Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Robert Meinsma
The chronology which follows is not intended to be exhaustive, but
was designed to point out some early developments and key alterations in
philosophical thinking and highlight certain subsequent events that
contributed to the evolution of psychology and psychiatry. It also offers
an outline of the abusive history of these practices to demonstrate how
far afield from compassion and a true intention to help a profession or
ideology can stray due to a lack of an actual science of mental healing.
At the earliest point of recorded history, the study of life and
the physical universe was approached more or less as a single, albeit
multifaceted, enigma. As time went on, ideas and opinions were
compartmentalized and given different labels, such as "physics,"
"religion," "psychology," etc., which better organized research and the
development of ideas. However, this also caused an individuation of
concepts and the fruits of discovery in one field would often not enhance
the development of data in another. Consequently, great strides were
eventually made in the area of the physical sciences but very little
progress was realized in the field of the humanities. C. P. Snow
(190580), for example, viewed the humanities and sciences as polar
opposites.
The earlier one tries to reach back into history, the harder it
becomes to get reliable data, as historical events are often embellished,
changed or deleted for any number of reasons, including sociopolitical
ones or merely due to the translation from one language to another.
(Voltaire called history "the Mississippi of lies.) With this caveat, the
6th century BC is taken as a starting point. This period is marked by
philosophers who made inquiries into the nature of the spirit and
reality. One of the first things that becomes apparent on this line of
inquiry is the commonly accepted view has philosophy essentially
beginning in ancient Greece, with the thinking and writing occurring
earlier in the East being somehow disconnected or exotic. On the
contrary, wisdom from the earliest times was freely disseminated along
trade routes.
During the 6th century lived great thinkers: Zoroaster (660-583 BC)
in Persia; Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) 563-483 BC in India; Lao Tse (604531 BC) in India and Confucius (551-479 BC) in China. From this point
forward, into the classical period of Greece from 450-300 BC, philosophy
underwent a change, becoming extracted from a strictly religious context.
The idea was considered that perhaps there was no omnipotent being, or
allness to the universe, but rather that change was the only true reality
and that the view of oneself as a spirit was an illusion; a mechanical
view of reality seemed to provide the most efficient way of answering
questions.
As time went on, investigation into the tangible, physical world
gained credibility, as it became apparent that the universe of matter,
energy, space and time surrendered its secrets under an ordered
scientific scrutiny. This successful method of inquiry was extended to
thought and the mind, but not in a spiritual context. The idea that man
was, in the deepest and most profound sense, different than the physical
universe and had to be studied with different parameters was overlooked.
Life and thought began to be seen as part of the physical universe, with
man being viewed as the result of physical processes, i.e., the result of
phenomena dependent on, or the result of, matter and energy existing in
space through time.
A split between philosophy and science gradually ensued, as
Philosophy came to be viewed as neither practical nor applicable to
changing immediate conditions in a tangible sense, and Science was seen
to be concerned only with the physical universe, which is viewed in many
philosophical fields as illusory and not the correct arena in which to
address the larger, more fundamental questions.
This bifurcation is ultimately the result of no reliable
investigation into the mind or the spirit that would yield a way to
answer fundamental questions and accomplish two things: One, clarify the
philosophical concepts that comprise the underpinnings of the physical
universe; and, two, solve the problem of madness, which is the ultimate
barrier to realizing the original goals and purposes of what is loosely
called "religion". Thus, instead of great thinkers who sought knowledge
regardless of its source, the bifurcation produced either "scientists who
also philosophized" or "philosophers who were scientific".
The lack of research into the mind and spirit from a traditional
religious/philosophical approach resulted in a vacuum of data,
exemplified by the fact that mind was never defined nor identified as
something that could be studied, only its manifestations. This vacuum was
readily filled with "scientific" ideas that were logical and fit within
an ordered, tangible world; what could be seen, tasted and measured was
considered valid. If it was not tangible, evidence of its existence was
looked for in the physical universe. This is an approach of dubious value
when dealing with spiritual matters. What is the physical manifestation
of love? Such matters tend to be viewed as interesting, perhaps, but not
"practical" or "scientific. (The word "philosophical" is to many people
today synonymous with a sort of vague, theoretical way of thinking.) The
strides made in the physical sciences caused the thinkers of the day to
overlook the fact that the actualization of any benefits from advance in
the physical sciences was dependent upon the sanity and intentions of
those putting the data to use (e.g., the use of the datum E=MC2).
