides excellent results. Also note that, contrary to statements
appear- ing in the Federal Register and sorne EPA publications, vapor pressure
is nota function of pressure.
3.22

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds nurnber (Re)
(a) Describes fluid flow and is equal to .,CP/
pDQ
(b) Equals 6.02 x 1023

(e) Describes how a fluid behaves while flowing and is defined as the inertial
forces divided by the viscous forces (Dvp/ ,)
(d) Is generally used only for liquids

Solution: Answers (a), (b), and (d) are obviously incorrect. The definition of
Re is given in Equation (3.13). The correct answer is therefore (e).
3.23

Reynolds Number Calculation

Calculate the Reynolds number for a gas flowing through a 5-inch-diameter
pipe at 10 fps (feet per second) with a density of 0.050 lb/Ir' and a viscosity
of 0.065 cP? Is the flow turbulent or laminar?
Solution: By definition
Dvp
(3.13)
Re=- ,
Substitution yields

Re=

en e~:) (1~ft) (!~lb)/ (o.0:5cP) (6.720 x ~~~ 1b/ft s)

4

= (5/12 ft) (lOft/s) (0.0501b/ft3)/(0.065 x 6.72 x 10-41b/ft s)

=4770

The Reynolds number is >2100; therefore, this gas flow is turbulent. Generally,
moving gases are in the turbulent flow regime.
3.24

Process Calculation
An externa} gas stream is fed into an air pollution control device at a rate of
10,000 lb/hr in the presence of 20,000 lb/hr of air. Because of the energy
requirements of the unit, 1250 lb /hr of a vapor conditioning agent is added to
assist the treatment of the stream. Determine the rate of product gases exiting
the unit in pounds per hour (lb/hr). Assume steady-state conditions.
Solution: Apply the conservation law for mass to the control device on a rate
basis:
Rate of mass in - rate of mass out
= rate of mass accumulated

+ rate of mass generated

(3.34)

Note that mass is not generated and steady conditions (no accumulation) apply.
Rewrite this equation subject to the conditions in the problem statement.
Rate of mass in
or

rate of mass out

Now refer to the problem statement for the three inlet flows:
mn

Determine

mout,

10,000

+ 20,000 + 1250 = 31,250

the product gas flow rate. Since

lnout =

lb/hr

mn = mout,

it follows that

31,250 lb /hr

As noted earlier, the conservation law for mass may be written for any
compound whose quantity is not changed by chemical reaction and for
any chemical element whether or not it has participated in a chemical reaction. It may be written for one piece of equipment around several pieces of
equipment, or around an entire process. It may be used to calculate an
unknown quantity directly, to check the validity of experimental data, or
to express one or more of the independent relationships among the
unknown quantities in a particular problem situation.

3.25

Collection Efficiency
Given the following inlet loading and outlet loading of an air pollution control
unit, determine the collection efficiency of the unit:
Inlet loading
Outlet loading

= 0.02 gr/ft3
= 0.001 gr /ft3

Solution: Collection efficiency is a measure of the degree of performance of

a control device; it specifically refers to the degree of removal of a pollutant
and may be calculated through the application of the conversation law for
mass. Loading, generally refers to the concentration of pollutant. The equation
describing collection efficiency ( fractional) E in terms of inlet and outlet
loading is
(3.42)
E = _(i_nl_e_t _lo_a_d_in_g_) _-_(_o_ut_le_t_l_oa_d_in_g_)
inlet loading
Calculate the collection efficiency of the control unit in percent for the rates
provided:
2-0.1
E =-2-100

= 95%

The term TJ is also used as a symbol for efficiency E. The reader should also note
that the collected amount of pollutant by the control unit is the product of E and

the inlet loading. The amount discharged to the atmosphere is given by the inlet
loading minus the amount collected.

3.26

Penetration Definition
Define penetration.

Solution: By definition, the penetration Pis given by

P = 100 - E; percent basis
P

(3.43)

= 1.0 - E; fractional basis

Note that there is a 10-fold increase in P as E goes from 99.9 to 99%. For a
multiple series of n collectors, the overall penetration is simply given by
(3.44)
For particulate control in air pollution units, penetrations and/ or efficiencies can
be related to individual size ranges. The overall efficiency ( or penetration) is
then given by the contribution from each size range, i.e., the summation of the
product of mass fraction and efficiency for each size range. This is treated in
more detail in the chapters on particulates (Chapters 7-12).

