ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Ninth Edition
Stanley E. Manahan

PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION

Environmental chemistry, Ninth Edition, maintains much the same organizational
structure, level, and emphasis that have been developed through preceding editions with
updates in keeping with the emerging face of the dynamic science of environmental
chemistry. Therefore, rather than entering into an immediate discussion of a specific
environmental problem, such as stratospheric ozone depeletion, the book systematically
develops the concept of environmental chemistry so that, when specific pollution
problems are discussed, the reader has the background to understand such problems.
Chapters 1 and 2 have been significantly changed from the Eighth Edition to provide
better perspective on sustainability, environmental science as a whole, chemical fate and
transport, cycles of matter, the nature of environmental chemistry, and green chemistry.
The chapter on terrorism that was in the Eighth Edition has been removed, but specific
aspects of this topic, such as the potential role of toxic substances in terrorist attacks,
have been put into other chapters. Because of the importance of energy to the
environment and sustainability, an extensive new chapter on this topic has been added to
the book. Separate chapters on basic chemistry and organic chemistry that were in the
Seventh and earlier editions have not been included, but may be obtained from the author
or publisher in pdf format upon request.
The book views the environment as consisting of five spheres: (1) Hydrosphere, (2)
atmosphere, (3) geosphere, (4) biosphere, and (5) anthrosphere. It emphasizes the
importance of the anthrospherethat part of the environment made and operated by
humans and their technologies. This environmental sphere has so much influence on
Earth and its environmental systems that, according to Nobel Prize winner Paul Crutzen,
Earth is leaving the Holocene epoch in which humankind has lived throughout its time on
Earth and is entering the Anthropocene epoch in which human influences, such as
emissions of gases that significantly affect the warming and protective functions of the
atmosphere, will have a dominant influence on conditions under which humankind exists
on Earth. Since technology will in fact be used to attempt to support humankind on the
planet, it is important that the anthrosphere be designed and operated in a manner that is
compatible with sustainability and that interacts constructively with the other
environmental spheres. In this endeavor, environmental chemistry has a key role to play.
Environmental chemistry has evolved significantly since the first edition of
Environmental Chemistry was published in 1972. (One interesting footnote to this
evolution has been that with each new edition the calculation of the pH of ordinary
rainwater has had to be revised because levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide had risen
enough since each preceding edition to affect the result.) Whereas in the early 1970s
environmental chemistry dealt largely with pollution and its effects, it now has a current
emphasis upon sustainability. During the lifetime of the book, problems with
organochlorine pesticides and detergent phosphates that cause water eutrophication have
largely gone away as the manufacture and sale of these substances have essentially
ceased. When the book was first published, it was not known with certainty what
happened to large quantities of carbon monoxide emitted to the atmosphere by
automobiles; it was suspected that soil microorganisms metabolized this pollutant, but it
is now known that the ubiquitous hydroxyl radical scavenges CO from the atmosphere. In
1972 the potential for stratospheric ozone depletion was just emerging as a major issue,
ii

