Circumstellar Habitable Zone - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

10/29/2015
CircumstellarhabitablezoneWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Circumstellarhabitablezone
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
"Goldilockszone"redirectshere.Fortheplanetoriginallynicknamed"Goldilocks",see70Virginisb.
ForthemoregeneralGoldilocksprinciple,seeGoldilocksprinciple.
"Habitablezone"redirectshere.Forthegalacticzone,seeGalactichabitablezone.
"Comfortzone(astronomy)"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeComfortzone(disambiguation).
Inastronomyandastrobiology,thecircumstellar
habitablezone(CHZ),orsimplythehabitablezone,
istheregionaroundastarwithinwhichplanetarymass
objectswithsufficientatmosphericpressurecansupport
liquidwaterattheirsurfaces.[1][2]Theboundsofthe
CHZarecalculatedusingtheknownrequirementsof
Earth'sbiosphere,itspositionintheSolarSystemand
theamountofradiantenergyitreceivesfromtheSun.
Duetotheimportanceofliquidwatertolifeasitexists
onEarth,thenatureoftheCHZandtheobjectswithin
isbelievedtobeinstrumentalindeterminingthescope
anddistributionofEarthlikeextraterrestriallifeand
intelligence.
Anexampleofasystembasedonstellarluminosity
forpredictingthelocationofthehabitablezone
aroundvarioustypesofstars.Planetsizes,star
sizes,orbitlengths,andhabitablezonesizesarenot
toscale.
ThehabitablezoneisalsocalledtheGoldilockszone,a
metaphorofthechildren'sfairytaleofGoldilocksand
theThreeBears,inwhichalittlegirlchoosesfromsets
ofthreeitems,ignoringtheonesthataretooextreme(largeorsmall,hotorcold,etc.),andsettlingonthe
oneinthemiddle,whichis"justright".
Sincetheconceptwasfirstpresentedin1953,[3]starshavebeenconfirmedtopossessaCHZplanet,
includingsomesystemsthatconsistofmultipleCHZplanets.[4]Mostsuchplanets,beingsuperEarthsor
gasgiants,aremoremassivethanEarth,becausesuchplanetsareeasiertodetect.OnNovember4,2013,
astronomersreported,basedonKeplerdata,thattherecouldbeasmanyas40billionEarthsizedplanets
orbitinginthehabitablezonesofSunlikestarsandreddwarfsintheMilkyWay.[5][6]11billionofthese
maybeorbitingSunlikestars.[7]Thenearestsuchplanetmaybe12lightyearsaway,accordingtothe
scientists.[5][6]TheCHZisalsoofparticularinteresttotheemergingfieldofhabitabilityofnatural
satellites,becauseplanetarymassmoonsintheCHZmightoutnumberplanets.[8]
Insubsequentdecades,theCHZconceptbegantobechallengedasaprimarycriterionforlife.Sincethe
discoveryofevidenceforextraterrestrialliquidwater,substantialquantitiesofitarenowbelievedtooccur
outsidethecircumstellarhabitablezone.Sustainedbyotherenergysources,suchastidalheating[9][10]or
radioactivedecay[11]orpressurizedbyothernonatmosphericmeans,thebasicconditionsforwater
dependentlifemaybefoundevenininterstellarspace,onrogueplanets,ortheirmoons.[12]Liquidwater
canalsoexistatawiderrangeoftemperaturesandpressuresasasolution,forexamplewithsodium
chloridesinseawateronEarth,chloridesandsulphatesonEquatorialMars,[13]orammoniates,[14]duetoits
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone
1/22
10/29/2015
differentcolligativeproperties.Inaddition,othercircumstellarzones,wherenonwatersolventsfavorable
tohypotheticallifebasedonalternativebiochemistriescouldexistinliquidformatthesurface,havebeen
proposed.[15]
Contents
1History
2Determinationofthecircumstellarhabitablezone
2.1SolarSystemestimates
2.2Extrasolarextrapolation
2.2.1Spectraltypesandstarsystemcharacteristics
2.2.2Stellarevolution
2.2.3Desertplanets
2.2.4Otherconsiderations
3Extrasolardiscoveries
3.1Earlyfindings
3.2HabitablesuperEarths
3.3EarthsizedplanetsandSolaranalogs
4HabitabilityoutsidetheCHZ
5Significanceforcomplexandintelligentlife
6Seealso
7References
8Externallinks
History
TheconceptofaCircumstellarHabitableZonewasfirstintroducedin1953byHubertusStrughold,whoin
histreatiseTheGreenandtheRedPlanet:APhysiologicalStudyofthePossibilityofLifeonMarscoined
theterm"ecosphere"andreferredtovarious"zones"inwhichlifecouldemerge.[3][16]Inthesameyear,
HarlowShapleywrote"LiquidWaterBelt",whichdescribedthesametheoryinfurtherscientificdetail.
Bothworksstressedtheimportanceofliquidwatertolife.[17]SuShuHuang,anAmericanastrophysicist,
firstintroducedtheterm"habitablezone"in1959torefertotheareaaroundastarwhereliquidwatercould
existonasufficientlylargebody,andwasthefirsttointroduceitinthecontextofplanetaryhabitability
andextraterrestriallife.[18][19]Amajorearlycontributortohabitablezonetheory,Huangarguedin1960
thatcircumstellarhabitablezones,andbyextensionextraterrestriallife,wouldbeuncommoninmultiple
starsystems,giventhegravitationalinstabilitiesofthosesystems.[20]
Thetheoryofhabitablezoneswasfurtherdevelopedin1964byStephenH.DoleinhisbookHabitable
PlanetsforMan,inwhichhecoveredthecircumstellarhabitablezoneitselfaswellasvariousother
determinantsofplanetaryhabitability,eventuallyestimatingthenumberofhabitableplanetsintheMilky
Waytobeabout600million.[21]Atthesametime,sciencefictionauthorIsaacAsimovintroducedthe
conceptofacircumstellarhabitablezonetothegeneralpublicthroughhisvariousexplorationsofspace
colonization.[22]Theterm"Goldilockszone"emergedinthe1970s,referencingspecificallyaregionaround
2/22
10/29/2015
astarwhosetemperatureis"justright"forwatertobepresentintheliquidphase.[23]In1993,astronomer
JamesKastingintroducedtheterm"circumstellarhabitablezone"torefermorepreciselytotheregionthen
(andstill)knownasthehabitablezone.[18]
Anupdatetohabitablezonetheorycamein2000,whenastronomersPeterWardandDonaldBrownlee
introducedtheideaofthe"galactichabitablezone",whichtheylaterdevelopedwithGuillermo
Gonzalez.[24][25]Thegalactichabitablezone,definedastheregionwherelifeismostlikelytoemergeina
galaxy,encompassesthoseregionscloseenoughtoagalacticcenterthatstarsthereareenrichedwith
heavierelements,butnotsoclosethatstarsystems,planetaryorbits,andtheemergenceoflifewouldbe
frequentlydisruptedbytheintenseradiationandenormousgravitationalforcescommonlyfoundatgalactic
centers.[24]
Subsequently,severalplanetaryscientistshavecriticizedthecircumstellarhabitablezonetheoryforits
"carbonchauvinism",proposingthattheconceptbeextendedtoothersolvents,suchasammoniaor
methane,whichcouldbethebasisoflifebasedonanalternativebiochemistry.[15]In2013,further
developmentsinhabitablezonetheoryweremadewiththeproposalofacircumplanetaryhabitablezone,
alsoknownasthe"habitableedge",toencompasstheregionaroundaplanetwheretheorbitsofnatural
satelliteswouldnotbedisrupted,andatthesametimetidalheatingfromtheplanetwouldnotcauseliquid
watertoboilaway.[26]
Determinationofthecircumstellarhabitablezone
Whetherabodyisinthecircumstellarhabitablezoneofitshoststar
isdependentontheradiusoftheplanet'sorbit(fornaturalsatellites,
thehostplanet'sorbit),themassofthebodyitself,andtheradiative
fluxofthehoststar.Giventhelargespreadinthemassesofplanets
withinacircumstellarhabitablezone,coupledwiththediscoveryof
superEarthplanetswhichcansustainthickeratmospheresand
strongermagneticfieldsthanEarth,circumstellarhabitablezones
arenowsplitintotwoseparateregionsa"conservativehabitable
zone"inwhichlowermassplanetslikeEarthorVenuscanremain
habitable,complementedbyalarger"extendedhabitablezone"in
whichsuperEarthplanets,withstrongergreenhouseeffects,can
havetherighttemperatureforliquidwatertoexistatthesurface.[28]
SolarSystemestimates
Therangeofpublishedestimatesfor
theextentoftheSun'sCHZ.The
conservativeCHZ[21]isindicatedby
adarkgreenbandcrossingtheinner
edgeoftheaphelionofVenus,
EstimatesforthehabitablezonewithintheSolarSystemrangefrom
whereasanextendedCHZ, [27]
0.725to3.0astronomicalunits,thougharrivingattheseestimates
extendingtotheorbitofthedwarf
hasbeenchallengingforavarietyofreasons.Numerousplanetary
planetCeres,isindicatedbyalight
massobjectsorbitwithin,orcloseto,thisrangeandassuchreceive
greenband.