3.27

Spray Tower Application

A proposed incineration facility design requires that a packed column and a spray
tower be used in series for the removal of HCI from the flue gas. The spray tower
is to operate atan efficiency of 65% and the packed column at an efficiency of
98%. Calculate the mass flow rate of HCl leaving the spray tower, the mass flow
rate of HCl entering the packed tower, and the overall efficiency of the removal
system if 76.0 lb of HCl enters the system every hour.

Solution: As defined in Problem 3.25

E=

lnin ~ lnout

(3.45)

mn

Then,
mout =

(1 - E)

(mn)

For the spray tower

lnout =

(1 - 0.65) (76.0) = 26.6 lb /hr HCl

The mass flow rate of HCl leaving the spray tower is equal to the mass flow rate
of HCl entering the packed column. For the packed column
lnout

= (1 - 0.98) (26.6) = 0.532 lb/hr HCl

The overall efficiency can now be calculated:

E=
=
=

3.28

lrln - lrlout
mn

76.0 - 0.532
76.0

=-----

0.993
99.3%

Compliance Determination
A proposed incinerator is designed to destroy a hazardous waste at 2100F
and 1 atm. Current regulations dictate that a minimum destruction and removal
efficiency (DRE) of 99.99% must be achieved. The waste flow rate into the
unit is 960 lb/hr while that flowing out of the unit is measured as 0.08 lb/hr.
Is the unit in compliance?
Solution: Select as a basis the 1 hourly rate of operation. The mass equation
employed for efficiency may also be used to calculate the minimum
destruction and removal efficiency.
DRE

= mn ~ mout

(IOO)

mn

960 - 0.08 (IOO)

960

= 99.992%

(3.45)

Thus the unit is operating in compliance with present regulations. The answer
is yes.
3.29

Velocity Determination
Given 20,000 fr' /min of air at ambient conditions exiting a system through
a pipe whose cross-sectional area is 4 ft2, determine the mass flow rate in
lb/rnin and the exit velocity in ft/s.
Solution: The continuity equation is given by
m=pSv
(3.46)
where p = liquid density
S = cross-sectional area
v = velocity
Since 20,000 ft3 / min of air enters the system, then
q1 = S1v1

= 20,000 ft3/min
where subscript 1 refers to inlet conditions. Now, assuming that p = 0.075
lb/ft", then
m=

p1S1v1

= (0.075) (20,000) = 15001b/min

3.30

Outlet Temperature
Heat at 18.7 x 106 Btu/hr is transferred from the flue gas of an incinerator.
Calculate the outlet temperature of the gas stream using the following
information:
Average heat capacity cP of gas= 0.26 Btu/(lb F)
Gas mass flow rate m = 72,000 lb /hr
Gas inlet temperature T1 = 1200F

Solution: The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved. For a
flow system, neglecting kinetic and potential effects, the energy transferred Q to
or from the flowing medium is given by the enthalpy change t:..H of the medium.
The enthalpy of an ideal gas is solely a function of temperature; enthalpies of
liquids and most real gases are almost always assumed to depend on temperature
alone. Changes in enthalpy resulting from a temperature change for a singlephase material may be calculated from the equation
(3.47)
or

t:..H = enthalpy change

m = mass of flowing medium
cp= average heat capacity per unit mass of flowing medium across the
temperature range of t:..T
t:..i!. = enthalpy change per unit time
m = mass flow rate of flowing medium
(Note: The symbol t:.. means "change in.")

where

Solve the conservation law for energy for the gas outlet temperature T2:

where

Q is the rate of energy transfer:

The gas outlet temperature is therefore

T2 = (-18.7

106 / { (72,000) (0.26)}]

+ 1200

200F

This equation is based on adiabatic conditions, i.e., the entire heat load is transferred from the flowing gas. The unit is assumed to be perfectly insulated so that
no heat is transferred to the surroundings. However, this is not the case in a
real-world application. As with mass balances, an enthalpy balance may be

performed within any properly defined boundary, whether real or imaginary.