but it was not known that refrigerant chlorofluorocarbons (Freon compounds) were
predominantly responsible for this threat. As the book progressed through various
editions, the threat of these materials was revealed, the southern hemisphere springtime
Antarctic ozone hole was discovered and grew ominously year-by-year, the manufacture
of chlorofluorocarbons was banned as a consequence, and Molina, Rowland, and Crutzen
shared a well-deserved Nobel Prize, the first ever in environmental chemistry, for their
work in this area. The potential for greenhouse warming due to growing emissions of
infrared-capturing carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases was shown to be a
potentially huge problem for Planet Earth and one that has not yet been resolved. In 1972
the terms green chemistry and industrial ecology had not yet been coined, but these
disciplines emerged from the 1990s as crucial elements of environmental chemistry.
Chapter 1 provides an overview and background in environmental and sustainability
science. The chapter is introduced with a brief discussion of the central issue of our
timeenergy, From the Sun to Fossil Fuels and Back Again. This chapter introduces
chemical fate and transport, environmental terrorism, and environmental forensics.
Chapter 2 defines environmental chemistry and green chemistry in some detail. The
chapter discusses the important concept of cycles of matter. It introduces the
anthrosphere, how it integrates with the other environmental spheres and its effects on
Earth. Components of the anthrosphere that influence the environment are discussed with
emphasis placed upon the all-important infrastructure that is part of the anthrosphere.
Chapters 3 through 8 deal with the hydrosphere. Chapter 3 introduces the special
characteristics of water and the environmental chemistry of water. The remaining
Chapters 4-8 discuss specific aspects of aquatic chemistry, aquatic biochemistry, and
water sustainability and treatment.
Chapters 9 through 14 discuss atmospheric chemistry. Chapter 14 emphasizes the
greatest success story of environmental chemistry to date, the study of ozone- depleting
chlorofluorocarbons which resulted in the first Nobel prize awarded in environmental
chemistry mentioned above. It also emphasizes the greenhouse effect, which may be the
greatest of all threats to the global environment as we know it.
Chapters 15 and 16 deal with the geosphere, the latter chapter emphasizing soil and
agricultural chemistry. Included in the discussion of agricultural chemistry is the
important and controversial new area of transgenic crops. Another area discussed is that
of conservation tillage, which makes limited use of herbicides to grow crops with
minimum soil disturbance.
Chapter 17 goes into detail on the topic of green chemistry and the closely related
area of industrial ecology. Chapter 18 discusses resources and sustainable materials.
Chapter 19 on energy is new as a separate chapter in the Ninth Edition. Entitled
Sustainable Energy: The Key to Everything, it covers the key topics on sustainable
energy including conservation and renewable sources. The chapter ends with a proposed
system of industrial ecology designed to produce methane from renewable biofuels and
hydrogen generated from electrolysis of water using renewable wind or solar energy.
The nature and environmental chemistry of hazardous wastes are covered in Chapter
20 and industrial ecology for waste minimization, utilization, and treatment in Chapter
21.
Chapters 22 through 23 cover the biosphere. Chapter 22 is an overview of
biochemistry with emphasis upon environmental aspects. Chapter 23 introduces and
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outlines the topic of toxicological chemistry. Chapter 24 discusses the toxicological

chemistry of various classes of chemical substances.
Chapters 25 through 28 deal with environmental chemical analysis, including water,
wastes, air, and xenobiotics in biological materials.
As noted above, two chapters on basic chemistry and organic chemistry that were
present in the Seventh and earlier editions have been taken out of this edition for the sake
of brevity. Readers who feel that they need this material can obtain files containing these
chapters from the publisher or the author.
The author welcomes comments and questions from readers. He can be reached by
e-mail at manahans@missouri.edu.

iv

THE AUTHOR
Stanley E. Manahan is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at the University of
Missouri-Columbia, where he has been on the faculty since 1965. He received his A.B. in
chemistry from Emporia State University in 1960 and his Ph.D. in analytical chemistry
from the University of Kansas in 1965. Since 1968 his primary research and professional
activities have been in environmental chemistry, toxicological chemistry, and waste
treatment. His classic textbook, Environmental Chemistry, has been in print continuously
in various editions since 1972 and is the longest standing title on this subject in the world.
Other books that he has written are Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, 3rd ed.
(Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, 2009), Fundamentals of Sustainable Chemical Science,
(Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, 2009), Environmental Science and Technology, 2nd ed.,
(Taylor & Francis, 2006), Green Chemistry and the Ten Commandments of
Sustainability, 2nd ed. (ChemChar Research, Inc, 2006), Toxicological Chemistry and
Biochemistry, 3rd ed. (CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, 2001), Industrial Ecology:
Environmental Chemistry and Hazardous Waste (CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, 1999),
Environmental Science and Technology (CRC Press/ Lewis Publishers, 1997), Hazardous
Waste Chemistry, Toxicology and Treatment (Lewis Publishers, 1992), Quantitative
Chemical Analysis, (Brooks/Cole, 1986), and General Applied Chemistry, 2nd ed.
(Willard Grant Press, 1982). He has lectured on the topics of environmental chemistry,
toxicological chemistry, waste treatment, and green chemistry throughout the U.S. as an
American Chemical Society Local Section Tour Speaker, and has presented plenary
lectures on these topics in international meetings in Puerto Rico; the University of the
Andes in Mrida, Venezuela, Hokkaido University in Japan, the National Autonomous
University in Mexico City, France, and Italy. He was the recipient of the Year 2000
Award of the Environmental Chemistry Division of the Italian Chemical Society. His
research specialty is gasification of hazardous wastes.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE
1.1. From the Sun to Fossil Fuels and Back Again
1.2. The Science of Sustainability
1.3. Chemistry and the Environment
1.4. Water, Air, Earth, Life, and Technology
1.5. Ecology, Ecotoxicology, and the Biosphere
1.6. Energy and Cycles of Energy
1.7. Human Impact and Pollution
1.8. Chemical Fate and Transport
1.9. Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and
Geosphere
1.10 Environmental Mischief and Terrorism
1.11 Environmental Forensics
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 2. CHEMISTRY AND THE ANTHROSPHERE: ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY AND GREEN CHEMISTRY
2.1. Environmental Chemistry
2.2. Matter and Cycles of Matter
2.3. The Anthrosphere and Environmental Chemistry
2.4. Technology and the Anthrosphere
2.5. Infrastructure
2.6. Components of the Anthrosphere that Influence the Environment
2.7. Effects of the Anthrosphere on Earth
2.8. Integration of the Anthrosphere into the Total Environment
2.9. Green Chemistry
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 3.
FUNDAMENTALS OF AQUATIC CHEMISTRY
3.1. The Importance of Water
3.2. The Properties of Water, a Unique Substance
3.3. The Characteristics of Bodies of Water
3.4. Aquatic Life
3.5. Introduction to Aquatic Chemistry
3.6. Gases in Water

