Advaita Vedanta

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Advaita Vedanta[note 1] is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta,[note 2] an ancient Hindu tradition of
scriptural exegesis[note 3] andreligious practice,[web 1] and the best-known school of advaita, the
nonduality of Atman and Brahman or the Absolute. It gives "a unifying interpretation of the whole
body of Upanishads",[6] providing scriptural authority for the postulation of the nonduality
ofAtman and Brahman.
Advaita (not-two in Sanskrit) refers to the recognition that the true Self, Atman, is the same as
the highest Reality, Brahman. [note 4][note 5] Followers seek liberation/release by
acquiring vidy (knowledge)[8] of the identity of Atman and Brahman. Attaining this liberation takes
a long preparation and training under the guidance of a guru. Advaita thought can also be found
in non-orthodox Indian religious traditions, such as the tantric Nath tradition.
The principal, though not the first, exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Shankara
Bhagavadpada[9] in the 8th century, who systematised the works of preceding philosophers. [10] Its
teachings have influenced various sects of Hinduism. [11]
The key source texts for all schools of Vednta are the Prasthanatrayi, the canonical texts
consisting of the Upanishads, theBhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras, of which they give a
philosophical interpretation and elucidation.[6]
Advaita Vedanta developed in a multi-faceted religious and philosophical landscape. The
tradition developed in interaction with the other traditions of
India: Jainism, Buddhism, Vaishnavism and Shaivism, as well as the other schools of Vedanta.
In modern times, due to western Orientalism and Perennialism, and its influence on Indian NeoVedanta and Hindu nationalism,[12]Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian
culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality,[12] despite the wide
popularity of the Shaivite Vishishtadvaita and Dvaitadvaita bhakti traditions, and incorporating
teachers such as Ramana Maharshi and Nisargadatta Maharaj despite their eclectic and tantric
backgrounds.
Contents
[hide]

1 Moksha liberation through knowledge of Brahman

1.1 Svdhyya and anubhava - understanding the texts

1.2 Moksha - liberation

1.3 Identity of Atman and Brahman

1.4 Mahavakya The Great Sentences

1.5 Stages and practices

1.6 Necessity of a Guru

2 Texts
o

2.1 Prasthnatray Three standards

2.2 Textual authority

2.3 Siddhi-granthas

2.4 Introductory texts

3 Philosophy
o

3.1 Ontology The nature of being

3.2 Epistemology Ways of knowing

4 History of Advaita Vedanta

o

4.1 Pre-Shankara Vedanta

4.2 Gaudapada

4.3 Adi Shankara

4.4 Surevara and Mand ana Mira

4.5 Advaita Vedanta sub-schools

4.6 later Advaita Vedanta tradition

5 Sampradaya
o

5.1 Advaita Mathas

5.2 Smarta Tradition

6 Influence on modern Hinduism

o

6.1 Unifying Hinduism

6.2 Contemporary popularization

7 Relationship with other forms of Vedanta

7.1 Vishishtadvaita

7.2 Dvaita

8 Relationship with Mahayana Buddhism

o

8.1 Influence of Mahayana Buddhism

8.2 Criticisms

8.3 Common core thesis

9 Status of ethics

10 See also

11 Notes

12 References

13 Sources
o

13.1 Published sources

13.2 Web-sources

14 Further reading

15 External links

Moksha liberation through knowledge of Brahman[edit]

Main article: Moksha
Traditional Advaita Vedanta centers around the study and correct understanding of the sruti,
revealed texts, especially the Upanishads.[13][14] Correct understanding provides knowledge of the
identity of atman and Brahman, which results in liberation. The main texts to be studied are
the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Correct knowledge is obtained by following
the four stages of samanyasa (self-cultivation), sravana, listening to the teachings of the
sages, manana, reflection on the teachings, andsvdhyya, contemplation of the truth "that art
Thou". Practice is also needed to "destroy one's tendencies (vAasanA-s)" before real insight can
be attained.[web 2]

Svdhyya and anubhava - understanding the texts[edit]

Sruti, revealed texts, and proper reasoning, are the main sources of knowledge for Shankara and
the subsequent Advaita Vedanta tradition.[15][16] Correct knowledge of Brahman can be acquired
by svdhyya,[17] study of the self and of the Veda, andnididhysana, prolonged study of and
contemplation on the truths revealed in the sruti[18] and contemplation of non-duality.[19]
Nididhyasana leads to anubhava, direct cognition or understanding, which establishes the truth
of the sruti.[20] Shankara holdsanubhava to be a pramana, an independent source of knowledge

which is provided by nididhyasana.[21] According to Comans, Shankara

uses anubhava interchangeably with pratipatta, "understanding".[web 3] Davis
translates anubhava as "direct intuitive understanding".[22] According to Hirst, anubhava is the
"non-dual realisation gained from the scriptures", which "provides the sanctionp and paradigm for
proper reasoning", when interpreted by a self-realized Advaitin teacher.[23] This "knowledge of
Brahman, is identical with that self which is to be known as witness, not as object". [23]
Modern interpretators have recast anubhava as "personal experience", in line with Unitarian and
Theosophical influences.[24] Yet,anubhava does not center around some sort of "mystical
experience," but around the correct knowledge of Brahman. [16] Anantanand Rambachan quotes
several modern interpretators in defence of this interpretation, especially Radakrishnan, [24] but
nevertheless makes clear that sruti is the main source of knowledge for Shankara.[15] Swami
Dayananda notes that anubhava has a more specific meaning than its conventional meaning of
"experience", namely "direct knowledge". Dayananda explains that interpreting anubahva as
"experience" may lead to a misunderstanding of Advaita Vedanta, and a mistaken rejection of the
study of the scriptures as mere intellectual understanding. Stressing the meaning of anubhava as
knowledge, Saraswati argues that liberation comes from knowledge, not from mere experience.
[web 3]
Saraswati points out that "the experience of the self ... can never come because
consciousness is ever-present, in and through each and every experience." [web 4] And Swami
Nikhalananda notes that (knowledge of) Atman and Brahman can only be reached by buddhi,
"reason,"[25] stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while buddhi is the highest
means of attaining knowledge.[26]

Moksha - liberation[edit]
Correct knowledge of Brahman results in liberation,[note 6] by knowledge of the identity
of atman and Brahman. knowledge of Brahman destroys Maya, the illusory appreances which
cover the Real, Brahman. When Maya is removed, the truth of "Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya
Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah" is realised:[web 5]
Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; the Jiva or the individual soul is nondifferent from Brahman.[web 5]
Liberation can be achieved while living, and is called Jivanmukta.[29]

Identity of Atman and Brahman[edit]

See also Jnana, Prajna and Prajnam Brahma
Moksha is attained by realizing the identity of Atman and Brahman. According to Potter,
8. The true Self is itself just that pure consciousness, without which nothing can be
known in any way.
9. And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not different from the ultimate
world Principle, Brahman ...
11. ... Brahman (=the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (sat), since It
is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is
not sublimatable.[30]
"Pure consciousness" is the translation of jnanam.[31] Although the common translation
of jnanam[31] is "consciousness", the term has a broader meaning of "knowing"; "becoming
acquainted with",[web 6] "knowledge about anything",[web 6] "awareness",[web 6] "higher knowledge".
[web 6]

"Brahman" too has a broader meaning than "pure consciousness". According to Paul
Deussen,[7] Brahman is:

Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one

Jnam, "Knowledge which, however, is not split into the subject and the object"

anantam, "boundless or infinite"

According to David Loy,

The knowledge of Brahman ... is not intuition of Brahman but itself is Brahman.[32]
The same nuance can be found in satcitananda, the qualities of Brahman, which are usually
translated as "Eternal Bliss Consciousness",[33] "Absolute Bliss Consciousness",[web 7]or
"Consisting of existence and thought and joy".[web 8] Satcitananda is composed of
three Sanskrit words:

sat (present participle); [Sanskrit root as, "to be"]:[citation needed] "Truth",[note 7] "Absolute
Being",[web 7] "a palpable force of virtue and truth".[34] Sat describes an essence that is pure
and timeless, that never changes.[web 7]

cit (noun): "consciousness",[web 7] "true consciousness",[citation needed] "to be consciousness

of",[35] "to understand",[35] "to comprehend".[35]

nanda (noun): "bliss",[web 7] "true bliss",[citation needed] "happiness",[web 9] "joy",[web 9] "delight",

[web 9]
"pleasure"[web 9]

This knowledge is intuitive knowledge, a spontaneous type of knowing[36][note 8], as rendered in

the prefix pra of prajnanam Brahman.

Mahavakya The Great Sentences[edit]

Main article: Mahvkyas
The Mahavakya, or "the great sentences", remind us of the unity of Brahman and Atman, [citation
needed]
or "the inner immortal self and the great cosmic power are one and the same". [37] There
are many such sentences in the Vedas, however only one such sentence from each of the
four Vedas is usually chosen.
Sr.
No.