sufficientsunlighttoraisetemperaturesabovethefreezingpointof
water.Howevertheiratmosphericconditionsvarysubstantially.The
aphelionofVenus,forexample,touchestheinneredgeofthezoneandwhileatmosphericpressureatthe
surfaceissufficientforliquidwater,astronggreenhouseeffectraisessurfacetemperaturesto462C
(864F)atwhichwatercanonlyexistasvapour.[29]TheentireorbitsoftheMoon,[30]Mars,[31]and
3/22
10/29/2015
numerousasteroidsalsoliewithinvariousestimatesofthehabitablezone.OnlyatMars'lowestelevations
(lessthan30%oftheplanet'ssurface)isatmosphericpressureandtemperaturesufficientforwaterto,if
present,existinliquidformforshortperiods.[32]AtHellasBasin,forexample,atmosphericpressurescan
reach1,115Paandtemperaturesabovezero(aroundthetriplepointforwater)for70daysintheMartian
year.[32]DespiteindirectevidenceintheformofseasonalflowsonwarmMartianslopes,[33][34][35][36]no
confirmationhasbeenmadeofthepresenceofliquidwaterthere.Whileotherobjectsorbitpartlywithin
thiszone,includingcomets,Ceres[37]istheonlyoneofplanetarymass.Acombinationoflowmassandan
inabilitytomitigateevaporationandatmospherelossagainstthesolarwindmakeitimpossibleforthese
bodiestosustainliquidwaterontheirsurface.Mostestimates,therefore,areinferredfromtheeffectthata
repositionedorbitwouldhaveonthehabitabilityofEarthorVenus.
Accordingtoextendedhabitablezonetheory,planetarymassobjectswithatmospherescapableofinducing
sufficientradiativeforcingcouldpossessliquidwaterfartheroutfromtheSun.Suchobjectscouldinclude
thosewhoseatmospherescontainahighcomponentofgreenhousegasandterrestrialplanetsmuchmore
massivethanEarth(SuperEarthclassplanets),thathaveretainedatmosphereswithsurfacepressuresofup
to100kbar.TherearenoexamplesofsuchobjectsintheSolarSystemtostudyandnotenoughisknown
aboutthenatureofatmospheresofthesekindsofextrasolarobjectsandthenettemperatureeffectofsuch
atmospheresincludinginducedalbedo,antigreenhouseorotherpossibleheatsourcescannotbedetermined
bytheirpositioninthehabitablezone.
4/22
10/29/2015
Inner
edge
(AU)
EstimatesofthecircumstellarhabitablezoneboundariesoftheSolarSystem
Outer
edge
Year
Notes
(AU)
0.725
1.24
Dole
1964[21]
Usedopticallythinatmospheresandfixedalbedos.Placestheaphelionof
Venusjustinsidethezone.
1.385
1.398
Budyko
1969[38]
Basedonstudiesoficealbedofeedbackmodelstodeterminethepointat
whichEarthwouldexperienceglobalglaciation.Thisestimatewas
supportedinstudiesbySellers1969[39]andNorth1975.[40]
0.88
0.912
Rasooland BasedonstudiesofVenus'satmosphere,RasoolandDeBurghconcluded
DeBurgh thatthisistheminimumdistanceatwhichEarthwouldhaveformed
stableoceans.
1970[41]
0.95
1.01
Hartetal. BasedoncomputermodellingandsimulationsoftheevolutionofEarth's
atmosphericcompositionandsurfacetemperature.Thisestimatehasoften
1979[42]
beencitedbysubsequentpublications.
3.0
Fogg
1992[27]
1.37
Kastinget
Notedthecoolingeffectofcloudalbedo.
al.1993[18]
2.0
Spiegelet Proposedthatseasonalliquidwaterispossibletothislimitwhen
al.2010[43] combininghighobliquityandorbitaleccentricity.
Abeetal.
2011[44]
0.75
0.77
0.87
0.99
0.5
Usedthecarboncycletoestimatetheouteredgeofthecircumstellar
habitablezone.
Foundthatlanddominated"desertplanets"withwateratthepolescould
existclosertotheSunthanwateryplanetslikeEarth.
1.02
1.18
Vladiloet Inneredgeofcircumstellarhabitablezoneiscloserandouteredgeis
fartherforhigheratmosphericpressuresdeterminedminimum
al.2013[45]
atmosphericpressurerequiredtobe15millibar.
1.688
Revisedestimatesusingupdatedrunawaygreenhouseandwaterloss
Kopparapu
algorithms.AccordingtothismeasureEarthisattheinneredgeoftheHZ
etal.
andcloseto,butjustoutside,therunawaygreenhouselimit.Thisapplies
2013[1]
toaplanetwithEarthlikeatmosphericcompositionandpressure.
Zsometal.
Estimatebasedonvariouspossiblecombinationsofatmospheric
2013
composition,pressureandrelativehumidityoftheplanet'satmosphere.
[46]
Extrasolarextrapolation
Seealso:Habitabilityofreddwarfsystems
Astronomersusestellarfluxandtheinversesquarelawtoextrapolatecirumstellarhabitablezonemodels
createdfortheSolarSystemtootherstars.Forexample,althoughtheSolarSystemhasacircumstellar
habitablezonecenteredat1.34AUfromtheSun,[1]astarwith0.25timestheluminosityoftheSunwould
5/22
10/29/2015
haveahabitablezonecenteredat
,or0.5,thedistancefromthestar,correspondingtoadistanceof
0.67AU.Variouscomplicatingfactors,though,includingtheindividualcharacteristicsofstarsthemselves,
meanthatextrasolarextrapolationoftheCHZconceptismorecomplex.
Spectraltypesandstarsystemcharacteristics
Somescientistsarguethattheconceptofacircumstellar
habitablezoneisactuallylimitedtostarsincertain
typesofsystemsorofcertainspectraltypes.Binary
systems,forexample,havecircumstellarhabitable
zonesthatdifferfromthoseofsinglestarplanetary
systems,inadditiontotheorbitalstabilityconcerns
inherentwithathreebodyconfiguration.[47]IftheSolar
Systemweresuchabinarysystem,theouterlimitsof
theresultingcircumstellarhabitablezonecouldextend
asfaras2.4AU.[48][49]
Avideoexplainingthesignificanceofthe2011
discoveryofaplanetinthecircumbinaryhabitable
zoneofKepler47.