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3.7. Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water

3.8. Alkalinity
3.9. Calcium and Other Metals in Water
3.10. Complexation and Chelation
3.11. Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes
3.12. Calculations of Species Concentrations
3.13. Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands
3.14. Complexation by Protonated Ligands
3.15. Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA
3.16. Polyphosphates and Phosphonates in Water
3.17. Complexation by Humic Substances
3.18. Complexation and Redox Processes
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 4. OXIDATION-REDUCTION
4.1. The Significance of Oxidation-Reduction Phenomena
4.2. The Electron and Redox Reactions
4.3. Electron Activity and pE
4.4. The Nernst Equation
4.5. Reaction Tendency: Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions
4.6. The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium
4.7. The Relationship of pE to Free Energy
4.8. Reactions in Terms of One Electron-Mole
4.9. The Limits of pE in Water
4.10. pE Values in Natural Water Systems
4.11. pE-pH Diagrams
4.12. Humic Substances as Natural Reductants
4.13. Photochemical Processes in Oxidation-Reduction
4.14. Corrosion
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 5. PHASE INTERACTIONS IN AQUATIC CHEMISTRY
5.1. Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases, and Water
5.2. Importance and Formation of Sediments
5.3. Solubilities
5.4. Colloidal Particles in Water.
5.5. The Colloidal Properties of Clays
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5.6. Aggregation of Particles

5.7. Surface Sorption by Solids
5.8. Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments
5.9. Interstitial Water
5.10. Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 6. AQUATIC MICROBIAL BIOCHEMISTRY
6.1. Aquatic Biochemical Processes
6.2. Algae
6.3. Fungi
6.4. Protozoa
6.5. Bacteria
6.6. The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell
6.7. Kinetics of Bacterial Growth
6.8. Bacterial Metabolism
6.9. Microbial Transformations of Carbon
6.10. Biodegradation of Organic Matter
6.11. Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen
6.12. Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur
6.13. Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides
6.14. Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 7. WATER POLLUTION
7.1. Nature and Types of Water Pollutants
7.2. Elemental Pollutants
7.3. Heavy Metals
7.4. Metalloids
7.5. Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids
7.6. Inorganic Species
7.7. Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication
7.8. Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity
7.9. Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants
7.10. Organic Pollutants
7.11. Pesticides in Water
7.12. Polychlorinated Biphenyls
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7.13. Emerging Water Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, Household Wastes

7.14. Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 8. WATER TREATMENT
8.1. Water Treatment and Water Use
8.2. Municipal Water Treatment
8.3. Treatment of Water for Industrial Use
8.4 Sewage Treatment
8.5. Industrial Wastewater Treatment
8.6. Removal of Solids
8.7. Removal of Calcium and Other Metals
8.8. Removal of Dissolved Organics
8.9. Removal of Dissolved Inorganics
8.10. Sludge
8.11. Water Disinfection
8.12. Natural Water Purification Processes
8.13. Green Water
8.14. Water Conservation
8.15. Protecting Water Supplies from Attack
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 9. THE ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
9.1. The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry
9.2. Importance of the Atmosphere
9.3. Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere
9.4. Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
9.5. Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather
9.6. Inversions and Air Pollution
9.7. Global Climate and Microclimate
9.8. Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere
9.9. Acid-Base Reactions in the Atmosphere
9.10. Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen
9.11. Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen
9.12. Atmospheric Water
9.13. Influence of the Anthrosphere
9.14. Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere
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Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 10. PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
10.1. Particles in the Atmosphere
10.2. Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere
10.3. Physical Processes for Particle Formation
10.4. Chemical Processes for Particle Formation
10.5. The Composition of Inorganic Particles
10.6. Toxic Metals
10.7 Radioactive Particles
10.8. The Composition of Organic Particles
10.9. Effects of Particles
10.10.
Water as Particulate Matter
10.11. Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles
10.12. Control of Particulate Emissions
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 11. GASEOUS INORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS
11.1 Inorganic Pollutant Gases
11.2. Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide
11.3. Fate of Atmospheric CO
11.4. Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle
11.5. Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere
11.6. Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere
11.7. Acid Rain
11.8. Ammonia in the Atmosphere
11.9. Fluorine, Chlorine, and Their Gaseous Compounds
11.10. Reduced Sulfur Gases
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 12. ORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS
12.1. Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
12.2. Biogenic Organic Compounds
12.3. Pollutant Hydrocarbons
12.4. Carbonyl Compounds: Aldehydes and Ketones
12.5. Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds
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12.6. Organonitrogen Compounds