Vakya

Meaning

Upanishad

Veda

(pragnam
brahma)

Prajnam[note 9] is
Brahman[note 10]

Aitareya V.3

Rgveda

2.

(aham
brahmsmi)

I am Brahman, or I am
Divine[41]

Brhadranyaka
I.4.10

Shukla
Yajurveda

3.

(tat tvam asi)

That thou art

Chandogya VI.8.7

Samaveda

4.

(ayamtm
brahma)

This Atman is Brahman

Mandukya II

Atharvaveda

Stages and practices[edit]

Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha. It entails more than self-inquiry or
bare insight into one's real nature. Practice, especially Jnana Yoga, is also needed to
"destroy one's tendencies (vAasanA-s)" before real insight can be attained.[web 2][note 11]
Jnana Yoga Four stages of practice[edit]
Main article: Jnana Yoga
Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and
training to attain moksha. It consists of four stages:[43][web 15]

Samanyasa or Sampattis,[44] the "fourfold discipline" (sdhana-catustaya), cultivating the

following four qualities:[43][web 15]

Nitynitya vastu viveka ( ) The ability (viveka) to

correctly discriminate between the eternal (nitya) substance (Brahman) and the
substance that is transitory existence (anitya).

Ihmutrrtha phala bhoga virga ( ) The

renunciation (virga) of enjoyments of objects (artha phala bhoga) in this world (iha)
and the other worlds (amutra) like heaven etc.

amdi s atka sampatti ( ) the sixfold qualities,

ama (control of the antahkarana).[web 16]

Dama (the control of external sense organs).

Uparati (the cessation of these external organs so restrained, from the

pursuit of objects other than that, or it may mean the abandonment of the
prescribed works according to scriptural injunctions).[note 12]

Titiks a (the tolerating of tpatraya).

raddh (the faith in Guru and Vedas).

Samdhna (the concentrating of the mind on God and Guru).

Mumuks utva ( ) The firm conviction that the nature of the world is
misery and the intense longing for moksha (release from the cycle of births and
deaths).

Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta,
and studying the Vedantic texts, such as the Brahma Sutras. In this stage the student
learns about the reality of Brahman and the identity of atman;

Manana, the stage of reflection on the teachings;

Nididhysana, the stage of meditation on the truth "that art Thou".[web 15][web 17]

Samadhi[edit]
While Shankara emphasized sravana ("hearing"), manana ("reflection")
and nididhyasana ("repeated meditation"), later texts like the Dg-Dya-Viveka (14th
century) andVedantasara (of Sadananda) (15th century) added samadhi as a means to
liberation, a theme that was also emphasized by Swami Vivekananda.
Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga[edit]
Main articles: Bhakti and Karma yoga
Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga can be employed as subsidiary practices to the understanding
of the sruti. In Bhakti Yoga, practice centres on the worship God in any way and in any form,
like Krishna or Ayyappa. Adi Shankara himself was a proponent of devotional worship
or Bhakti. But Adi Shankara taught that while Vedic sacrifices, puja and devotional worship
can lead one in the direction of jnana (true knowledge), they cannot lead one directly
to moksha. At best, they can serve as means to obtain moksha via shukla gati.[citation
needed]
Karma yoga is the way of doing our duties, in disregard of personal gains or losses. [note 13]

Necessity of a Guru[edit]
See also: Guru-shishya tradition

According to ankara and others, anyone seeking to attain moksha must do so under the
guidance of a Guru (teacher).[note 14] It is the teacher who through exegesis of Sruti and skilful
handling of words generates a hitherto unknown knowledge in the disciple. The teacher does
not merely provide stimulus or suggestion.[45]
The Guru must have the following qualities:[note 15]
1. rotriya must be learned in the Vedic scriptures and Sampradaya
2. Brahmanist h literally meaning 'established in Brahman'; must have realised the
oneness of Brahman in everything, and in himself/herself.
The seeker must serve the Guru, and submit questions with all humility in order to remove all
doubts (see Bhagavad Gita 4.34). By doing so, Advaita says, the seeker will
attainMoksha ('liberation from the cycle of births and deaths').

Texts[edit]
See also: Works of Adi Shankara
Advaita Vedanta is based on the inquiry into the sacred texts of the Upanishads, Bhagavad
Gita and Brahma Sutras. Adi Shankara gave a systematisation and philosophical
underpinning of this inquiry in his commentaries. The subsequent Advaita-tradition has
further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries.

Prasthnatray Three standards[edit]

Main article: Prasthanatrayi
Adi Sankara has chosen[citation needed] three standards, called Prasthnatray, literally, three
points of departure (three standards). Later these were referred to as the three canonical
texts of reference of Hindu philosophy by other Vedanta schools.
They are:
1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthna (injunctive texts), (part of ruti)
2. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sdhana prasthna (practical text), (part of Smrti)

3. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyya prasthna or Yukti prasthana (part

of darana of Uttar Mmms)
The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with many minor texts.
The Bhagavad Gt is part of the Mahabhrata. The Brahma Stras (also known as
the Vednta Stras), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gt.
Sankara Bhagavadpda has written Bhshyas (commentaries) on the Prasthnatray. These
texts are thus considered to be the basic texts of the Advaita-parampara.

Textual authority[edit]
The order of precedance regarding authority of Vedic Scriptures is as follows,

ruti, literally "hearing, listening", are the sacred texts comprising the central canon
of Hinduism and is one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also
influential within Hindu Law.[46]

Smr ti, literally "that which is remembered (or recollected)", refers to a specific body
of Hindu scripture, and is a codified component of Hindu customary law. Post Vedic
scriptures such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and traditions of the rules on dharma such
as Manu Smriti, Yaagnyavalkya Smriti etc. Smrti also denotes tradition in the sense that

it portrays the traditions of the rules on dharma, especially those of lawful virtuous
persons.)

Purna, literally "of ancient times", are post-vedic scriptures notably consisting of
narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of
kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy,
and geography.[web 19]

ist chra, literally "that which is followed by good (in recent times)".

Atmatust i, literally "that which satisfies oneself (or self validation)", according to which
one has to decide whether or not to do with bona fide. Initially this was not considered in
the order of precedence but Manu and Yjavalkya considered it as last one.

If anyone of them contradicts the preceding one, then it is disqualified as an authority to

judge. There is a well known Indian saying that Smr ti follows ruti. So it was considered
that in order to establish any Theistic Philosophical theory (Astika Siddhanta) one ought not
contradict ruti (Vedas).

Siddhi-granthas[edit]
Additionally there are four Siddhi-granthas that are taught in the Advaita-parampara, after
study of the Prasthana-trayi:
1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750850),
2. Naishkarmasiddhi by Sureswara (8th century, disciple of Sankara),
3. Ishtasiddhi by Vimuktananda (1200),
4. Advaita Siddhi,[web 20] written by Madhusudana Saraswati - 1565-1665.

Introductory texts[edit]
Introductory texts from the Advaita Vedanta tradition include:

Ashtavakra Samhita (pre-Sankara), with traces of Advaitism.[note 16]

Tattvabodha (Shankara), an introductory text explaining the terminologies used in Advaita

Vedanta.[note 17]

Atma bodha, A Treatise on the knowledge of Atma (Shankara).[note 18]

Vedantasara (of Sadananda) (Bhagavad Ramanuja, 1017 to 1137 A.D.[web 27])[note 19]

Vakyavrtti

Laghu-Vakyavrtti

Dg-Dya-Viveka

Panchikaranam

Vedanta-Paribhasha (of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra)

Advaita-Makaranda (of Lakshmidhara Kavi)

Aparoksha-Anubhuti

Dakshinamurthy Stotram

Panchadasi (of Vidyaranya)

Kaupina-pancakam

Sadhana-panchakam

Manisha-pancakam

Dasasloki

Advaita Bodha Deepika

Philosophy[edit]
Main article: Hindu philosophy
The Advaita Vedanta gives an explanation and interpretation of the sacred texts of
the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Adi Shankara's commentaries have
become central texts in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, but are not the only interpretations
available or accepted in this tradition.

Ontology The nature of being[edit]

See also: Substance ontology, Substance theory and substance ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence, or reality, as well as the
basic categories of being and their relations.
Advaita Vedanta is a so-called substance ontology, an ontology "which holds that underlying
the seeming change, variety, and multiplicity of existence there are unchanging and
permanent entities (the so-called substances)".[47] In contrast, Buddhism is a process
ontology, according to which "there exists nothing permanent and unchanging, within or
without man".[48][note 20]
Three Levels of Reality[edit]
See also: Two truths doctrine
Advaita took over from the Madhyamika the idea of levels of reality.[50] Usually two levels are
being mentioned,[51] but Shankara uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an ontological
hierarchy of three levels:[52][web 32]

Pramrthika (paramartha, absolute), the absolute level, "which is absolutely real and
into which both other reality levels can be resolved". [web 32] This experience can't be
sublated by any other experience.[52]

Vyvahrika (vyavahara), or samvriti-saya[51] (empirical or pragmatical), "our world of

experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". [web 32] It
is the level in which both jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Iswara are true;
here, the material world is also true.