Withregardtospectraltypes,ZoltnBalogproposes
thatOtypestarscannotformplanetsduetothe
photoevaporationcausedbytheirstrongultraviolet
emissions.[50]Studyingultravioletemissions,AndreaBuccinofoundthatonly40percentofstarsstudied
(includingtheSun)hadoverlappingliquidwaterandultraviolethabitablezones.[51]Starssmallerthanthe
Sun,ontheotherhand,havedistinctimpedimentstohabitability.MichaelHart,forexample,proposedthat
onlymainsequencestarsofspectralclassK0orbrightercouldpossesshabitablezones,anideawhichhas
evolvedinmoderntimesintotheconceptofatidallockingradiusforreddwarfs.Withinthisradius,which
iscoincidentalwiththereddwarfhabitablezone,ithasbeensuggestedthatthevolcanismcausedbytidal
heatingcouldcausea"tidalVenus"planetwithhightemperaturesandnoabilitytosupportlife.[52]
Othersmaintainthatcircumstellarhabitablezonesaremorecommonandthatitisindeedpossibleforwater
toexistonplanetsorbitingcoolerstars.Climatemodellingfrom2013supportstheideathatreddwarfstars
cansupportplanetswithrelativelyconstanttemperaturesovertheirsurfacesinspiteoftidallocking.[53]
AstronomyprofessorEricAgolarguesthatevenwhitedwarfsmaysupportarelativelybriefhabitablezone
throughplanetarymigration.[54]Atthesametime,othershavewritteninsimilarsupportofsemistable,
temporaryhabitablezonesaroundbrowndwarfs.[52]
Stellarevolution
Circumstellarhabitablezoneschangeovertimewithstellarevolution.Forexample,hotOtypestars,which
mayremainonthemainsequenceforfewerthan10millionyears,[55]wouldhaverapidlychanging
habitablezonesnotconducivetothedevelopmentoflife.Reddwarfstars,ontheotherhand,whichcanlive
forhundredsofbillionsofyearsonthemainsequence,wouldhaveplanetswithampletimeforlifeto
developandevolve.[56][57]Evenwhilestarsareonthemainsequence,though,theirenergyoutputsteadily
increases,pushingtheirhabitablezonesfartherandfartheroutourSun,forexample,wasonly75percent
asbrightintheArchaeanasitisnow,[58]andinthefuturecontinuedincreasesinenergyoutputwillput
EarthoutsidetheSun'shabitablezone,evenbeforeitreachestheredgiantphase.[59]Inordertodealwith
6/22
10/29/2015
thisincreaseinluminosity,theconceptofacontinuouslyhabitable
zonehasbeenintroduced.Asthenamesuggests,thecontinuously
habitablezoneisaregionaroundastarinwhichplanetarymass
bodiescansustainliquidwaterforagivenperiodoftime.Likethe
generalcircumstellarhabitablezone,thecontinuouslyhabitable
zoneofastarisdividedintoaconservativeandextendedregion.[59]
Inreddwarfsystems,giganticstellarflareswhichcoulddoublea
star'sbrightnessinminutes[60]andhugestarspotswhichcancover
20percentofthestar'ssurfacearea,[61]havethepotentialtostripan
otherwisehabitableplanetofitsatmosphereandwater.[62]Aswith
moremassivestars,though,stellarevolutionchangestheir
nature,[63]sobyabout1.2billionyearsofage,reddwarfsgenerally
becomesufficientlyconstanttoallowforthedevelopmentoflife.[62][64]
Naturaldefensesagainstspace
weather,suchasthemagnetosphere
depictedinthisartisticrendition,may
berequiredforplanetstosustain
surfacewaterforprolongedperiods.
Onceastarhasevolvedsufficientlytobecomearedgiant,itscircumstellarhabitablezonewillchange
dramaticallyfromitsmainsequencesize.Forexample,theSunisexpectedtoengulfthepreviously
habitableEarthasaredgiant.[65]However,oncearedgiantstarreachesthehorizontalbranch,itachievesa
newequilibriumandcansustainacircumstellarhabitablezone,whichinthecaseoftheSunwouldrange
from7to22AU.[66]Atsuchstage,Saturn'smoonTitanwouldlikelybehabitableinEarth'ssense.[67]
Giventhatthisnewequilibriumlastsforabout1Gyr,andbecauselifeonEarthemergedby0.7Gyrfrom
theformationoftheSolarSystematlatest,lifecouldconceivablydeveloponplanetarymassobjectsinthe
habitablezoneofredgiants.[66]However,aroundsuchaheliumburningstar,importantlifeprocesseslike
photosynthesiscouldonlyhappenaroundplanetswheretheatmospherehasbeenartificiallyseededwith
carbondioxide,asbythetimeasolarmassstarbecomesaredgiant,planetarymassbodieswouldhave
alreadyabsorbedmuchoftheirfreecarbondioxide.[68]
Desertplanets
Aplanet'satmosphericconditionsinfluenceitsabilitytoretainheat,sothatthelocationofthehabitable
zoneisalsospecifictoeachtypeofplanet:desertplanets(alsoknownasdryplanets),withverylittlewater,
willhavelesswatervaporintheatmospherethanEarthandsohaveareducedgreenhouseeffect,meaning
thatadesertplanetcouldmaintainoasesofwaterclosertoitsstarthanEarthistotheSun.Thelackof
wateralsomeansthereislessicetoreflectheatintospace,sotheouteredgeofdesertplanethabitable
zonesisfurtherout.[69][70]
Otherconsiderations
Seealso:PlanetaryhabitabilityandNaturalsatellitehabitability
Aplanetcannothaveahydrosphereakeyingredientfortheformationofcarbonbasedlifeunlessthere
isasourceforwaterwithinitsstellarsystem.TheoriginofwateronEarthisstillnotcompletely
understoodpossiblesourcesincludetheresultofimpactswithicybodies,outgassing,mineralization,
leakagefromhydrousmineralsfromthelithosphere,andphotolysis.[71][72]Foranextrasolarsystem,anicy
7/22
10/29/2015
bodyfrombeyondthefrostlinecouldmigrateintothehabitable
zoneofitsstar,creatinganoceanplanetwithseashundredsof
kilometersdeep[73]suchasGJ1214b[74][75]orKepler22bmay
be.[76]
Maintenanceofliquidsurfacewateralsorequiresasufficientlythick
atmosphere.Possibleoriginsofterrestrialatmospheresarecurrently
Earth'shydrosphere.Watercovers
theorisedtooutgassing,impactdegassingandingassing.[77]
71%ofEarth'ssurface,withthe
Atmospheresarethoughttobemaintainedthroughsimilarprocesses
globaloceanaccountingfor97.3%of
alongwithbiogeochemicalcyclesandthemitigationofatmospheric
thewaterdistributiononEarth.
[78]
escape. Ina2013studyledbyItalianastronomerGiovanni
Vladilo,itwasshownthatthesizeofthecircumstellarhabitable
zoneincreasedwithgreateratmosphericpressure.[45]Belowanatmosphericpressureofabout15millibars,
itwasfoundthathabitabilitycouldnotbemaintained[45]becauseevenasmallshiftinpressureor
temperaturecouldrenderwaterunabletoformaliquid.[79]
InthecaseofplanetsorbitingintheCHZsofreddwarfstars,theextremelyclosedistancestothestars
causetidallocking,animportantfactorinhabitability.Foratidallylockedplanet,thesiderealdayisaslong
astheorbitalperiod,causingonesidetopermanentlyfacethehoststarandtheothersidetofaceaway.In
thepast,suchtidallockingwasbelievedtocauseextremeheatonthestarfacingsideandbittercoldonthe
oppositeside,makingmanyreddwarfplanetsuninhabitablehowever,a2013paperwrittenby
geophysicistJunYangoftheUniversityofChicagoandcollaborators,usingthreedimensionalclimate
models,showedthatthesideofareddwarfplanetfacingthehoststarwouldhaveextensivecloudcover,
increasingitsBondalbedoandreducingsignificantlytemperaturedifferencesbetweenthetwosides.[53]
Planetarymassnaturalsatelliteshavethepotentialtobehabitableaswell.However,thesebodiesneedto
fulfilladditionalparameters,inparticularbeinglocatedwithinthecircumplanetaryhabitablezonesoftheir
hostplanets.[26]Morespecifically,planetsneedtobefarenoughfromtheirhostgiantplanetsthattheyare
nottransformedbytidalheatingintovolcanicworldslikeIo,[26]butmuststillremainwithintheHillradius
oftheplanetsothattheyarenotpulledoutoforbitoftheirhostplanet.[80]Reddwarfsthathavemassesless
than20percentofthatoftheSuncannothavehabitablemoonsaroundgiantplanets,asthesmallsizeofthe
circumstellarhabitablezonewouldputahabitablemoonsoclosetoastarthatitwouldbestrippedfromits
hostplanet.Insuchasystem,amooncloseenoughtoitshostplanettomaintainitsorbitwouldhavetidal
heatingsointenseastoeliminateanyprospectsofhabitability.[26]
Aplanetaryobjectthatorbitsastarwithhighorbitaleccentricitymayspendonlysomeofitsyearinthe
CHZandexperiencealargevariationintemperatureandatmosphericpressure.Thiswouldresultin
dramaticseasonalphaseshiftswhereliquidwatermayexistonlyintermittently.Itispossiblethat
subsurfacehabitatscouldbeinsulatedfromsuchchangesandthatextremophilesonornearthesurface
mightsurvivethroughadaptionssuchashibernation(cryptobiosis)and/orhyperthermostability.