12.7. Organohalide Compounds
12.8 Organosulfur Compounds
12.9. Organic Particulate Matter
12.10. Hazardous Air Pollutants: Organic Compounds
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 13. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Smog-Forming Emissions
13.3. Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
13.4. Overview of Smog Formation
13.5. Mechanisms of Smog Formation
13.6. Reactivity of Hydrocarbons
13.7. Inorganic Products from Smog
13.8. Effects of Smog
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 14. THE ENDANGERED GLOBAL ATMOSPHERE
14.1. Climate Change and Anthropogenic Effects
14.2. Global Warming
14.3. Green Science and Technology to Alleviate Global Warming
14.4. Acid Rain
14.5. Stratospheric Ozone Destruction
14.6. Atmospheric Brown Clouds
14.7. Atmospheric Damage by Photochemical Smog
14.8. Nuclear Winter
14.9. What Is to Be Done?
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 15. THE GEOSPHERE AND GEOCHEMISTRY
15.1. Introduction
15.2. The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere
15.3. Physical Form of the Geosphere
15.4. Internal Processes
15.5. Sediments
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15.6. Clays
15.7. Geochemistry
15.8. Groundwater in the Geosphere
15.9. Environmental Aspects of the Geosphere
15.10. Earthquakes
15.11. Volcanoes
15.12. Surface Earth Movement
15.13. Stream and River Phenomena
15.14. Phenomena at the Land/Ocean Interface
15.15. Phenomena at the Land/Atmosphere Interface
15.16. Effects of Ice
15.17. Effects of Human Activities
15,18. Air Pollution and the Geosphere
15.19. Water Pollution and the Geosphere
15.20. Waste Disposal and the Geosphere
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 16. Soil and Agricultural Environmental Chemistry
16.1. Soil and Agriculture
16.2. Nature and Composition of Soil
16.3. Acid-Base and Ion Exchange Reactions in Soils
16.4. Macronutrients in Soil
16.5. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Soil
16.6. Micronutrients in Soil
16.7. Fertilizers
16.8. Pollutants from Livestock Production
16.9. Pesticides and their Residues in Soil
16.10. Wastes and Pollutants in Soil
16.11. Soil Loss and Degradation
16.12. Saving the Land
16.13. Genetic Engineering and Agriculture
16.14. Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
16.15. Agriculture and Health
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 17. GREEN CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
17.1. Changing the Bad Old Ways
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17.2 Green Chemistry

17.3. Reduction of Risk: Hazard and Exposure
17.4. Waste Prevention and Green Chemistry
17.5. Green Chemistry and Synthetic Chemistry
17.6. Feedstocks
17.7. Reagents
17.8. Stoichiometric and Catalytic Reagents
17.9. Media and Solvents
17.10. Enhancing Reactions
17.11. Industrial Ecology
17.12. The Five Major Components of An Industrial Ecosystem
17.13. Industrial Metabolism
17.14. Material Flow and Recycling in an Industrial Ecosystem
17.15. The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem
17.16. Consideration of Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology
17.17. Life Cycles: Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop
17.18. Life-Cycle Assessment
17.19. Consumable, Recyclable, and Service (Durable) Products
17.20. Design for Environment
17.21. Inherent Safety
17.22.Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering
CHAPTER 18. RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS
18.1. Where to Get the Stuff We Need?
18.2. Minerals in the Geosphere
18.3. Extraction and Mining
18.4 Metals
18.5. Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology
18.6. Nonmetal Mineral Resources
18.7. Phosphates
18.8. Sulfur
18.9. WoodA Major Renewable Resource
18.10. Extending Resources through the Practice of Industrial Ecology
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 19. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY: THE KEY TO EVERYTHING
19.1. The Energy Problem
19.2. The Nature of Energy
19.3. Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere
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19.4. Energy Devices and Conversions