Prthibhsika (pratibhasika, apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination

alone".[web 32] It is the level in which appearances are actually false, like the illusion of a
snake over a rope, or a dream.

Absolute Reality[edit]
Brahman[edit]
Main articles: Brahman and Nirguna Brahman
Brahman is Paramarthika Satyam, "Absolute Truth".[53] It is
the true Self, pure consciousness ... the only Reality (sat), since It is untinged by
difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublatable".
[30]

"Brahman" has a broader meaning than "pure consciousness". According to Paul Deussen,
[7]
Brahman is:

Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one"

Jnam, "Knowledge which, however, is not split into the subject and the object"

anantam, "boundless or infinite"

Other than Brahman, everything else, including the universe, material objects and
individuals, are maya. Brahman is absolute reality, unborn and unchanging. [citation
needed]
According to Advaita Vedanta, consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very
nature. In this respect Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools. [web 33]
Brahman is the Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperishable. Brahman is indescribable. It
is at best Satchidananda, Infinite Truth, Infinite Consciousness and Infinite Bliss.
Brahman is free from any kind of differences or differentiation. It does not have
any sajtya (homogeneous) differentiation because there is no second Brahman. It does not
have any vijtya (heterogeneous) differentiation because there is nobody in reality existing
other than Brahman. It has neither svagata (internal) differences, because Brahman is itself
homogeneous.
Brahman is often described as neti neti, "not this, not this" since Brahman cannot be
correctly described as this or that.
Atman[edit]
Main article: tman (Hinduism)
tman (IAST: tman, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit word that means 'self'. tman is the first
principle,[54] the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence
of an individual.
"tman" (Atma, , ) is a Sanskrit word which means "essence, breath, soul." It is
related to Proto-Indo-European *etmen, a root found in Sanskrit and German and which
means "breath", and in Ancient Greek , atms "vapor", like in atmosphere.[55][note 21]
Empirical reality[edit]
My[edit]
Main article: My
According to Adi Shankara, My (/mj/ ) is the complex illusionary power of Brahman
which causes the Brahman to be seen as the material world of separate forms. Its shelter is
Brahman, but Brahman itself is untouched by the illusion of My, just as a magician is not
tricked by his own magic.[citation needed]
All sense data entering ones awareness via the five senses are My. My is neither
completely real nor completely unreal, hence indescribable. My is temporary and is

transcended with "true knowledge", or perception of the more fundamental reality which
permeates My.[citation needed]
My has two main functions:[citation needed]
1. To "hide" Brahman from ordinary human perception,
2. To present the material world in its (Brahmam) place.
The world is unreal and real[edit]
The world is both unreal and real. but something can't be both true and false at the same
time; hence Adi Shankara has classified the world as indescribable. Adi Sankara says that
the world is not real (true), it is an illusion.[web 34][note 22] Adi Sankara also claims that the world is
not absolutely unreal (false). It appears unreal (false) only when compared to Brahman. At
the empirical or pragmatic level, the world is completely real.[56][note 23]
The world being both unreal and real is explained by the following. A pen is placed in front of
a mirror. One can see its reflection. To one's eyes, the image of the pen is perceived. Now,
what should the image be called? It cannot be true, because it is an image. The truth is the
pen. It cannot be false, because it is seen by our eyes.[citation needed]
Avidy[edit]

The swan is an important motif in Advaita. It symbolises two things: first, the swan is
called hamsah in Sanskrit (which becomes hamso if the first letter in the next word is /h/). Upon
repeating this hamso indefinitely, it becomes so-aham, meaning, "I am That". Second, just as a
swan lives in water but its feathers are not soiled by water, similarly a liberated Advaitin lives in this
world full of maya but is untouched by its illusion.

Ignorance[edit]
Due to ignorance (avidy), Brahman is perceived as the material world and its objects (nama
rupa vikara). According to Shankara, Brahman is in reality attributeless and formless.
Brahman, the highest truth and all (reality), does not really change; it is only our ignorance
that gives the appearance of change. Also due to avidy, the true identity is forgotten, and
material reality, which manifests at various levels, is mistaken as the only and true reality.
The notion of avidy and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue
within Advaita Vedanta thought: how can avidy appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure
consciousness?[57]
Sengaku Mayeda writes, in his commentary and translation of Adi Shankara's
Upadesasahasri:
Certainly the most crucial problem which Sankara left for his followers is that of
avidy. If the concept is logically analysed, it would lead the Vedanta philosophy
toward dualism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental position. [58]
Subsequent Advaitins gave somewhat various explanations, from which various Advaita
schools arose.

Koshas[edit]
See also: Kosha
Due to avidya, atman is covered by sheaths, or bodies, which hide man's true nature.
According to the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually rendered
"sheath".[web 35] They are often visualised like the layers of an onion.[59] From gross to fine the
five sheets are:
1. Annamaya kosha, food-apparent-sheath
2. Pranamaya kosha, air-apparent-sheath
3. Manomaya kosha, mind-stuff-apparent-sheath
4. Vijnanamaya kosha, wisdom-apparent-sheath
5. Anandamaya kosha, bliss-apparent-sheath (Ananda)
According to Vedanta the wise man should discriminate between the self and the koshas,
which are non-self.
Avasthtraya Three states of consciousness[edit]
See also: Sarira (Vedanta)
Adi Shankara discerned three states of consciousness, based on the Mandukya Upanishad,
namely waking (jgrat), dreaming (svapna), and deep sleep (suupti),[web 36][web 37]which
correspond to the three bodies,[60] another formulation of the five koshas:
1. The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world. "It is
described as outward-knowing (bahish-prajnya), gross (sthula) and universal
(vaishvanara)".[web 37] This is the gross body.
2. The second state is the dreaming mind. "It is described as inward-knowing (antahprajnya), subtle (pravivikta) and burning (taijasa)". [web 37] This is the subtle body.
3. The third state is the state of deep sleep. In this state the underlying ground of
concsiousness is undistracted, "the Lord of all (sarv'-eshvara), the knower of all
(sarva-jnya), the inner controller (antar-yami), the source of all (yonih sarvasya), the
origin and dissolution of created things (prabhav'-apyayau hi bhutanam)". [web 37] This is
thecausal body.
Turiya, pure consciousness is the background that underlies and transcends the three
common states of consciousness.[web 38][web 39] In this consciousness both absolute and
relative, Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman, are transcended.[61] It is the true state of
experience of the infinite (ananta) and non-different (advaita/abheda), free from the dualistic
experience which results from the attempts to conceptualise ( vipalka) reality.[62] It is the state
in which ajativada, non-origination, is apprehended.[62]

Epistemology Ways of knowing[edit]

See also: Epistemology
Epistemology (from Greek (epistm), meaning "knowledge, understanding",
and (logos), meaning "study of") is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature
and scope (limitations) of knowledge.
Pramnas Correct knowledge[edit]
Main article: Pramana
Pramna, (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit ), refers to the correct knowledge, arrived
at by thorough reasoning, of any object.

Pramtr , Pramna and Prameya[edit]

Pramna forms one part of a triput i (trio), namely,
1. Pramtr , the subject; the knower of the knowledge
2. Pramna, the cause or the means of the knowledge
3. Prameya, the object of knowledge
Six pramnas[edit]
In Advaita Vednta,[63] as in the Bht t a school ofMimm s, the following pramnas are
accepted:
1. Pratyaksa (perception), the knowledge gained by means of the senses. That which
is immediately perceived to be so; This knowledge can be corrected, e.g., if one
perceives a piece of rope to be a snake.
2. Anumna (inference), the knowledge gained by means of inference. That which is
perceived as true through previous knowledge, e.g., to knows that it is a fire because
smoke can be seen in the sky (the two are related through a universal law)
3. abda (verbal testimony), the knowledge gained by means of texts such as Vedas
(also known as ptavkya, abda pramna)
4. Upamna (comparison), the knowledge gained by means of analogy or comparison.
That which is perceived as true since it compares to previous, confirmed,
knowledge. To know that something is something, e.g., a cat, because one has seen
cats before.
5. Arthpatti (postulation), the knowledge gained by superimposing the known
knowledge on an appearing knowledge that does not concur with the known
knowledge. i.e., To see someone gain weight while knowing they are fasting,
imposes the knowledge that the person is secretly eating.
6. Anupaladbhi (negation), the knowledge gained through the absence of the object.
That which is true through a negation. Classic e.g., karatale ghato nasti the pot is
not on the palm. The pot could be elsewhere. So the place (on the palm) of its
absence is also important.
Perception, inference and verbal testimony have the same meaning as in the Nyaya-school.
Regarding comparison, postulation and non-cognition Advaita Vedanta views which
somewhat differ from the Nyaya-school.[63]
Criterion of sublation[edit]
See also: Aufheben
Sublation is replacement of a "truth" by a higher "truth", until no higher truth can be found.
Shankara uses sublatibility as the criterion for the ontological status of any content of
consciousness:[64]
Sublition is essentially the mental process of correcting and rectifying errors of
judgement. Thus one is said to sublate a previous held judgment when, in the light of
a new experience which contradicts it, one either regards the judgment as false or
disvalues it in some significant sense ... Not only judgment but also concepts,
objects, relations, and in general any content of consciousness can be sublated. [65]