Tardigrades,forexample,cansurviveinadehydratedstatetemperaturesbetween0.150K(273C)[81]
and424K(151C).[82]LifeonaplanetaryobjectorbitingoutsideCHZmighthibernateonthecoldsideas
theplanetapproachestheapastronwheretheplanetiscoolestandbecomeactiveonapproachtothe
periastronwhentheplanetissufficientlywarm.[83]
8/22
10/29/2015
Extrasolardiscoveries
Seealso:Listofpotentiallyhabitableexoplanets
Amongexoplanets,areviewin2015cametotheconclusionthat
Kepler62f,Kepler186fandKepler442bwerelikelythebest
candidatesforbeingpotentiallyhabitable.[84]Theseareatadistance
of1200,490and1,120lightyearsaway,respectively.Ofthese,
Kepler186fisinsimilarsizetoEarthwithits1.2Earthradius
measure,anditislocatedtowardstheouteredgeofthehabitable
zonearounditsreddwarfsun.Amongnearestterrestrialexoplanet
candidates,TauCetieismerely11.9lightyearsaway.It'sinthe
inneredgeofitssolarsystem'shabitablezone,givingitanestimated
averagesurfacetemperatureof68C(154F).[85]
Artistsconceptofaplanetonan
eccentricorbitthatpassesthroughthe
CHZforonlypartofitsyear
Studiesthathaveattemptedtoestimatethenumberofterrestrialplanetswithinthecircumstellarhabitable
zonetendtoreflecttheavailabilityofscientificdata.A2013studybyRaviKumarKopparapupute,the
fractionofstarswithplanetsintheCHZ,at0.48,[1]meaningthattheremayberoughly95180billion
habitableplanetsintheMilkyWay.[86]However,thisismerelyastatisticalpredictiononlyasmallfraction
ofthesepossibleplanetshaveyetbeendiscovered.[87]
Previousstudieshavebeenmoreconservative.In2011,SethBorensteinconcludedthatthereareroughly
500millionhabitableplanetsintheMilkyWay.[88]NASA'sJetPropulsionLaboratory2011study,based
onobservationsfromtheKeplermission,raisedthenumbersomewhat,concludingthatabout"1.4to2.7
percent"ofallstarsofspectralclassF,G,andKareexpectedtohaveplanetsintheirCHZs.[89][90]
Earlyfindings
Seealso:Category:Gasgiantsinthehabitablezone.
ThefirstdiscoveriesofextrasolarplanetsintheCHZoccurredjustafewyearsafterthefirstextrasolar
planetswerediscovered.Oneofthefirstdiscoverieswas70Virginisb,agasgiantinitiallynicknamed
"Goldilocks"duetoitbeingneither"toohot"nor"toocold."Laterstudyrevealedtemperaturesanalogous
toVenusrulingoutanypotentialforliquidwater.[91]16CygniBb,alsodiscoveredin1996,hasan
extremelyeccentricorbitthatcausesextremeseasonaleffectsontheplanet'ssurface.Inspiteofthis,
simulationshavesuggestedthatitispossibleforaterrestrialnaturalsatellitetosupportwateratitssurface
yearround.[92]
Gliese876b,discoveredin1998,andGliese876c,discoveredin2001,arebothgasgiantsdiscoveredin
thehabitablezonearoundGliese876.Althoughtheyarenotthoughttothemselvespossesssignificant
waterattheirsurfaces,bothmayhavehabitablemoons.[93]UpsilonAndromedaed,discoveredin1999,isa
gasgiantinitsstar'scircumstellarhabitablezoneconsideredtobelargeenoughtofavortheformationof
large,Earthlikemoons.[94]
9/22
10/29/2015
AnnouncedonApril4,2001,HD28185bisagasgiantfoundtoorbitentirelywithinitsstar'scircumstellar
habitablezone[95]andhasaloworbitaleccentricity,comparabletothatofMarsintheSolarSystem.[96]
TidalinteractionssuggestthatHD28185bcouldharborhabitableEarthmasssatellitesinorbitaroundit
formanybillionsofyears,[97]thoughitisunclearwhethersuchsatellitescouldforminthefirstplace.[98]
HD69830d,agasgiantwith17timesthemassofEarth,wasin2006foundorbitingwithinthe
circumstellarhabitablezoneofHD69830,41lightyearsawayfromEarth.[99]Thefollowingyear,55
CancrifwasdiscoveredwithintheCHZofitshoststar55CancriA.[100][101]Althoughconditionsonthis
massiveanddenseplanetarenotconducivetotheformationofwaterorlifeasweknowit,ahypothetical
moonofthisplanetwiththepropermassandcompositioncouldbeabletosupportliquidwateratits
surface.[102]
HabitablesuperEarths
Seealso:Category:SuperEarthsinthehabitablezone.
The2007discoveryofGliese581c,thefirstsuperEarthinthe
circumstellarhabitablezone,createdsignificantinterestinthe
systembythescientificcommunity,althoughtheplanetwaslater
foundtohavesurfaceconditionsthatlikelyresembleVenusmore
thanEarth.[103]Gliese581d,anotherplanetinthesamesystemand
thoughttobeabettercandidateforhabitability,wasalsoannounced
in2007.Itsexistencewaslaterdisconfirmedin2014.Gliese581g,
yetanotherplanetthoughttohavebeendiscoveredinthe
circumstellarhabitablezoneofthesystem,wasconsideredtobe
morehabitablethanbothGliese581candd.However,itsexistence
wasalsodisconfirmedin2014.[104]
ThehabitablezoneofGliese581
comparedwithourSolarSystem's
habitablezone.