Because associative thought is widely acknowledged as being "the
way intelligent people think, one runs into the odd circumstance of the
most intelligent people rejecting what they think of as religion because
of its illogic and because of the factors introduced into it which have
made it a useful control operation throughout the centuries. This
rejection includes rejection of the most important ideas there are.
Spiritual concepts are actually as practical and fundamental as the socalled scientific methodology to which the intelligentsia cling so
desperately.
Truths tend to be ignored to the extent they are no longer apparent
but merely part of the scenery. The most fundamental and powerful
concepts, particularly when the origins of the words are studied - the
so-called "roots" - are manifested right in the language. "Religion,"
"person," "being,""personification" "godhead" - these concepts are an
example of how fundamental philosophic
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cancer</h3>
<li><B><A
HREF="/b2/company_profile.cfm?CompanyID=2864"><FONT COLOR="999966">Watson
Pharmaceuticals</FONT></A></B> (<A
HREF="http://investor.biospace.com/quote.asp?Symbol=WPI"
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New Cervical Cancer Screening Technology Available In First Quarter
2002<br>
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Esoterix Molecular <A XGLS='(878)'>Genetics</A XGLS> announced
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FDA APPROVED <BR><BR> Kos Pharmaceuticals' (<A
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cholesterol-lowering ingredient of Merck's (NYSE: MRK) Mevacor
(lovastatin) and the nutrient niacin, was approved by the FDA. Kos said
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representatives. The statin portion of Advicor is directed against the
"bad" LDL cholesterol, whereas the niacin portion tends to raise "good"
tends to invalidate the realm of the spirit, which has seldom, if ever,
been defined or described accurately. Most philosophers cannot make the
jump from logic-based consciousness to the clarity of observation
necessary to proceed beyond the world of mechanics, so their philosophies
tend to proceed in a mechanical fashion. Many "philosophies" on this
planet describe the mind as a mechanism of the brain. The leap from
logic-based consciousness to a higher level of knowing has traditionally
been religiously-based, as it involves a change in consciousness. This is
mistrusted by most investigators as too "subjective. What becomes
apparent, then, is a religious/philosophical lineage coming from the
Vedas to India. It was promulgated through Buddhism and the Tao over to
Christianity. It was interrupted along the way with an offshoot into
Greece, which became at that point the historically agreed upon source of
"western philosophy".
It would be neat and easy to say religious philosophy was coherent
with its data intact until the Greeks came along, alienated spiritual
aspects of philosophy by focusing on the physical universe and took a
detour. While there is truth in this, the fact is that the idea of man
being essentially physical had its roots in the very same early writings
that contained the concepts of man as a spirit. In fact, the idea of the
divine nature of man and the ultimate truth of thought, life and the
universe were altered and obfuscated practically at their inception. With
no orderly mode of investigation into these mysteries, the knowledge
became alloyed and mixed in with false data, wrong turns and
misconceptions.
Due to a subverted religious/philosophical frame of reference,
man's nature became regarded as ultimately physical by those regarded as
the "experts. Any data, or thought on spirituality was increasingly
relegated to the sphere of "religion" or "philosophy. The distinction
between philosophy/religion and science grew more apparent, with no
attempt to use scientific methodology to investigate the realm of the
spirit. For example, the traditional view was of the body as a product or
function of consciousness. This changed into the view of the brain as
being an organ that contained consciousness. Many now adhere to the
notion that the brain produces consciousness.
Addressing suffering and the travail of the spirit moved away from
its original religious context (Patanjali, a legendary sage, defined Yoga
as ...the intentional stopping of the spontaneous activity of the mind
stuff.") Thus, the viewpoint changed from the individual taking
responsibility for dealing with his mental suffering through a
spiritual\religious context to technologies of a somatic nature which
eventually resulted in drugs, shock, imprisonment, outright torture and
murder, to ultimately the wholesale and methodical slaughter of millions
in the early 20th century; in a word, psychiatry.