History of Advaita Vedanta[edit]

Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)

Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its most influential expounder in
Shankara.[66]

Pre-Shankara Vedanta[edit]
Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400450 CE[67]) almost
nothing is known.[67] Very little also is known of the period between the Brahmansutras and
Shankara (first half of the 8th century CE).[67] Only two writings of this period have survived:
theVkyapadya, written by Bhartr hari (second half 5th century[68]), and the Mndkyakrik written by Gaudapada (7th century CE).[67]
Earliest Vedanta[edit]
See also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation. [69] The
Upanishads don't contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and
formulating the supporting arguments".[70][note 24] This philosophical inquiry was performed by
the darsanas, the various philosophical schools.[72] Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the
Indian context texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the
oral transmission as it has been going on."[73]
The Upanishads originated in the Sramana movements, renunciate ascetic traditions which
gave birth to Yoga,[74] Jainism, Buddhism,[75] and somenstika schools of Hinduism such
as Crvka and jvika, and also popular concepts in all major Indian religions such
as samsra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha(liberation from that cycle).[76][note 25] The
various traditions interacted with each other, and cannot be seen as completely separate
developments.[77] Buddhism, favored and supported by merchants and royals, [78] developed
elaborate philosophical and pedagogical texts and systems early in its history. Early in the
first millennium Madhyamaka andYogacara developed ideas about the two levels of truth and
the working of the mind[79] to which the developing Vedanta-tradition responded, but also
incorporated these systems.[3] Buddhist influence can also be found in the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali, written c. 4th century CE.[80][81]
Bdaryana's Brahma Sutras[edit]
Main article: Brahma Sutras
The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the Vedanta Sutra,[82] were compiled in its
present form around 400450 CE,[83] but "the great part of the Sutra must have been in
existence much earlier than that".[83] Estimates of the date of Bdaryana's lifetime differ
between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[84]
The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads. It was and is a
guide-book for the great teachers of the Vedantic systems.[82] Bdaryana was not the first
person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.[85] He refers to seven Vedantic
teachers before him:[85]

From the way in which Bdaryana cites the views of others it is obvious that the
teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a
few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four
chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.[85]
Between BrahmaSutras and Shankara[edit]
According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings
turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have
not come down to us today".[67] In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different
predecessors of his Sampradaya.[4] In the beginning of his commentary on the
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.
[web 40]
Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools,
which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.[67]
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by
Yamuncrya (c.1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c.10501157), and
the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[67] Combined together,[67] at least fourteen thinkers
are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's
lifetime.[67][note 26]
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school,
according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and
Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were
advocated by someone before ankara".[86] Shankara "was the person who synthesized
the Advaita-vda which had previously existed before him".[86] In this synthesis, he was the
rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.[87] He was an unequalled commentator,[87] due to
whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within
Indian philosophy.[87]

Gaudapada[edit]
Main article: Gaudapada
Gaudapada (6th century)[88] was the teacher of Govinda Bhagavatpada and the grandteacher
of Shankara.
Mnd ukya Krik[edit]
Gaudapada wrote or compiled[89] the Mnd ukya Krik, also known as the Gaudapda
Krik and as the gama stra.[note 27] The Mnd ukya Krik is a commentary in verse form
on the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the shortest but most profound Upanishads, or
mystical Vedas, consisting of just 13 prose sentences. In Shankara's time it was considered
to be a ruti, but not particularly important.[90] In later periods it acquired a higher status, and
eventually it was regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanisad philosophy.[90]
The Mnd ukya Krik is the earliest extent systematic treatise on Advaita Vednta,[91] though
it is not the oldest work to present Advaita views,[9] nor the only pre-Sankara work with the
same type of teachings.[9]
Buddhist influences[edit]
According to B.N.K. Sharma, the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all realists,
[92]
or pantheist realists.[93] During the same period, the 2nd-5th century CE, there was a great
idealist revival in Buddhism, which countered the criticisms of the Hindu realists. [94] The works
of Buddhist thinkers like Nagasena, Buddhaghosa and Nagarjuna, all of them Brahmin
converts to Buddhism,[94] "created a great sensation and compelled admiration all around".
[94]
Other Brahmins, faithful to Brahminism but equally impressed by these developments in
Buddhist thought, looked for and found in some portions of the Upanishads "many striking
approaches to the metaphysical idealism of the Buddhists". [94]During the 5th and 6th
centuries there was a further development of Buddhist thought with the development of
the Yogacara school.[95]

It was Gaudapada who further bridged Buddhism and Vedanta.[95] He took over the Buddhist
doctrines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijapti-mtra)[88][note 28] and "that the
nature of the world is the four-cornered negation". [88][note 29] Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines]
into a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara".[99]
[note 30]
At the same time, Gaudapada emphatically rejected the epistemic idealism of the
Buddhists, arguing that there was a difference between objects seen in dreams and real
objects in the world, although both were ultimately unreal. He also rejected the pluralism and
momentariness of consciousnesses, which were core doctrines of the Vijnanavada school,
and their techniques for achieving liberation.[101]
Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept
of "ajta" from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy,[102][103] which uses the term "anutpda".
[104] [note 31]
"Ajtivda", "the Doctrine of no-origination"[109][note 32] or non-creation, is the fundamental
philosophical doctrine of Gaudapada.[109]
Richard King has noted that Ajativada has a radically different meaning in the context of
respectively Vedanta and Buddhism. Buddhist writers take Ajativada to imply that there are
no essences in factors, and therefore change is possible. Gaudapada made the opposite
interpretation, advocating the absolutist position that origination and cessation were unreal,
the only Ultimate reality (Brahman) being unoriginated and unchanging. [110]
According to Gaudapada, the Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death. The
Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal.[109] The empirical world of appearances is
consideredunreal, and not absolutely existent.[109]
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math[edit]
Main article: Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Around 740 AD Gaudapada founded Shri Gaudapadacharya Math [note 33], also known
as Kaval mat ha. It is located in Kavale, Ponda, Goa,[web 44] and is the oldest matha of
theSouth Indian Saraswat Brahmins.[111][web 45]
Unlike other mathas, Shri Gaudapadacharya matha is not a polemical center established to
influence the faith of all Hindus, its jurisdiction is limited to only Dakshinatya Saraswat
Brahmins.

Adi Shankara[edit]
Main article: Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (788820), also known as akara Bhagavatpdcrya and di
akarcrya, synthesised and rejuvenated the doctrine of Advaita.[87] It was Shankara who
succeeded in reading Gaudapada's mayavada[112][note 34] into Badarayana's Brahma Sutras,
"and give it a locus classicus",[112] against the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[112][note 35][note
36]
His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.[114][112]
Historical context[edit]
See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages
Shankara lived in the time of the so-called "Late classical Hinduism", [115] which lasted
from 650 till 1100 CE.[115][note 37] After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the
Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Rural and devotional movements
arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra.[125] Buddhism, which was
supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional
religions,[125] but at the same time, was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada
used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[126]
Philosophical system[edit]
This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a "living substance"[127] to "mayavada"[note 34], where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".
[128]
Shankara systematised the works of preceding philosophers,[10] marking this turn from
realism to idealism.[112][127] Shankara's synthesis of Advaita Vedanta is summarised in this

quote from the Vivekacdmani, one of his Prakarana gram thas (philosophical
treatises):[note 38]
In half a couplet I state, what has been stated by scores of texts;
that is Brahman alone is real, the world is mithy (not independently existent),
and the individual self is nondifferent from Brahman.[129][note 39]
According to Sringeri Math, Shankara's message can be summarised even shorter:
The eternal, impersonal, consciousness Absolute is the Brahman, the one
without a second.[web 50]
Writings[edit]
Main article: Adi Shankara bibliography
Adi Shankara's main works are his commentaries on the Prasthana Trayi, which consist
of the Brahma Stras, Bhagavad Gt and the Upanishads. According to Nakamura,
Shankara's Brahma-stra-bhsya, his commentary on the Brahma Stra, is "the most
authoritative and best known work in the Vednta philosophy". [130] Shankara also wrote a
major independent treatise, called "Upadea Shasr", expounding his philosophy.
The authenticity of the "Vivekachudamani", a well-known work ascribed to Shankara, is
doubtful,[131][132][133] though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara
that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be
incomplete".[131][note 40]
The authorship of Shankara of his Mandukya Upanishad Bhasya and his supplementary
commentary on Gaudapada's Mn d ukya Krik is also disputed.[134][note 41]
Influence of Shankara[edit]
Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. He provided an
orthodox hermeneutical basis for heterodox Buddhist phenomology,[139][112] and has been
called the "St. Thomas Aquinas of Indian thought"[140] and "the most brilliant personality in
the history of Indian thought."[141]
His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Sant
Mat lineages.[142] He introduced the Pacyatana form of worship, the simultaneous
worship of five deities - Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara explained
that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.
[143]