DiscoveredinAugust2011,
HD85512bwasinitiallybelievedtobehabitable,[105]butthenew
circumstellarhabitablezonecriteriadevisedbyKopparapuetal.in
2013placetheplanetoutsidethecircumstellarhabitablezone.[87]
Withanincreaseintheintensityofexoplanetdiscovery,theEarth
SimilarityIndexwasdevisedinOctober2011asawayof
comparingplanetaryproperties,suchassurfacetemperatureand
density,tothoseofEarthinordertobettergaugethehabitabilityof
extrasolarbodies.[106]
Adiagramcomparingsize(artist's
impression)andorbitalpositionof
planetKepler22bwithinSunlike
starKepler22'shabitablezoneand
thatofEarthintheSolarSystem
Kepler22b,discoveredinDecember2011bytheKeplerspace
probe,[107]isthefirsttransitingexoplanetdiscoveredarounda
sunlikestar.Witharadius2.4timesthatofEarth,Kepler22bhas
beenpredictedbysometobeanoceanplanet.[108]Gliese667Cc,
discoveredin2011butannouncedin2012,[109]isasuperEarth
10/22
10/29/2015
orbitinginthecircumstellarhabitablezoneofGliese667C.SubsequentlyinJune2013,twootherhabitable
superEarthsorbitingthesamestar,Gliese667CfandGliese667Ce,werediscoveredintheCHZ.[110]
Gliese163c,discoveredinSeptember2012inorbitaroundthereddwarfGliese163[111]islocated49light
yearsfromEarth.Theplanethas6.9Earthmassesand1.82.4Earthradii,andwithitscloseorbitreceives
40percentmorestellarradiationthanEarth,leadingtosurfacetemperaturesofabout60C.[112][113][114]
HD40307g,acandidateplanettentativelydiscoveredinNovember2012,isinthecircumstellarhabitable
zoneofHD40307.[115]InDecember2012,TauCetieandTauCetifwerefoundinthecircumstellar
habitablezoneofTauCeti,asunlikestarjust12lightyearsaway.[116]AlthoughmoremassivethanEarth,
theyareamongtheleastmassiveplanetsfoundtodateorbitinginthezone[117]however,TauCetif,like
HD85512b,didnotfitthenewcircumstellarhabitablezonecriteriaestablishedbythe2013Kopparapu
study.[118]
EarthsizedplanetsandSolaranalogs
Recentdiscoverieshaveuncoveredplanetsthatarebelievedtobe
similarinmanywaystotheEarth(thatisEarthanalogs,or
terrestrialplanetsrelativelyhighEarthSimilarityIndexes).While
thereisnouniversaldefinitionof"Earthsized",rangesaretypically
definedbymass.Thelowerrangeusedinmanydefinitionsofthe
SuperEarthclassis1.9Earthmasses,likewise,SubEarthsrangeup
tothesizeofVenus(~0.815Earthmasses).Anupperlimitof1.5
Earthradiiisalsoconsidered,giventhatabove1.5Rtheaverage
planetdensityrapidlydecreaseswithincreasingradius,indicating
thattheseplanetshavealargefractionofvolatilesbyvolume
overlyingarockycore.[119]
On7January2013,astronomersfromtheKeplerteamannounced
thediscoveryofKepler69c(formerlyKOI172.02),anEarthlike
exoplanetcandidate(1.7timestheradiusofEarth)orbitingKepler
69,astarsimilartoourSun,intheCHZanda"primecandidateto
hostalienlife".[120][121][122][123]Thediscoveryoftwoplanets
orbitinginthehabitablezoneofKepler62,bytheKeplerteamwas
announcedonApril19,2013.Theplanets,namedKepler62eand
Kepler62f,arelikelysolidplanetswithsizes1.6and1.4timesthe
radiusofEarth,respectively.[122][123][124]
ComparisonoftheCHZpositionof
EarthradiusplanetKepler186fand
theSolarSystem(17April2014)
WhilelargerthanKepler186f,
Kepler552b'sorbitandstararemore
similartoEarth's.
Witharadiusmeasuredat1.1Earth,Kepler186f,discovery
announcedinApril2014,istheclosestyetsizetoEarthofan
exoplanetconfirmedbythetransitmethod[125][126][127]thoughitsmassremainsunknownanditsparentstar
isnotaSolaranalog.
On6January2015,NASAannouncedthe1000thconfirmedexoplanetdiscoveredbytheKeplerSpace
Telescope.Threeofthenewlyconfirmedexoplanetswerefoundtoorbitwithinhabitablezonesoftheir
relatedstars:twoofthethree,Kepler438bandKepler442b,arenearEarthsizeandlikelyrockythethird,
11/22
10/29/2015
Kepler440b,isasuperEarth.[128]{Announced16January,EPIC201367065disaplanetof1.5Earthradii
foundtoorbitwithinahabitablezone(ascalculatedbySelsis,Kastingetal.)ofEPIC201367065,receiving
1.4timestheintensityofvisiblelightasEarth.[129]
Kepler452b,publiclyannouncedon23July2015is50%biggerthanEarth,likelyrockyandtakes
approximately385EarthdaysorbitinthehabitablezoneofitsGclass(solaranalog)starKepler
452.[130][131]
NotableexoplanetsKeplerSpaceTelescope
Confirmedsmallexoplanetsinhabitablezones.
(Kepler62e,Kepler62f,Kepler186f,Kepler296e,Kepler296f,Kepler438b,Kepler440b,Kepler
442b)
(KeplerSpaceTelescopeJanuary6,2015). [128]
HabitabilityoutsidetheCHZ
Liquidwaterenvironmentshavebeenfoundtoexistintheabsenceofatmosphericpressure,andat
temperaturesoutsidetheCHZtemperaturerange.Forexample,Saturn'smoonTitanandJupiter'sEuropa,
bothoutsidethehabitablezone,mayholdlargevolumesofliquidwaterinsubsurfaceoceans.[132]
OutsidetheCHZ,tidalheatingandradioactivedecayaretwopossibleheatsourcesthatcouldcontributeto
theexistenceofliquidwater.[9][10]AbbotandSwitzer(2011)putforwardthepossibilitythatsubsurface
watercouldexistonrogueplanetsasaresultofradioactivedecaybasedheatingandinsulationbyathick
12/22
10/29/2015
surfacelayerofice.[12]
WithsometheorisingthatlifeonEarthmayhaveactuallyoriginatedinstable,subsurfacehabitats,[133][134]
ithasbeensuggestedthatitmaybecommonforwetsubsurfaceextraterrestrialhabitatssuchastheseto
'teemwithlife'.[135]Indeed,onEarthitselflivingorganismsmaybefoundmorethan6kilometresbelowthe
surface.[136]
AnotherpossibilityisthatoutsidetheCHZorganismsmayusealternative
biochemistriesthatdonotrequirewateratall.Astrobiologists,including
NASA'sChristopherMcKay,havesuggestedthatmethanemaybeasolvent
conducivetothedevelopmentof"cryolife",withtheSun's"methane
habitablezone"beingcenteredon1,610,000,000km(1.0 109mi11AU)
fromthestar.[15]ThisdistanceiscoincidentalwiththelocationofTitan,
whoselakesandrainofmethanemakeitanideallocationtofindMcKay's
proposedcryolife.[15]Inaddition,testingofanumberoforganismshas
foundsomearecapableofsurvivinginextraCHZconditions.[137]
Significanceforcomplexandintelligentlife
Thediscoveryof
hydrocarbonlakeson
Saturn'smoonTitanhas
beguntocallintoquestion
thecarbonchauvinismthat
underpinsCHZtheory.
TheRareEarthhypothesisarguesthatcomplexandintelligentlifeis
uncommonandthattheCHZisoneofmanycriticalfactors.Accordingto
Ward&Brownlee(2004)andothers,notonlyisaCHZorbitandsurface
wateraprimaryrequirementtosustainlifebutarequirementtosupportthe
secondaryconditionsrequiredformulticellularlifetoemergeandevolve.