For example, an enthalpy balance can be applied across the entire unit or
process. The enthalpy of the feed stream(s) is equated with the enthalpy of the
product stream(s) plus the heat loss from the process. All the enthalpy terms
must be based on the same reference temperature. Finally, the enthalpy has two
key prop- erties that should be kept in mind:
l. Enthalpy is a point function, i.e., the enthalpy change from one state (say,

200F, 1 atm) to another state (say 400F, 1 atm) is a function only of the
two states and not the path of the process associated with the change.
2. Absolute values of enthalpy are not important. The enthalpy of water at
60F,
1 atm, as recorded in sorne steam tables is O Btu/lbmol. This choice of zero is
arbitrary. However, another table may indicate a different value. Both are
correct! Note that changing the temperature of water from 60 to IOOF
results in the same change in enthalpy using either table.
Enthalpy changes may be expressed with units (English) of Btu, Btu/lb,
Btu/lbmol, Btu/scf, or Btu/time depending on the available data and
calculation required.
3.31

Process Cooling Water Requirement

Determine the total flow rate of cooling water required for the services listed
below assuming that a cooling tower system supplies the water at 90F with a
retum temperature of 115F. How much freshwater makeup is required if 5%
of the retum water is sent to "blowdown?" Note that the cooling water heat
capacity is 1.00 Btu/(lb F), the heat of vaporization at cooling tower
operating conditions is 1030 Btu/lb, and the density of water at cooling tower
operating conditions is 62.0 lb /ft3.
TABLE 3.6 Cooling Water-Heat Duty Data
Process Unit
2
3
4

Heat Duty, Btu/hr

Required Temperature, F

12,000,000
6,000,000
23,500,000
17,000,000
31,500,000

250
200-276
130-176
300
150-225

Solution: The required cooling water flow rate, rhcw is given by the following
equation:
.

QHL

me =
(ilT)(cp)(p)
where Q8L = heat load, Btu/min
D..T = change in temperature = 115F - 90F = 25F

(3.48)

cP

= heat capacity = 1.00 Btu/(lb F)

p = density of water = (62.0 lb/ft3) (0.1337 ft3/ gal)

rhcw = cooling water flow rate, mass/time

= 8.289 lb/ gal

The heat load is

QHL

= (12 + 6 + 23.5 + 17 + 31.5) (106Btu/hr)/ (60 min/hr)

= 1,500,000Btu/min

Thus,
_
qcw

1,500,000 Btu/min
_
m
50gp
(25F) (l.OOBtu/lb F)(8.2891b/gal) - 72

where qcw = water volumetric flow rate, gal/min.

The blowdown flow q80 is given by
qBD

= (BDR)(qcw)

where BDR is the blowdown rate = 5% = 0.05.

Thus
qBD

= (0.05) (7250 gpm) = 362.5 gpm

The amount of water vaporized by the cooling tower qv is given by

(3.49)

where Hv is the heat of vaporization = 1030 Btu/lb. Substitution yields

qgpm
= v

3.32

(1,500,000 Btu/min)
= 175 7
(8.2891b/gal) (1030Btu/lb)

Steam Requirement Options

Determine how many pounds per hour of steam are required for the following
two cases: (1) if steam is provided at 500 psig and (2) if steam is provided
at both 500 and 75 psig pressures. The plants heating requirements are listed
in Table 3.7.
TABLE 3.7

Process Heat Duty Data

Process Unit

Unit Heat Duty (UHD), Btu/hr

Required Temperature, F

10,000,000
8,000,000
12,000,000
20,000,000

250
450
400
300

2
3
4

The properties of saturated steam are listed in Table 3.8.