Yet, according to Richard E. King,

Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that
Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of
Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical
evidence.[144]
According to King and Roodurnum, until the 10th century Sankara was overshadowed by
his older contemporary Mandana-Misra. In the centuries after Sankara it was Mand ana
Mira who was considered to be the most important representative of Vedanta, [145][146] and
in the later medieaval period his teachings were overshadowed by Visista-Advaita.[147]
Prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant
position within the Vedanta,[148] being restricted to a select elite. The early Vedanta
scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture.
They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and
theologians of Hinduism."[149] Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of
selected intellectuals".[149] Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references
to Vishnu or Shiva.[150] It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various
sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the
basis of their doctrines,"[11] for example the Nath-tradition,[151] whereby "its theoretical
influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive." [149]

Surevara and Mand ana Mira[edit]

Main articles: Surevara and Man d ana Mira
Surevara (fl. 800-900 CE)[152] and Mand ana Mira were contemporaries of Shankara,
Surevara often (incorrectly) being identified with Mand ana Mira.[153] Both explained
Sankara "on the basis of their personal convictions." [153] Surevara has also been credited
as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedanta.[152]
Mand ana Mira was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but who also wrote
a work on Advaita, the Brahma-siddhi.[154] According to tradition, Mand ana Mira and his
wife were defeated by Shankara in a debate, where-after he became a follower of
Shankara.[154] Yet, his attitude toward Shankara is that of a "self-confident rival teacher of
Advaita,"[155] and his influence was such, that some regard this work to have "set forth a
non-Sankaran brand of Advaita."[154] The "theory of error" set forth in the Brahmasiddhibecame the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.[156] It was Vachaspati Misra's
commentary on this work which linked it up with Shankara's teaching. [157]
Hiriyanna and Kuppuswami Sastra have pointed out that Surevara and Mand ana Mira
had different views on various doctrinal points:[158]

The locus of avidya:[158] according to Mand ana Mira, the individual jiva is the locus
of avidya, whereas Suresvara contents that avidya regarding Brahman is located in
Brahman.[158] These two different stances are also reflected in the opposing positions
of the Bhamati school and the Vivarana school.[158]

Liberation: according to Mand ana Mira, the knowledge which arises from the
Mahavakya is insufficient for liberation. Only the direct realization of Brahma is
liberating, which can only be attained by meditation. [159] According to Suresvara, this
knowledge is directly liberating, while meditation is at best a useful aid. [155][note 42]

Advaita Vedanta sub-schools[edit]

After Shankara's death several subschools developed. Two of them still exist today,
the Bhmat and the Vivarana.[web 51][4] Perished schools are
the Pancapadika and Istasiddhi, which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivaranaschool.[161]
These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of
the problems they encountered were the further interpretations to the concepts
of myand avidya.[web 51]
Padmapada - Pancapadika school[edit]
Padmapada (c. 800 CE)[162] was a direct disciple of Shankara, who wrote
the Pancapadika, a commentary on the Sankara-bhaya.[162] Padmapada diverted from
Shankara in his description of avidya, designating prakrti as avidya or ajnana.[163]
Vachaspati Misra - Bhamati school[edit]
Main articles: Bhamati and Vcaspati Mira
Vachaspati Misra (c.800-900 CE)[164] wrote the Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on
Mand ana Mira's Brahma-siddhi, which provides the link between Mandana Misra and
Shankara,[157] attempting to harmonise Sankara's thought with that of Mandana Misra.[web
51]
According to Advaita tradition, Shankara reincarnated as Vachaspati Misra "to
popularise the Advaita System through his Bhamati."[164] Only two works are known of
Vachaspati Misra, the Brahmatattva-samiksa on Mand ana Mira's Brahma-siddhi, and
hisBhamati on the Sankara-bhasya, Shankara's commentary on the Brahma-sutras.
[157]
The name of the Bhamati-subschool is derived from this Bhamati.[web 51][web 52] According
to legend, Misra's commentary was named after his wife to praise her, since he
neglected her during the writing of his commentary.[web 52]

The Bhamati-school takes an ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of
avidya.[web 51] It sees meditation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while
the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors. [165]
Prakasatman - Vivarana school[edit]
Main article: Vivarana
Prakasatman (c.1200-1300)[161] wrote the Pancapadika-Vivarana, a commentary on
the Pancapadika by Padmapadacharya.[161] The Vivarana lends its name to the
subsequent school. According to Roodurmum, "his line of thought [...] became the
leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition." [161]
The Vivarana-school takes an epistemological approach. Prakasatman was the first to
propound the theory of mulavidya or maya as being of "positive beginningless nature",
[166]
and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure
consciousness, so it can't be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory
qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman. [web 51]
Vimuktatman - Ista-Siddhi[edit]
Vimuktatman (c.1200 CE)[167] wrote the Ista-siddhi.[167] It is one of the four
traditional siddhi, together with Mandana's Brahma-siddhi, Suresvara's Naiskarmyasiddhi, and Madusudana's Advaita-siddhi.[168] According to Vimuktatman, absolute reality
is "pure intuitive consciousness."[169] His school of thought was eventually replaced by
Prakasatman's Vivarana school.[161]

later Advaita Vedanta tradition[edit]

See also: Dashanami Sampradaya and List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta
According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in the later Advaita tradition are: [web 53]

Prakstman, Vimukttman, Sarvajtman (tenth century),

r Harsa, Citsukha (twelfth century),

nandagiri, Amalnand (thirteenth century),

Vidyraya, akarnand (fourteenth century),

Sadnand (fifteenth century),

Praksnanda, Nr s ihrama (sixteenth century),

Madhusdhana Sarasvati, Dharmarja Advarindra, Appaya Dkita (seventeenth

century),

Sadaiva Brahmendra (eighteenth century),

Candraekhara Bhrati (twentieth century), Sacchidnandendra

Saraswati (twentieth century).

Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the
more traditional teachers Sivananda Saraswati (18871963), Chinmayananda
Saraswati,[web 54] and Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya);[web 54] and less traditional
teachers like Narayana Guru.[web 54]

Sampradaya[edit]

Advaita Mathas[edit]
See also: Dashanami Sampradaya

(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri

Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it
is also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related: [web 1]
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the
sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values,
attitudes and metaphysics.[web 1]
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,[web 1] established the
Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of theEkadandi monks under an umbrella
grouping of ten names.[web 1] Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions
remained outside the organisation of the Dasanmis.[170][171][172]
Adi Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names
under four Mat has (Sanskrit: ) (monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvrak in the
West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the
North.[web 1] Each math was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues
the Vedanta Sampradaya.[note 43]
Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of
them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes made by Shankara. While the
dasanmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures enumerated by Adi
ankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and
practices; and outside the official control of the Sankara maths.
The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect,[web 1][175] despite the historical links with
Shaivism.[note 44] Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among
Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.[web 1] The greatest influence of the
gurus of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the Smartha Tradition, who
integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of Hinduism. [web 1]
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which
was "due to institutional factors".[10] The mathas which he built exist until today, and
preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars
before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".[176]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara,
and their details.[web 55]
Shishya
(lineage)

Padmapda

Direction

East

Mat ha

Govardhana
Pt ham

Mahvkya

Prajnam brahma
(Consciousness is

Veda

Rig Veda

Sampradaya

Bhogavala

Brahman)

Surevara

South

Sringeri
Aham brahmsmi (I
rada Pt ham am Brahman)

Yajur
Veda

Bhrivala

Hastmalakcrya

West

Dvraka
Pt ham

Tattvamasi (That thou

art)

Sama
Veda

Kitavala

Tot akcrya

North

Jyotirmat ha
Pt ham

Ayamtm brahma
(This Atman is
Brahman)

Atharva
Veda

Nandavala

According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple,

his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke
Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

Smarta Tradition[edit]
Main article: Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher [177][178] and reformer of the
Smartha.[179][178] According to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist
interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition:
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita
and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend
the varnasramadharmatheory as defining the path of karman, but had developed
the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied
and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five
deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of
choice").[180]
The Sringeri monastery is still the centre of the Smarta sect. [177][178] In recent times bhakti
cults have increasingly become popular with the smartas, [181] and Shiva is particularly
favored.[177] In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the
Indian[web 56] and western[web 57] understanding of Hinduism via Neo-Vedanta. Vivekananda
was an advocate of Smarta-views,[web 57] and Radhakrishnan was himself a SmartaBrahman.[182][183][note 45]

Influence on modern Hinduism[edit]

Unifying Hinduism[edit]
Main article: Unifying Hinduism
Advaita Vedanta came to occupy a central position in the classification of various Hindu
traditions. With the onset of Islamic rule, hierarchical classifications of the various
orthodox schools were developed to defend Hinduism against Islamic influences.
[184]
According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical
teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known
retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[185]