Thesecondaryhabitabilityfactorsarebothgeological(theroleofsurface
waterinsustainingnecessaryplatetectonics)[24]andbiochemical(theroleofradiantenergyinsupport
photosynthesisfornecessaryatmosphericoxygenation).[138]Butothers,suchasIanStewartandJackCohen
intheir2002bookEvolvingtheAlienarguethatcomplexintelligentlifemayariseoutsidetheCHZ.[139]
IntelligentlifeoutsidetheCHZmayhaveevolvedinsubsurfaceenvironments,fromalternative
biochemistries[139]orevenfromnuclearreactions.[140]
OnEarth,complexmulticellularlifehasbeenfoundwiththepotentialtosurvivetheconditionsthatmight
existoutsidetheCHZ.Ananimalexampleofsuchalifeformisthetardigrade,whichcanwithstandboth
temperatureswellabovetheboilingpointofwaterandthevacuumofouterspace.[141]Inaddition,theplant
Rhizocarpongeographicumhasbeenfoundtosurviveinanenvironmentwheretheatmosphericpressureis
fartoolowforsurfaceliquidwaterandwheretheradiantenergyisalsomuchlowerthanthatwhichmost
plantsrequiretophotosynthesize.[142][143]Ifthehumanrace,however,istocolonizeotherplanets,true
EarthanalogsintheCHZaremostlikelytoprovidetheclosestnaturalhabitatsforhumanbeingsthis
conceptwasthebasisofStephenH.Dole's1964study.Withsuitabletemperature,gravity,atmospheric
pressureandthepresenceofwater,thenecessityofspacesuitsmaybeeliminatedandcomplexEarthlife
canbeallowedtoflourish.[21]
13/22
10/29/2015
PlanetsintheCHZremainofparamountinteresttoresearcherslookingforintelligentlifeelsewhereinthe
universe.[144]The1961Drakeequation,stillusedasmeansofcalculatingthenumberofintelligent
civilizationsinourgalaxy,containsaparametere,whichisgenerallyconsideredtoimplythefractionof
starsthathaveplanetarymassobjectsorbitingwithintheCHZ.AlowvaluelendssupporttotheRareEarth
hypothesis,whichpositsthatintelligentlifeisararityintheUniverse,whereasahighvalueprovides
evidencefortheCopernicanmediocrityprinciple,theviewthathabitabilityandthereforelifeis
commonthroughouttheUniverse.[24]A1971NASAreportbyDrakeandBernardOliverproposedthe
"waterhole",basedonthespectralabsorptionlinesofthehydrogenandhydroxylcomponentsofwater,asa
good,obviousbandforcommunicationwithextraterrestrialintelligence[145][146]thathassincebeenwidely
adoptedbyastronomersinvolvedinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.AccordingtoJillTarter,
MargaretTurnbullandmanyothers,CHZcandidatesaretheprioritytargetstonarrowwaterhole
searches[147][148]andtheAllenTelescopeArraynowextendsProjectPhoenixtosuchcandidates.[149]
BecausetheCHZisconsideredthemostlikelyhabitatforintelligentlife,METIeffortshavealsobeen
focusedonsystemslikelytohaveplanetsthere.The2001TeenAgeMessageandthe2003CosmicCall2,
forexample,weresenttothe47UrsaeMajorissystem,knowntocontainthreeJupitermassplanetsand
possiblywithaterrestrialplanetintheCHZ.[150][151][152][153]TheTeenAgeMessage,andthelaterWow!
reply,werealsodirectedtothe55Cancrisystem,whichhasagasgiantinitsCHZ.[100]AMessagetoEarth
in2008,andHelloFromEarthin2009,weredirectedtotheGliese581system,containingthreeplanetsin
theCHZGliese581c,d,andtheunconfirmedg.[154]
Seealso
Hypotheticaltypesofbiochemistry
Earthanalog
EarthSimilarityIndex
Extraterrestrialliquidwater
Extraterrestriallife
Galactichabitablezone
Naturalsatellitehabitability
Planetaryhabitability
RareEarthhypothesis
Venuszone
References
1. Kopparapu,RaviKumar(2013)."Arevisedestimateoftheoccurrencerateofterrestrialplanetsinthehabitable
zonesaroundkeplermdwarfs".TheAstrophysicalJournalLetters767(1):L8.arXiv:1303.2649.
Bibcode:2013ApJ...767L...8K.doi:10.1088/20418205/767/1/L8.
2. Cruz,MariaCoontz,Robert(2013)."ExoplanetsIntroductiontoSpecialIssue".Science340(6132):565.
doi:10.1126/science.340.6132.565.Retrieved18May2013.
3. Huggett,RichardJ.(1995).Geoecology:AnEvolutionaryApproach.Routledge,Chapman&Hall.p.10.
ISBN9780415086899.
4. Overbye,Dennis(January6,2015)."AsRanksofGoldilocksPlanetsGrow,AstronomersConsiderWhats
Next".NewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary6,2015.
5. Overbye,Dennis(November4,2013)."FarOffPlanetsLiketheEarthDottheGalaxy".NewYorkTimes.
RetrievedNovember5,2013.
14/22
10/29/2015
6. Petigura,EricA.Howard,AndrewW.Marcy,GeoffreyW.(October31,2013)."PrevalenceofEarthsize
planetsorbitingSunlikestars".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesof
America.arXiv:1311.6806.Bibcode:2013PNAS..11019273P.doi:10.1073/pnas.1319909110.Retrieved
November5,2013.
7. Khan,Amina(November4,2013)."MilkyWaymayhostbillionsofEarthsizeplanets".LosAngelesTimes.
RetrievedNovember5,2013.
8. Schirber,Michael(26Oct2009)."DetectingLifeFriendlyMoons".AstrobiologyMagazine.NASA.Retrieved
9May2013.
9. Cowen,Ron(20080607)."AShiftyMoon".ScienceNews.
10. Bryner,Jeanna(24June2009)."OceanHiddenInsideSaturn'sMoon".Space.com.TechMediaNetwork.
Retrieved22April2013.
11. Abbot,D.S.Switzer,E.R.(2011)."TheSteppenwolf:AProposalforaHabitablePlanetinInterstellarSpace".
TheAstrophysicalJournal735(2):L27.arXiv:1102.1108.Bibcode:2011ApJ...735L..27A.doi:10.1088/2041
8205/735/2/L27.
12. "RoguePlanetsCouldHarborLifeinInterstellarSpace,SayAstrobiologists".MITTechnologyReview.MIT
TechnologyReview.9February2011.Retrieved24June2013.
13. Wall,Mike(28September2015)."SaltyWaterFlowsonMarsToday,BoostingOddsforLife".Space.com.
Retrieved20150928.
14. Sun,JimingClark,BryanK.Torquato,SalvatoreCar,Roberto(2015)."Thephasediagramofhighpressure
superionicice".NatureCommunications6:8156.doi:10.1038/ncomms9156.ISSN20411723.
15. Villard,Ray(November18,2011)."AlienLifeMayLiveinVariousHabitableZones:DiscoveryNews".
News.discovery.com.DiscoveryCommunicationsLLC.RetrievedApril22,2013.
16. Strughold,Hubertus(1953).TheGreenandRedPlanet:APhysiologicalStudyofthePossibilityofLifeonMars.
UniversityofNewMexicoPress.
17. Kasting,James(2010).HowtoFindaHabitablePlanet.PrincetonUniversityPress.p.127.ISBN9780691
138053.Retrieved4May2013.
18. Kasting,JamesF.Whitmire,DanielP.Reynolds,RayT.(January1993)."HabitableZonesaroundMain
SequenceStars".Icarus101(1):108118.Bibcode:1993Icar..101..108K.doi:10.1006/icar.1993.1010.
PMID11536936.
19. Huang,SuShu(1966).Extraterrestriallife:AnAnthologyandBibliography.NationalResearchCouncil(U.S.).
StudyGrouponBiologyandtheExplorationofMars.Washington,D.C.:NationalAcademyofSciences.
pp.8793.
20. Huang,SuShu(April1960)."LifeSupportingRegionsintheVicinityofBinarySystems".Publicationsofthe
AstronomicalSocietyofthePacific72(425):106114.Bibcode:1960PASP...72..106H.doi:10.1086/127489.
21. Dole,StephenH(1964).HabitablePlanetsforMan.BlaisdellPublishingCompany.p.103.
22. Gilster,Paul(2004).CentauriDreams:ImaginingandPlanningInterstellarExploration.Springer.p.40.
ISBN9780387004365.
23. "TheGoldilocksZone"(Pressrelease).NASA.October2,2003.RetrievedApril22,2013.
24. Brownlee,DonaldWard,Peter(2004).RareEarth:WhyComplexLifeIsUncommonintheUniverse.New
York:Copernicus.ISBN0387952896.