Psychiatry and psychology are belief systems, not sciences, and are
not based and built on proven data as are true sciences, such as
chemistry. Psychiatry is the only group operating under the guise of a
"science, masquerading as members of the medical profession, that
utilizes the police powers of the state to confine and force
"treatments." Psychiatry and psychology provide an exchange with society
that is twofold: 1) They provide answers to questions about the mind and
behavior. The mind is an unanswered puzzle and man is hungry for answers
that, even when false, serve to fill this vacuum. Most people consider it
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Many people who are commonly labeled "insane" or "mentally ill" are
neither. People who babble to themselves or hallucinate are usually
exhausted; driven to irrational behavior due to the attrition of
suffering vivid exaggerations of otherwise normal functions of the mind.
This may seem to be mere semantics, but it is not. True insanity involves
the intention to harm and destroy. Who, then, would be insane under this
definition? The screaming patient straining and protesting against his
confinement, or the "doctor" administering shock or forcing drugs? If
this sounds extreme, please read on.
? BC Vedic hymns stress the link between immortality and gold. Elixirs
made from herbs and metals (mercury) are used.
4000 -3000 BC PreAryan religion. Animism and dynamism practiced by the
occupants of the Iranian plateau and elsewhere.
2850 BC Egyptian healer Imhotep uses "incubation sleep" as therapy, which
influences Greek Aesculapian priests. Knowledge of the brain is recorded
for the first time during this period. Egyptian physicians are subject to
malpractice laws. Patients are encouraged to partake in recreational
therapy. Hygienic measures are expanded upon by the Hebrews. (Imhotep is
later deified in 525 BC.)
2750-2150 BC Babylonian physicians called Assipu priests (later called
Asu) deal with internal and particularly mental ailments. Drugs and
incantations used. The chief deity of physicians is a god who has the
symbol of a serpent. They describe many diseases correctly on cuneiform
tablets. Babylonian physicians have their own code of ethics and are
frequently called into Egypt for consultations.
c 2000 BC Aryans enter Iran and from there enter into India. Two main
tribes settle in Iran: Amadai (Medes) and Parsua (Persians). Dominance
eventually falls to the Persians. A route runs from Mesopotamia to the
Caspian plateau through the land of the Medes. (Greek historian
Herodotus, 484425 BC, recorded facts about the Aryan culture.)
1500-1000 BC Rgveda written (other vedas slightly later).
1550 BC Egyptians believe in "hysteria, the misplacement of the uterus
in females, as one reason for mental disturbances. This idea continues
through to the end of the 19th century.
1400 BC Hindu physicians on record as treating certain forms of madness
with "kindness and consideration." Vedic priests purge "angry demons" to
cure patients. Disease is seen as an imbalance in the body of the three
vital "problems" (dosas usually translated as humours): wind, bile
phlegm.
1140 BC Chinese institutions for the insane.
THE GREEKS
The Greek culture basically took philosophy from a strictly
religious context and entered in the idea that phenomena, whether
perceived as the physical universe or the universe of thought, have
natural, rather than strictly spiritual or "supernatural" explanations.
This trend of "rationalism" (as some later called it) began around 700-
c 400 BC Evidence of brain surgery in Peru and Bolivia. Some skulls are
found from this time period with as many as 7 holes cut in them, which
later healed, in apparent attempts to treat migraines and seizures.
427-347 BC Plato divides madness into 3 categories: melancholia, mania
and dementia. Distinguishing between the body and mind, he believes in
the immortality of the soul and that the soul is located in the brain. He
explains knowledge with the idea that the soul remembers a previous
existence. In Timaeus, he says, "The only thing one can do for another is
reintroduce him to those forms of the spirit, the memory of which was
lost at birth." Deriving much of his philosophy from Pythagoras, the
basis for his philosophy is the conflict between the lower appetites and
desires of the body and the higher aspirations of the spirit. He states
in Politeia "(race hygiene) is not a science at all but a Phoenician myth
..it is a fraud of which it is necessary to make use in order to dominate
the masses and it must remain an occult doctrine.
c 450 BC The first important codification of Roman law, into the "Twelve
Tables. In the first mention of insanity in Roman law, Law Seven states,
"When no guardian has been appointed for an insane person, or a
spendthrift, his nearest agnates (closest male relatives on the father's
side of the family), or if there are none, his other relatives, must take
charge of his property."
c 460 BC Diogenes of Appolonia conceives air to have the quality of
rationality, which he feels helps explain the construction of living
organisms.