The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.
[186]
Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between
Muslims and Hindus,[187] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim
other",[188] which started well before 1800.[189] Both the Indian and the European thinkers
who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these
philosophers.[185]
Within these socalled doxologies Advaita Vedanta was given the highest position, since
it was regarded to be most inclusive system.[184] Vijnanabhiksu, a 16th-century
philosopher and writer, is still an influential representant of these doxologies. He's been
a prime influence on 19th century Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to
integrate various strands of Hindu thought, taking Advaita Vedanta as its most
representative specimen.[184]

Contemporary popularization[edit]
Indian nationalism and Hindu Universalism[edit]
Main articles: Hindu nationalism and Hindu reform movements
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India by the British, there also
started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the
understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.[12] Western orientalist searched for
the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[190] and meanwhile
creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis [191] and the popular
picture of 'mystical India'.[191][12] This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu
reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all
religions share a common mystic ground.[192] The Brahmo Samaj, who was supported for
a while by the Unitarian Church,[193] played an essential role in the introduction and
spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.[194]
Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to
be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".
[195]
These notions served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this
notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[196] It "provided an
opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite HIndus in their
struggle against colonial oppression".[197]
Vivekananda[edit]
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda,[198] who played a major role in
the revival of Hinduism,[199] and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via
the Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "NeoVedanta".[200]Vivekananda discerned a universal religion, regarding all the apparent
differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth. [201] He
presented karma, bhakti, jnana and raja yoga as equal means to attain moksha, [202] to
present Vedanta as a liberal and universal religion, in contrast to the exclusivism of other
religions.[202]
Vivekananda emphasised samadhi as a means to attain liberation.[203] Yet this emphasis
is not to be found in the Upanishads nor with Shankara. [204] For Shankara, meditation
and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of
Brahman and Atman,[203] not the highest goal itself:
[Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification
with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal,
namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical Yoga of
complete thought suppression.[203]

He also claimed that Advaita is the only religion that is in total agreement with modern
science. In a talk on "The absolute and manifestation" given in at London in 1896 Swami
Vivekananda said,
I may make bold to say that the only religion which agrees with, and even goes a
little further than modern researchers, both on physical and moral lines is the
Advaita, and that is why it appeals to modern scientists so much. They find that
the old dualistic theories are not enough for them, do not satisfy their necessities.
A man must have not only faith, but intellectual faith too". [web 58]
Vivekenanda's modernisation has been criticised:
Without calling into question the right of any philosopher to interpret Advaita
according to his own understanding of it, ... the process of Westernization has
obscured the core of this school of thought. The basic correlation of renunciation
and Bliss has been lost sight of in the attempts to underscore the cognitive
structure and the realistic structure which according to Samkaracarya should
both belong to, and indeed constitute the realm of my. [200]
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan[edit]
Main article: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan further popularized Advaita Vedanta, presenting it as the
essence of Hinduism,[web 59] but neglecting the popular bhakti-traditions.[205] Radhakrishnan
saw other religions, "including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of
Hinduism,"[web 59] as interpretations of Advaita Vedanta, thereby Hindusizing all religions.[web
59]
His metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but he reinterpreted Advaita
Vedanta for a contemporary understanding.[web 59] He acknowledged the reality and
diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the
absolute or Brahman.[web 59][note 46] Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion
of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but "a
subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real."[web 59]
Neo-Advaita[edit]
Main article: Neo-Advaita
Neo-Advaita is a New Religious Movement based on a popularised, western
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi.[207] Neo-Advaita
is being criticised[208][note 47][210][note 48][note 49] for discarding the traditional prerequisites of
knowledge of the scriptures[211] and "renunciation as necessary preparation for the path
ofjnana-yoga".[211][212] Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja,[213][207] his
students Gangaji[214] Andrew Cohen[note 50], and Eckhart Tolle.[207]
Non-dualism[edit]
Main article: Nondualism
Advaita Vedanta has gained attention in western spirituality and New Age, where various
traditions are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience. [216] Nonduality points to "a
primordial, natural awareness without subject or object".[web 64] It is also used to refer
to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate,
while at the same time all things retain their individuality".[web 65]
Georg Feuerstein is quoted by nonduality-adepts[note 51] as summarizing the Advaita
Vedanta-realization as follows:
The manifold universe is, in truth, a Single Reality. There is only one Great
Being, which the sages call Brahman, in which all the countless forms of
existence reside. That Great Being is utter Consciousness, and It is the very
Essence, or Self (Atman) of all beings."[web 67][note 52]

Relationship with other forms of Vedanta[edit]

The exposition and spread of Advaita by Sankara spurred debate with the two main
theistic schools of Vedanta philosophy that were formalised
later: Vishishtadvaita (qualifiednondualism), and Dvaita (dualism).

Vishishtadvaita[edit]
Main article: Vishishtadvaita
Yamunacharya, a 10th-century AD proponent of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy that
opposed Shankara's Advaita, compared Advaita to Buddhism and remarked in
his Siddhitrayathat for both the Buddhists and the Advaitins, the distinctions of knower,
known and knowledge are unreal. The Advaita traces them to Maya, while Buddhist
subjectivism traces them to buddhi.[217] Ramanujacharya, another prominent
Vishishtadvaita philosopher, accused Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is,
a hidden Buddhist[218]

Dvaita[edit]
Main article: Dvaita
The Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya (12381317 AD), was partisan to Vaishnavism,
building on a cogent system of Vedantic interpretation that proceeded to take on Advaita
in full measure. Madhvacharya's student Narayana, in his Madhvavijaya, a hagiography
of Madhva, characterised Madhva and Shankara as born-enemies, and describes
Shankara as a "demon born on earth".[219] Surendranath Dasgupta noted that some
Madhva mythology went so far as to characterise the followers of Shankara as
"tyrannical people who burned down monasteries, destroyed cattle and killed women
and children".[220]

Relationship with Mahayana Buddhism[edit]

Influence of Mahayana Buddhism[edit]
Many authorities from India and elsewhere have noted that Advaita Vedanta shows signs
of influence from Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana schools with whom Shankara's
Advaita is said to share similarities are the Madhyamaka, founded by Nagarjuna,[221] and
the Yogacara,[222] founded by Vasubandhu[223] and Asanga[224] in the early centuries of the
Common Era.
John Grimes writes that while Mahayana Buddhism's influence on Advaita Vedanta has
been ignored for most of its history, scholars now see it as undeniable. [225]
Eliot Deutsch and Rohit Dalvi state:
In any event a close relationship between the Mahayana schools and Vedanta
did exist with the latter borrowing some of the dialectical techniques, if not the
specific doctrines, of the former.[226]
S. Mudgal noted that among some traditionalist Indian scholars, it was the accepted view
that Shankara
Adopted practically all ... dialectic (of the Buddhists), their methodology, their
arguments and analysis, their concepts, their terminologies and even their
philosophy of the Absolute, gave all of them a Vedantic appearance, and
demolished Buddhism ... Sankara embraced Buddhism, but it was a fatal
embrace".[227]
This influence goes back at least to Gaudapada:
Gaudapada rather clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for many of
his arguments and distinctions and even for the forms and imagery in which
these arguments are cast.[226]
Michael Comans has also demonstrated how Gaudapada, an early Vedantin, utilised
some arguments and reasoning from Madhyamaka Buddhist texts by quoting them

almost verbatim.
However, Comans believes there is a fundamental difference between Buddhist thought
and that of Gaudapada, in that Buddhism has as its philosophical basis the doctrine
ofDependent Origination, while Gaudapada does not at all rely on this principle.
Gaudapada's Ajativada is an outcome of reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual
reality, the fundamental teaching of the Upanishads. [228]

Criticisms[edit]
In India, the similarity of Shankara's Advaita to Buddhism was brought up by his rivals
from other Vedanta schools, while on the other hand, Mahayanists such
as Bhavyavivekahad to defend themselves from Theravada Buddhist accusations of the
Mahayana doctrine being just another form of Vedantism. [229][note 53][230]
Shankara defended himself against these accusations:
Shankara's criticisms of Buddhism are nevertheless powerful and they exhibit
clearly at least how Shankara saw the difference between Buddhism and his own
Vedantic philosophy.[226]

Common core thesis[edit]

See also: Perennial philosophy
Western scholars like N.V. Isaeva state that the Advaita and Buddhist philosophies, after
being purified of accidental or historical accretions, can be safely regarded as different
expressions of the same eternal absolute truth.[231][note 54]
Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, noted that the differences between Shankara and
Mahayana doctrines are largely a matter of emphasis and background, rather than
essence.[232][note 55]

Status of ethics[edit]
Some claim that there is no place for ethics in Advaita, "that it turns its back on all
theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'aethical' in character".[233]
Ethics does have a firm place in this philosophy. Ethics, which implies doing good
Karma, indirectly helps in attaining true knowledge. [234] Many Advaitins consider Karma a
"necessary fiction".[citation needed] Karma cannot be proven to exist through any of the
Pramnas.[note 56] However, to encourage students to strive towards Vidy (spiritual
knowledge) and combat Avidy (ignorance), the idea of Karma is maintained.
Truth, non-violence, service of others, pity, are Dharma, and lies, violence, cheating,
selfishness, greed, are adharma (sin). However, no authoritative definition
of Dharma was ever formulated by any of the major exponents of Advaita Vedanta.
Unlike ontological and epistemological claims, there is room for significant disagreement
between Advaitins on ethical issues.