25. Gonzalez,GuillermoBrownlee,DonaldWard,Peter(July2001)."TheGalacticHabitableZoneI.Galactic
ChemicalEvolution".Icarus152(1):185200.arXiv:astroph/0103165.Bibcode:2001Icar..152..185G.
doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6617.
26. Hadhazy,Adam(April3,2013)."The'HabitableEdge'ofExomoons".AstrobiologyMagazine.NASA.Retrieved
April22,2013.
27. Fogg,M.J.(1992)."AnEstimateofthePrevalenceofBiocompatibleandHabitablePlanets".Journalofthe
BritishInterplanetarySociety45(1):312.Bibcode:1992JBIS...45....3F.PMID11539465.
28. Redd,NolaTaylor(25August2011)."GreenhouseEffectCouldExtendHabitableZone".Astrobiology
Magazine.NASA.Retrieved25June2013.
29. "Venus".CaseWesternReserveUniversity.13September2006.Retrieved20111221.
30. Sharp,Tim."AtmosphereoftheMoon".Space.com.TechMediaNetwork.RetrievedApril23,2013.
31. Bolonkin,AlexanderA.(2009).ArtificialEnvironmentsonMars.BerlinHeidelberg:Springer.pp.599625.
ISBN9783642036293.
15/22
10/29/2015
32. Haberle,RobertM.McKay,ChristopherP.Schaeffer,JamesCabrol,NathalieA.Grin,EdmonA.Zent,
AaronP.Quinn,Richard(2001)."OnthepossibilityofliquidwateronpresentdayMars".Journalof
GeophysicalResearch106(E10):23317.Bibcode:2001JGR...10623317H.doi:10.1029/2000JE001360.
ISSN01480227.
33. Mann,Adam(February18,2014)."StrangeDarkStreaksonMarsGetMoreandMoreMysterious".Wired
(magazine).RetrievedFebruary18,2014.
34. "NASAFindsPossibleSignsofFlowingWateronMars".voanews.com.RetrievedAugust5,2011.
35. "IsMarsWeepingSaltyTears?".news.sciencemag.org.RetrievedAugust5,2011.
36. Webster,GuyBrown,Dwayne(December10,2013)."NASAMarsSpacecraftRevealsaMoreDynamicRed
Planet".NASA.RetrievedDecember10,2013.
37. A'Hearn,MichaelF.Feldman,PaulD.(1992)."WatervaporizationonCeres".Icarus98(1):5460.
Bibcode:1992Icar...98...54A.doi:10.1016/00191035(92)90206M.
38. Budyko,M.I.(1969)."TheeffectofsolarradiationvariationsontheclimateoftheEarth".Tellus21(5):611.
doi:10.1111/j.21533490.1969.tb00466.x.
39. Sellers,WilliamD.(June1969)."AGlobalClimaticModelBasedontheEnergyBalanceoftheEarth
AtmosphereSystem".JournalofAppliedMeteorology8(3):392400.Bibcode:1969JApMe...8..392S.
doi:10.1175/15200450(1969)008<0392:AGCMBO>2.0.CO2.
40. North,GeraldR.(November1975)."TheoryofEnergyBalanceClimateModels".JournaloftheAtmospheric
Sciences32(11):20332043.Bibcode:1975JAtS...32.2033N.doi:10.1175/1520
0469(1975)032<2033:TOEBCM>2.0.CO2.
41. Rasool,I.DeBergh,C.(Jun1970)."TheRunawayGreenhouseandtheAccumulationofCO2intheVenus
Atmosphere"(PDF).Nature226(5250):10371039.Bibcode:1970Natur.226.1037R.doi:10.1038/2261037a0.
ISSN00280836.PMID16057644.
42. Hart,M.H.(1979)."Habitablezonesaboutmainsequencestars".Icarus37:351357.
Bibcode:1979Icar...37..351H.doi:10.1016/00191035(79)901416.
43. Spiegel,D.S.Raymond,S.N.Dressing,C.D.Scharf,C.A.Mitchell,J.L.(2010)."Generalized
MilankovitchCyclesandLongTermClimaticHabitability".TheAstrophysicalJournal721(2):1308.
arXiv:1002.4877.Bibcode:2010ApJ...721.1308S.doi:10.1088/0004637X/721/2/1308.
44. Abe,Y.AbeOuchi,A.Sleep,N.H.Zahnle,K.J.(2011)."HabitableZoneLimitsforDryPlanets".
Astrobiology11(5):443460.Bibcode:2011AsBio..11..443A.doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0545.PMID21707386.
45. Vladilo,GiovanniMurante,GiuseppeSilva,LauraProvenzale,AntonelloFerri,GaiaRagazzini,Gregorio
(March2013)."ThehabitablezoneofEarthlikeplanetswithdifferentlevelsofatmosphericpressure".The
AstrophysicalJournal(accepted)767(1):65?.arXiv:1302.4566.Bibcode:2013ApJ...767...65V.
doi:10.1088/0004637X/767/1/65.
46. Zsom,AndrasSeager,SaraDeWit,Julien(2013)."TowardstheMinimumInnerEdgeDistanceofthe
HabitableZone".arXiv:1304.3714[astroph.EP].
47. Cuntz,Manfred(2013)."STypeandPTypeHabitabilityinStellarBinarySystems:AComprehensive
Approach.I.MethodandApplications".arXiv:1303.6645[astroph.EP].
48. Forget,F.Pierrehumbert,RT(1997)."WarmingEarlyMarswithCarbonDioxideCloudsThatScatterInfrared
Radiation".Science278(5341):12736.Bibcode:1997Sci...278.1273F.doi:10.1126/science.278.5341.1273.
PMID9360920.
49. Mischna,MKasting,JFPavlov,AFreedman,R(2000)."InfluenceofCarbonDioxideCloudsonEarly
MartianClimate".Icarus145(2):54654.Bibcode:2000Icar..145..546M.doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6380.
PMID11543507.
50. Vu,Linda."PlanetsPreferSafeNeighborhoods"(Pressrelease).Spitzer.caltech.edu.NASA/Caltech.Retrieved
April22,2013.
51. Buccino,AndreaP.Lemarchand,GuillermoA.Mauas,PabloJ.D.(2006)."Ultravioletradiationconstraints
aroundthecircumstellarhabitablezones".Icarus183(2):491503.arXiv:astroph/0512291.
Bibcode:2006Icar..183..491B.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.03.007.
52. Barnes,RoryHeller,Ren(March2013)."HabitablePlanetsAroundWhiteandBrownDwarfs:ThePerilsofa
CoolingPrimary".Astrobiology13(3):279291.arXiv:1203.5104.Bibcode:2013AsBio..13..279B.
doi:10.1089/ast.2012.0867.PMC3612282.PMID23537137.
16/22
10/29/2015
53. Yang,J.Cowan,N.B.Abbot,D.S.(2013)."StabilizingCloudFeedbackDramaticallyExpandstheHabitable
ZoneofTidallyLockedPlanets".TheAstrophysicalJournal771(2):L45.arXiv:1307.0515.
Bibcode:2013ApJ...771L..45Y.doi:10.1088/20418205/771/2/L45.
54. Agol,Eric(April2011)."TransitSurveysforEarthsintheHabitableZonesofWhiteDwarfs".The
AstrophysicalJournalLetters731(2):15.arXiv:1103.2791.Bibcode:2011ApJ...731L..31A.doi:10.1088/2041
8205/731/2/L31.
55. Carroll,BradleyOstlie,Dale(2007).AnIntroductiontoModernAstrophysics(2ed.).
56. Richmond,Michael(November10,2004)."Latestagesofevolutionforlowmassstars".RochesterInstituteof
Technology.Retrieved20070919.
57. Guo,J.Zhang,F.Chen,X.Han,Z.(2009)."Probabilitydistributionofterrestrialplanetsinhabitablezones
aroundhoststars".AstrophysicsandSpaceScience323(4):367.arXiv:1003.1368.
Bibcode:2009Ap&SS.323..367G.doi:10.1007/s105090090081z.