TABLE 3.8 Steam Data
Pressure Provided,
psig

Saturation Ternperature,
F

Enthalpy of Vaporization,
filiv, Btu/lb

320
470

894
751

75
500

Solution: The total required flow rate of 500 psig steam mBT is given by

For this equation:

mBI (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 1)

=
mB2

UHDi/ dHv

13,320 lb/hr

(mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 2)

= UHD2/ dHv = 10,655 lb/hr

mB3 (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 3)

= UHD3/dHv = 15,980lb/hr

m84 (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 4)

= UHD4/ dHv = 26,635 lb/hr
Thus,
lnBT

= 66,590 lb/hr

The required combined total flow rate of 500 and 7 5 psig steam
is given by

For this situation

m75.1

(mass flow rate of 75 psig steam through unit 1)

= UHD/ ~Hv = 11,185 lb/hr

m75.4 (mass flow rate of 75 psig steam through unit 4)

=

UHD/ sn;

22,371.4 lb/hr

mcT

66PROBLEMS

FUNDAMENTALS:

GASES65

straight with negative slopes. The value of Twa corresponds to the value of the
abscissa at the point of intersection of this line with the saturation curve.
Based on the problem statement, calculate the flow rate of water in the air.
Note that both the given flow rate and humidity are on a dry basis.
Water flow rate = (0.0805) (10,000) = 805 lb/hr
Calculate the total flow rate by adding the dry gas and water flow rates:
Total flow rate = 10,000 + 805 = 10,805 lb/hr
The molar rate of water and dry gas are thus
Moles gas= 10,000/30 = 333.3 lbmol/hr
Moles water= 805/18 = 44.7lbmol/hr
Calculate the mole fraction of water vapor using the above two results.
Ywater

44.7
=
(44.7 + 333.3)

12

The average molecular weight of the mixture becomes

MW = (1.0 - 0.12) (30) + (0.12) (18)
= 28.6 lb/lbmol
The molar flow rate of the wet gas may now be determined:
n = 10805/28.6 = 378 lbmol/hr

The ideal gas law may be applied to calculate the volumetric flow rate of the
wet gas:
q = nRT/P
(3.22)
= (378) (0.73) (460 + 180)/1.0
=

1.77

105 ft3 /hr

The following are sorne helpful points on the use of psychrometric charts:
1. In problems involving the use of the humidity chart, it is convenient to
choose a mass of dry air as a basis since the chart uses this basis.
2. Heating or cooling at temperatures above the dew point (temperature at
which the vapor begins to condense) corresponds to a horizontal movement
on the

chart. As long as no condensation occurs, the absolute humidity stays

constant.
3. If the air is cooled, the system follows the appropriate horizontal line to the
left until it reaches the saturation curve and follows this curve thereafter.
3.34

Saturated Water Discharge

A flue gas is discharged at 120F from an HCl absorber in a hazardous waste
incinerator (HWI) facility in which carbon tetrachloride (CC14) is being incinerated. If 9000 lb/hr (MW = 30) of gas enters the absorber essentially dry
(negli- gible water) at 560F, calculate the moisture content, the mass flow rate,
and the volumetric flow rate of the discharged gas. The discharge gas from the
absorber may safely be assumed to be saturated with water vapor. The
discharge humidity of the flue gas is approximately.
'Hout

= 0.0814lb H20/lb bone-dry air

Solution: The 'Hout represents the moisture content of the gas at outlet
conditions in lb H20 /lb dry air. If the gas is assumed to have the properties of
air, the dis- charge water vapor rate is
liZHzo = (0.0814) (9000)

= 733 lb/hr
The total flow rate leaving the absorber is
11'ltotal

= 733 + 9000
=

9733 lb/hr

The volumetric (or molar) flow rate can be calculated only if the molecular
weight of the gas is known. The average molecular weight of the discharge
flue gas must first be calculated from the mole fraction of the flue gas (fg) and
water vapor (wv).

9000/30
(9000/30) + (733/18)

733/18
= O 12
(733/18) + (9000/30)
.

(0.88) (30) + (0.12) (18) = 28.6 lb

Yfg

Ywv

MW

O 88
.

The ideal gas law is employed to calculate the actual volumetric flow rate, q.
m
q = -=-(RT/P)
MW
9733 (0.73) (460 + 140)
qa = 28.6
1.0

= 1.49 X 105 ft3 /hr

(3.22)

NOTE: Additional problems are available for all readers at www.wiley.com. Follow
links for this title.