See also[edit]

Cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta

Kashmir Shaivism

Panpsychism

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: [dd aitd edd ntd], literally, nottwo
2. Jump up^ Literally: end or the goal of the Vedas.
3. Jump up^ C.q. Vedic[1][2][3][4] or Hindu philosophy[5]
4. Jump up^ According to Paul Deussen,[7] Brahman is:

Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one

Jnam, "Knowledge which, however, is not split into the subject and the object"

anantam, "boundless or infinite"

See also satcitananda.

5. Jump up^ "Brahman" is not to be confused with Brahma, the Creator and one third of
the Trimurtialong with Shiva, the Destroyer and Vishnu, the Preserver.
6. Jump up^ Indian philosophy emphasises that "every acceptable philosophy should aid
man in realising the Purusarthas, the chief aims of human life:[27]

Dharma: the right way to life, the "duties and obligations of the individual toward
himself and the society as well as those of the society toward the individual"; [28]

Artha: the means to support and sustain one's life;

Kma: pleasure and enjoyment;

Moksa: liberation, release.

7. Jump up^ "Sat is absolute non changing truth." Maharishi Mahesh Yogi[web 7]
8. Jump up^ Compare Radhakrishnan's notion of "intuition". See

[web 10][web 11][web 12]

9. Jump up^ "Consciousness",[38][web 13] "intelligence",[39][40] "wisdom"[web 14]

10. Jump up^ "the Absolute",[38][web 13] "infinite",[web 13] "the Highest truth"[web 13]
11.Jump up^ Puligandla: "Any philosophy worthy of its title should not be a mere intellectual
exercise but should have practical application in enabling man to live an enlightened life.
A philosophy which makes no difference to the quality and style of our life is no
philosophy, but an empty intellectual construction." [42]
12. Jump up^ nivartitnmetes tadvyatiriktavis ayebhya uparaman amuparatirathav
vihitn karman vidhin paritygah[Vedntasra,

21]
13. Jump up^ Sri Swami Sivananda: "Karma Yoga is consecration of all actions and their
fruits unto the Lord. Karma Yoga is performance of actions dwelling in union with the
Divine, removing attachment and remaining balanced ever in success and failure. Karma
Yoga is selfless service unto humanity. Karma Yoga is the Yoga of action which purifies
the heart and prepares the Antahkarana (the heart and the mind) for the reception of
Divine Light or attainment if Knowledge of the Self. The important point is that you will
have to serve humanity without any attachment or egoism." [web 18]

14. Jump up^ Chndogya Upanishad cryavn puruo veda. Also see the first prose
chapter of ankara's Upadeashasr.
15. Jump up^ See Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.12
16. Jump up^ See also [web 21]
17. Jump up^ See also [web 22][web 23]
18. Jump up^ See also [web 24][web 25][web 26]
19. Jump up^ See also [web 28][web 29][web 30][web 31][web 27]
20. Jump up^ Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours
substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees Madhyamaka and Yogacara as reactions against
developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism. [49]
21. Jump up^ Cognates: Dutch adem, Old High German atum "breath," Old English eian. [55]
22. Jump up^ Adi Sankara gives the following reasoning:[web 34]

Whatever thing remains eternal is true, and whatever is non-eternal is untrue.

Since the world is created and destroyed, it is not real (true).

Truth is the thing which is unchanging. Since the world is changing, it is not real
(false).

Whatever is independent of space and time is real (true), and whatever has
space and time in itself is not real (false).

Just as one sees dreams in sleep, he sees a kind of super-dream when he is

waking. The world is compared to this conscious dream.

The world is believed to be a superimposition of the Brahman. Superimposition

cannot be real (true).

23. Jump up^ Shankara gives the following reasoning:[56]

If the world were unreal (false), then with the liberation of the first living being, the
world would have been annihilated. However, the world continues to exist even if a
living being attains liberation. But, it is possible that no living being attained the
ultimate knowledge (liberation) till now.

Adi Sankara believes in karma, or good actions. This is a feature of this world. So
the world cannot be unreal (false).

The Supreme Reality Brahman is the basis of this world. The world is like its
reflection. Hence the world cannot be totally unreal (false).

False is something which is ascribed to nonexistent things, like Sky-lotus. The

world is a logical thing, a fact which is perceived by our senses and exists but is not
the truth.

24. Jump up^ Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic ideas of the
Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the
Vedas.[71]

25. Jump up^ Flood & Olivelle: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period
that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later
Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period
of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally
associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the
creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies:
samsara - the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated
deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human existence....." [76]
26. Jump up^ Bharthari (c.450500), Upavarsa (c.450500), Bodhyana (c.500), Tanka
(Brahmnandin) (c.500550), Dravida (c.550), Bhartprapaca (c.550), abarasvmin
(c.550), Bhartmitra (c.550600), rivatsnka (c.600), Sundarapndya (c.600),
Brahmadatta (c.600700), Gaudapada (c.640690), Govinda (c.670720),
Mandanamira (c.670750).[67]
27. Jump up^ Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four
chapters.[89]
28. Jump up^ It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mtra, but they have
different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or
"mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying
label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism".[96] A better translation for vijaptimtra isrepresentation-only.[97]
29. Jump up^ 1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not. [web
41][98]

30. Jump up^ The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on other religions and philosophies
was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana notes that the Visuddhimagga contains "some
metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and
even theYogacarins".[100]
31. Jump up^ "An" means "not", or "non"; "utpda" means "genesis", "coming forth",
"birth"[web 42] Taken together "anutpda" means "having no origin", "not coming into
existence", "not taking effect", "non-production".[web 43] The Buddhist tradition usually uses
the term "anutpda" for the absence of an origin [102][104] or sunyata.[105] The term is also used
in theLankavatara Sutra.[106] According to D.T Suzuki, "anutpada" is not the opposite of
"utpada", but transcends opposites. It is the seeing into the true nature of existence,
[107]
the seeing that "all objects are without self-substance". [108]
32. Jump up^ "A" means "not", or "non" as in Ahimsa, non-harm; "jti" means "creation" or
"origination;[109] "vda" means "doctrine"[109]
33. Jump up^ Sanskrit: , r Sansthna Gaudapadcrya Mat h
a
34. ^ Jump up to:a b The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare
Krshnas. See[web 46] [web 47] [web 48] [web 49]
35. Jump up^ Nicholson: "The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada
position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins." [113]
36. Jump up^ B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras
yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and parenthetical
irrelevance of his comments in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and
letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic ... he was fighting
with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries." [112]
37. Jump up^ The previous period was the "Golden Age of Hinduism" [116] (ca. 320650
CE[116]), which flourished during the Gupta Empire[117] (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of
the Harsha Empire[117] (606 to 647 CE). Prior to this "Golden Age" the "classical

synthesis"[118] or"Hindu synthesis"[119][120] emerged, between 500[119]-200[120] BCE and ca. 300
CE,[119]at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period. This "classical
synthesis" incorporated shramanic[120][121] and Buddhist influences[120][122] and the
emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.[119][120] This
synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.
[123]
During the classical period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance
trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[117] Mahayana
Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the
patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.[124] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[117]and
the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.[117]
38. Jump up^ The authorship of this work is disputed. Most 20th-century academic scholars
feel it was not authored by Sankara, and Swami Sacchidanandendra Saraswathi of
Holenarsipur concurs.[citation needed]
39. Jump up^ slokrdhena pravaksmi yaduktam granthakotibhih, brahma satyam jagat
mithy, jvo brahmaiva nparah
40. Jump up^ Pande comes to the same conclusion: "Vivekachudamani, whether actually
authored by Shankara or not, is traditionally held to voice his views authentically". [133]
41. Jump up^ Nakamura concludes that Shankara was not the author, for several reasons.
[135]
Shankara understood Buddhist thought, while the author of the commentary shows
misunderstandings of Buddhist thought.[135] The commentary uses the
terms vijnapti andvjnaptimatra, which is "a uniquely Buddhist usage",[136] and does not
appear in Shankara's commentary on the Brahma-sutras. [137] The two commentaries also
quote different Upanishads.[138] Nevertheless, Nakamura also concludes: "Although the
commentary to the Madukya is not actually by sankara, it may be assumed that there is
nothing drastically wrong in using it as a source when discussing early Vedanta
philosophy".[135]
42. Jump up^ According to both Roodurum and Isaeva, Surevara stated that mere
knowledge of the identity of Jiva and Brahman is nor enough for liberation, which
requires also prolonged meditation on this identity.[152][160]
43. Jump up^ According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara
himself, but were originally ashrams established by Vibhdaka and his son yanga.
[173]
Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvrak and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at
ngaverapura to Badarikrama, and the ashram at Angadea to Jaganntha Pur. [174]
44. Jump up^ Sanskrit.org: "Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva
and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and
others."[web 1]
45. Jump up^ According to iskcon.org, "Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as
Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are
indirect followers."[web 56]
46. Jump up^ Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to Bhedabheda-Vedanta than to Shankara's
Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F. Gier:
"Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been
labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is
illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, declares that he has moved from Sankara's
"universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as
metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term." [206]
47. Jump up^ Marek: "Wobei der Begriff Neo-Advaita darauf hinweist, dass sich die
traditionelle Advaita von dieser Strmung zunehmend distanziert, da sie die Bedeutung
der benden Vorbereitung nach wie vor als unumgnglich ansieht. (The term Neo-