384-322 BC Aristotle writes about the soul in On the Soul. He decides
knowledge is derived from experience and is the first to articulate the
concept of association to explain memory. He believes the soul is located
in the heart and puts forth the idea that there is a purpose to nature,
as opposed to the mechanistic view of the atomists. He writes, "We have
no evidence as yet about the mind or the power to think; it seems to be a
widely different kind of soul, differentiating what is eternal from what
is perishable; it alone is capable of existence in isolation from all
other physical powers." He presents human behavior and experience in
definite terms regarding memory, emotion, interpersonal relations, etc.
He describes imagination as calling up a mental image in the absence of
the actual physical object and sees thinking as an activity leading to
the attainment of pleasure or avoidance of pain. He states that reason is
of divine origin and is absolute. He also feels that there are certain
people who are destined from birth to be slaves, as others are destined
to be their masters. He seeks to organize knowledge into (a) the
theoretical sciences (physics and philosophy); (b) the practical sciences
(ethics and politics); (c) the poetic sciences (aesthetics). He uses
rational terminology to make reference to that which heretofore was
described through spiritual metaphors and concepts of the older Eastern
tradition. His works are later used to support and emphasize rationalism
and de-emphasize transcendence of rationalism.
371-287 BC Theophrasius outlines 30 types of personalities or character
types.
356-323 BC Life of Alexander the Great, who conquers most of the known
world, spreading Greek culture and ideas throughout. He enters India,
burned and otherwise executed throughout Europe as mentally ill and other
undesirables are accused of being under the influence of the devil.
1431 Joan of Arc is burned as a witch.
1488 Spanish Inquisition begins.
1492-1540 Jean Vives in France is given credit for improving the care of
the insane and paupers in France dramatically. Vives insists on
usefulness of a person as the test of knowledge. His thoughts on
conditioning predate Pavlov. Says, "When an animal enjoys something at
the sound of a tone, then when the tone is heard, it will expect the
object it enjoyed previously."
1497-1560 Philip Melanchthon who worked with Martin Luther, uses term the
"psychologia" (probably for the first time) in his lectures on Latin at
the University of Wittenberg in Germany.
1500s Heinrich Agrippa and Johann Weyer successfully defend many
"witches, explaining their confessions to be due to duress or mental
illness. (More frequent acquittals in 1600s; isolated cases of witchcraft
until end of 1700s.)
1500s Police codes in various cities (London, Paris, New Orleans) read
"If a dangerous madman has no relative he shall be placed in prison.
Conditions in prisons are comparable to those of institutions, although
without the intrusive "therapy.
1600s1700s Abuses are rampant in mental hospitals, with the exception of
some in Spain where ideas of humane treatment from Roman physicians have
persisted.
16th Century Electric eels are used to expel spirits from the body in
Ethiopia.
1526 Phillipus Paracelsus of Switzerland is a physician who asserts that
all illness, physical or mental, can be cured by administering the proper
drug. He speaks out loudly against witch hunting and rejects demonic
possession as a cause of insanity. He publishes Diseases Which Lead to
the Loss of Reason which helps pave the way for modern theories of mental
illness.
1563 Johann Weyer of Holland publishes a book on witches advocating that
they be treated by doctors as being mentally ill.
1566 First new world mental hospital in Mexico City.
1576-1660 St. Vincent de Paul founds institutions famous for humane care
of mentally ill.
1584-1659 The life of Paolo Zacchia, considered to be one of the first
forensic psychiatrists.
1590 Rudolf Goeckel first uses term "psychologia" in print in the book
Psychology This is on the Perfection of Man.