19.5. Green Technology and Energy Conversion Efficiency
19.6. Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources
19.7. Petroleum and Natural Gas
19.8. Coal
19.9. Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization
19.10. Industrial Ecology for Energy and Chemicals
19.11. Nuclear Energy
19.12. Geothermal Energy
19.13.The Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source
19.14. Energy from Moving Air and Moving Water
19.15. Biomass Energy
19.16. Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy
19.17. Combined Power Cycles
19.18. A System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production
CHAPTER 20. NATURE, SOURCES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
20.1. Introduction
20.2 Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes
20.3. Sources of Wastes
20.4. Flammable and Combustible Substances
20.5. Reactive Substances
20.6. Corrosive Substances
20.7. Toxic Substances
20.8. Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes
20.9. Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes
20.10. Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes
20.11. Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes
20.12. Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere
20.13. Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere
20.14. Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere
20.15. Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere
20.16. Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere
20.17. Hazardous Substances in Terrorism
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems

xiv

CHAPTER 21. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY FOR WASTE MINIMIZATION,

UTILIZATION, AND TREATMENT
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Waste Reduction and Minimization
21.3. Recycling
21.4. Physical Methods of Waste Treatment
21.5. Chemical Treatment: An Overview
21.6. Green Waste Treatment by Photolysis and Sonolysis
21.7. Thermal Treatment Methods
21.8. Biodegradation of Wastes
21.9. Phytoremediation
21.10. Land Treatment and Composting
21.11. Preparation of Wastes for Disposal
21.12. Ultimate Disposal of Wastes
21.13. Leachate and Gas Emissions
21.14. In-Situ Treatment
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 22. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOCHEMISTRY
22.1. Biochemistry
22.2. Biochemistry and the Cell
22.3. Proteins
22.4. Carbohydrates
22.5. Lipids
22.6. Enzymes
22.7. Nucleic Acids
22.8. Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering
22.9. Metabolic Processes
22.10. Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 23. TOXICOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
23.1. Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry
23.2. Dose-Response Relationships
23.3. Relative Toxicities
23.4. Reversibility and Sensitivity
23.5. Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances
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23.6. Toxicological Chemistry

23.7. Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase
23.8. Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune
and Reproductive Systems
23.9. Health Hazards
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 24. TOXICOLOGICAL
CHEMISTRY
SUBSTANCES
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms
24.3. Toxic Inorganic Compounds
24.4. Toxicology of Organic Compounds
24.5. Toxic Natural Products
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems

OF

CHEMICAL

CHAPTER 25. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER

25.1. General Aspects of Environmental Chemical Analysis
25.2. Classical Methods
25.3. Spectrophotometric Methods
25.4. Electrochemical Methods of Analysis
25.5. Chromatography
25.6. Mass Spectrometry
25.7. Analysis of Water Samples
25.8. Automated Water Analyses
25.9. Speciation
25.10. Emerging Contaminants in Water Analysis
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 26. ANALYSIS OF WASTES AND SOLIDS
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Sample Digestion for Elemental Analysis
26.3. Analyte Isolation for Organics Analysis
26.4. Sample Cleanups
26.5. Sample Preparation for Volatile Organic Compounds

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26.6. Immunoassay Screening of Wastes

26.7. Determination of Chelating Agents
26.8. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedures
CHAPTER 27. AIR AND GAS ANALYSIS
27.1. Atmospheric Monitoring
27.2. Sampling
27.3. Methods of Analysis
27.4. Determination of Sulfur Dioxide
27.5. Nitrogen Oxides
27.6. Analysis of Oxidants
27.7. Analysis of Carbon Monoxide
27.8. Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics
27.9. Analysis of Particulate Matter
27.10. Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 28. ANALYSIS OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND
XENOBIOTICS
28.1. Introduction
28.2. Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics
28.3. Determination of Metals
28.4. Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds
28.5. Determination of Parent Organic Compounds
28.6. Measurement of Phase 1 and Phase 2 Reaction Products
28.7. Determination of Adducts
28.8. The Promise of Immunological Methods
Literature Cited
Supplementary References
Questions and Problems

xvii