Advaita indicating that the traditional Advaita increasingly distances itself from this
movement, as they regard preparational practicing still as inevitable) [209]
48. Jump up^ Alan Jacobs: Many firm devotees of Sri Ramana Maharshi now rightly term
this western phenomenon as 'Neo-Advaita'. The term is carefully selected because 'neo'
means 'a new or revived form'. And this new form is not the Classical Advaita which we
understand to have been taught by both of the Great Self Realised Sages, Adi Shankara
and Ramana Maharshi. It can even be termed 'pseudo' because, by presenting the
teaching in a highly attenuated form, it might be described as purporting to be Advaita,
but not in effect actually being so, in the fullest sense of the word. In this watering down
of the essential truths in a palatable style made acceptable and attractive to the
contemporary western mind, their teaching is misleading. [210]
49. Jump up^ See for other examples Conway [web 60] and Swartz [web 2]
50. Jump up^ Presently cohen has distnced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings
"Evolutionary Enlightenment".[215] What Is Enlightenment, the magazine published by
Choen's organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001.
See.[web 61][web 62][web 63]
51. Jump up^ Feuerstein's summary, as given here, is not necessarily representative for
Feuerstein's thought on Advaita. It is quoted on nonduality-websites,[web 66] which is
informed by thePerennial philosophy and New Age thinking. It is also discerneable
in Neo-Advaita. The quote seems to give a subtle reinterpretation, in which the distinction
between Real and maya is replaced by a notion of interconnectedness or pantheism.
The original quote is from Feuerstein's book "The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory
and Practice", p. 257258. It is preceded by the sentence "The esoteric teaching of
nonduality Vedantic Yoga or Jnana Yoga can be summarized as follows".
52. Jump up^ Compare Shankara's own words, from his commentary on the Brahman
Sutras: " It is obvious that the subject and the object that is, the Self (Atman) and the
Not-Self, which are as different as darkness and light are cannot be identified with
each other. It is a mistake to superimpose upon the subject or Self (that is, the "I," whose
nature is consciousness) the characteristics of the object or Not-"I" (which is nonintelligent), and to superimpose the subject and its attributes on the object. Nonetheless,
man has a natural tendency, rooted in ignorance (avidya), not to distinguish clearly
between subject and object, although they are in fact absolutely distinct, but rather to
superimpose upon each the characteristic nature and attributes of the other. This leads
to a confusion of the Real (the Self) and the Unreal (the Not-Self) and causes us to say
such [silly] things as "I am that," "That is mine," and so on ...[web 68]
53. Jump up^ King: "In chapter four of his Madhyamakahrdyakarika (on the sravaka-yana),
Bhavaviveka puts forward a Sravaka objection to the Mahayana on the grounds that it is
a form of crypto-Vedantism"
54. Jump up^ The comparison may or may not stand depending on ones stance towards
the anatman doctrine laid out in the Buddhist Pali Canon. Some claim that the Pali
Canon shows that Gautama the Buddha denied the existence of the Atman. However, no
single passage in the entire Canon can be found to this effect. Gautama only ever
identified constituents (the five aggregates) and declared them as "not-self", that is, "this
is not my self". Depending on how Atman is defined and how it is treated in respect to
affirmation and denial in philosophical discourse and contemplative practice, the fact that
Atman is central to Advaita Vedanta may or may not be compatible with the Buddhist
anatman ("not-self") analysis.
55. Jump up^ Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called "common core thesis", which
states that all forms of mysticism share a common core. See also [web 69] and [web 70]
56. Jump up^ With the exception of gama, though this is contradicted, subtrated, by the
Pramnas such as Anumna, Upamna, or Arthpatti

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Further reading[edit]
History

Nakamura, Hajime (1990), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited

Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited

Potter, Karl H. (1981), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 3: Advaita Vedanta

up to Sankara and his Pupils, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Potter, Karl H. (2006), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies vol. 11: Advaita Vednta
from 800 to 1200, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers

King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism: The Mahayana Context
of the Gaudapadiya-Karika, SUNY Press

Isaeva, N.V. (1995), From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada,

Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta, SUNY Press
Introductions

Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: a philosophical reconstruction, East-West Center

Press, Honolulu, 1969

Kokileswar Sastri, An introduction to Adwaita philosophy: a critical and systematic

exposition of the Sankara school of Vedanta, Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi,
1979.

M. K. Venkatarama Aiyar, Advaita Vedanta, according to Sankara, Asia Publishing

House, New York, 1965.

Ayyar, Krishnan, Introduction to Advaita Vedanta

Source books

Charles Johnston (2014), The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom,

Kshetra Books.

V. Panoli (19911994), Upanishads in Sankara's own words: Isa, Kena, Katha, and
Mandukya with the Karika of Gaudapada: with English translation, explanatory notes
and footnotes, Mathrubhumi, Calicut.

A. J. Alston (19801989), A Samkara source-book, Shanti Sadan, London.

Eliot Deutsch and J. A. B. van Buitenen (1971), A source book of Advaita Vedanta,
University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Practice

Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vednta: A Study of

Gaud apda, akara, Surevara, and Padmapda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass

Dalal, Neil (2009), "Contemplative Practice and Textual Agency in Advaita

Vedanta", Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 21 (2009) 15-27

Dalal, Neil (2014), "Contemplative Grammars: akaras Distinction of Upsana and

Nididhysana", Journal of Indian Philosophy

Dubois, Jol Andr-Michel (2014), The Hidden Lives of Brahman: Sankara's

Vedanta through His Upanisad Commentaries, in Light of Contemporary Practice,
SUNY
Topical studies

Arvind Sharma (1995), The philosophy of religion and Advaita Vedanta: a

comparative study in religion and reason, Pennsylvania State University Press

Satyapal Verma (1992), Role of Reason in Sankara Vedanta, Parimal Publication,

Delhi

Sangam Lal Pandey (1989), The Advaita view of God, Darshana Peeth, Allahabad

Kapil N. Tiwari (1977), Dimensions of renunciation in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal

Banarsidass, Delhi

S. G. Mudgal (1975), Advaita of Sankara, a reappraisal: Impact of Buddhism and

Samkhya on Sankara's thought, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi

Adya Prasad Mishra (1967), The development and place of bhakti in Sankaran
Vedanta, University of Allahabad
Shankara

Charles Johnston (2014), The Vedanta Philosophy of Sankaracharya, Kshetra

Books

Natalia V. Isayeva (1993), Shankara and Indian philosophy, SUNY, New York

Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan (1990), The Ethics of Sankara, University of Calicut

A. Ramamurti (1974), Advaitic mysticism of Sankara, Visvabharati, Santiniketan

Raghunath D. Karmarkar (1966), Sankara's Advaita, Karnatak University, Dharwar

Sringeri Sharada Peetham

Madhava Vidyaranya, Sankara-Digvijaya, translated by Swami Tapasyananda, Sri

Ramakrishna Math, 2002, ISBN 81-7120-434-1.
Neo-Advaita

Madhukar, The Simplest Way, Editions India, USA & India 2006, ISBN 81-89658-042

Madhukar, Erwachen in Freiheit, Lchow Verlag, German, 2.Edition, Stuttgart

2004, ISBN 3-363-03054-1
Indian languages

Mishra, M., Bhratya Darshan ( ), Kal Prakshan.

Sinha, H. P., Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha (Features of Indian Philosophy), 1993,

Motilal Benarasidas, DelhiVaranasi.

Swmi Paramnanda Bhrati, Vednta Prabodha (in Kannada), Jnnasamvardhini

Granthakusuma, 2004
Contemporary criticism

Rao, Srinivasa (2011), Advaita: A Contemporary Critique, Oxford University

Press, ISBN 978-0-19-807981-1

External links[edit]

Advaita Vedanta at DMOZ

Categories:
Vedanta

Advaitin philosophers

Indian philosophy

Hindu philosophical concepts

Philosophical traditions

Philosophical schools and traditions

Ancient philosophical schools and traditions

Monism

Mysticism

Transtheism

Advaita Vedanta

Nondualism

Advaita