58. Kasting,J.F.Ackerman,T.P.(1986)."ClimaticConsequencesofVeryHighCarbonDioxideLevelsinthe
Earth'sEarlyAtmosphere".Science234(4782):13831385.doi:10.1126/science.11539665.PMID11539665.
59. Franck,S.vonBloh,W.Bounama,C.Steffen,M.Schnberner,D.Schellnhuber,H.J.(2002)."Habitable
ZonesandtheNumberofGaia'sSisters"(PDF).InMontesinos,BenjaminGimnez,AlvaroGuinan,EdwardF.
ASPConferenceSeries.TheEvolvingSunanditsInfluenceonPlanetaryEnvironments.AstronomicalSocietyof
thePacific.pp.261272.Bibcode:2002ASPC..269..261F.ISBN1583811095.RetrievedApril26,2013.
60. Croswell,Ken(January27,2001)."Red,willingandable"(Fullreprint).NewScientist.RetrievedAugust5,2007.
61. Alekseev,I.Y.Kozlova,O.V.(2002)."StarspotsandactiveregionsontheemissionreddwarfstarLQ
Hydrae".AstronomyandAstrophysics396:203.Bibcode:2002A&A...396..203A.doi:10.1051/0004
6361:20021424.
62. Alpert,Mark(November7,2005)."RedStarRising".ScientificAmerican.RetrievedJanuary19,2013.
63. ResearchCorporation(December19,2006)."AndrewWest:'Fewerflares,starspotsforolderdwarfstars' ".
EarthSky.RetrievedApril27,2013.
64. Cain,FraserGay,Pamela(2007)."AstronomyCastepisode40:AmericanAstronomicalSocietyMeeting,May
2007".UniverseToday.Retrieved20070617.
65. Christensen,Bill(April1,2005)."RedGiantsandPlanetstoLiveOn".Space.com.TechMediaNetwork.
RetrievedApril27,2013.
66. Lopez,B.Schneider,J.Danchi,W.C.(2005)."CanLifeDevelopintheExpandedHabitableZonesaroundRed
GiantStars?".TheAstrophysicalJournal627(2):974.arXiv:astroph/0503520.Bibcode:2005ApJ...627..974L.
doi:10.1086/430416.
67. Lorenz,RalphD.Lunine,JonathanI.McKay,ChristopherP.(1997)."Titanunderaredgiantsun:Anewkind
of"habitable"moon".GeophysicalResearchLetters24(22):29052908.Bibcode:1997GeoRL..24.2905L.
doi:10.1029/97GL52843.ISSN00948276.PMID11542268.
68. Voisey,Jon(February23,2011)."PlausibilityCheckHabitablePlanetsaroundRedGiants".UniverseToday.
69. AlienLifeMoreLikelyon'Dune'Planets(http://www.astrobio.net/exclusive/4188/alienlifemorelikelyon
%E2%80%98dune%E2%80%99planets),09/01/11,CharlesQ.Choi,AstrobiologyMagazine
70. HabitableZoneLimitsforDryPlanets(http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2010.0545),YutakaAbe,
AyakoAbeOuchi,NormanH.Sleep,andKevinJ.Zahnle.Astrobiology.June2011,11(5):443460.
doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0545(https://dx.doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2010.0545)
71. Drake,MichaelJ.(April2005)."Originofwaterintheterrestrialplanets".Meteoritics&PlanetaryScience
(JohnWiley&Sons)40(4):519527.Bibcode:2005M&PS...40..519D.doi:10.1111/j.1945
5100.2005.tb00960.x.
72. Drake,MichaelJ.etal.(August2005)."Originofwaterintheterrestrialplanets".Asteroids,Comets,and
Meteors(IAUS229).229thSymposiumoftheInternationalAstronomicalUnion1(4).Bzios,RiodeJaneiro,
Brazil:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.381394.Bibcode:2006IAUS..229..381D.
doi:10.1017/S1743921305006861.ISBN9780521852005.
73. Kuchner,Marc(2003)."VolatilerichEarthMassPlanetsintheHabitableZone".AstrophysicalJournal596:
L105L108.arXiv:astroph/0303186.Bibcode:2003ApJ...596L.105K.doi:10.1086/378397.
17/22
10/29/2015
74. Charbonneau,DavidZachoryK.BertaJonathanIrwinChristopherJ.BurkePhilipNutzmanLarsA.
BuchhaveChristopheLovisXavierBonfilsetal.(2009)."AsuperEarthtransitinganearbylowmassstar".
Nature462(17December2009):891894.arXiv:0912.3229.Bibcode:2009Natur.462..891C.
doi:10.1038/nature08679.PMID20016595.Retrieved20091215.
75. Kuchner,SeagerHierMajumder,M.Militzer,C.A.(2007)."Massradiusrelationshipsforsolidexoplanets".
TheAstrophysicalJournal669(2):12791297.arXiv:0707.2895.Bibcode:2007ApJ...669.1279S.
doi:10.1086/521346.
76. Vastag,Brian(December5,2011)."Newestalienplanetisjusttherighttemperatureforlife".TheWashington
Post.RetrievedApril27,2013.
77. Robinson,TylerD.Catling,DavidC.(2012)."AnAnalyticRadiativeConvectiveModelforPlanetary
Atmospheres".TheAstrophysicalJournal757(1):104.arXiv:1209.1833.Bibcode:2012ApJ...757..104R.
doi:10.1088/0004637X/757/1/104.
78. Shizgal,B.D.Arkos,G.G.(1996)."NonthermalescapeoftheatmospheresofVenus,Earth,andMars".
ReviewsofGeophysics34(4):483505.Bibcode:1996RvGeo..34..483S.doi:10.1029/96RG02213.
79. Chaplin,Martin(April8,2013)."WaterPhaseDiagram".Ices.LondonSouthBankUniversity.Retrieved
April27,2013.
80. D.P.Hamilton&J.A.Burns(1992)."Orbitalstabilityzonesaboutasteroids.IIThedestabilizingeffectsof
eccentricorbitsandofsolarradiation".Icarus96(1):43.Bibcode:1992Icar...96...43H.doi:10.1016/0019
1035(92)90005R.
81. BecquerelP.(1950)."Lasuspensiondelavieaudessousde1/20Kabsolupardemagnetizationadiabatiquede
l'alundeferdanslevidelespluselve".C.R.Hebd.SancesAcad.Sci.Paris(inFrench)231:261263.
82. Horikawa,DaikiD.(2012).AlexanderV.Altenbach,JoanM.Bernhard&JosephSeckbach,ed.AnoxiaEvidence
forEukaryoteSurvivalandPaleontologicalStrategies.(21ed.).SpringerNetherlands.pp.205217.ISBN978
9400718951.Retrieved21January2012.
83. Kane,StephenR.,Gelino,DawnM.(2012)."TheHabitableZoneandExtremePlanetaryOrbits".Astrobiology
12(10):940945.arXiv:1205.2429.Bibcode:2012AsBio..12..940K.doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0798.
PMID23035897.
84. PaulGilster,AndrewLePage(20150130)."AReviewoftheBestHabitablePlanetCandidates".Centauri
Dreams,TauZeroFoundation.Retrieved20150724.
85. GiovanniF.Bignami(2015).TheMysteryoftheSevenSpheres:HowHomosapienswillConquerSpace.
Springer.ISBN9783319170046.,Page110(https://books.google.se/books?id=crvpCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA110)
86. Wethington,Nicholos(September16,2008)."HowManyStarsareintheMilkyWay?".UniverseToday.
87. Torres,AbelMendez(April26,2013)."Tenpotentiallyhabitableexoplanetsnow".HabitableExoplanets
Catalog.UniversityofPuertoRico.RetrievedApril29,2013.
88. Borenstein,Seth(19February2011)."Cosmiccensusfindscrowdofplanetsinourgalaxy".AssociatedPress.
89. Choi,CharlesQ.(21March2011)."NewEstimateforAlienEarths:2BillioninOurGalaxyAlone".Space.com.
Retrieved20110424.
90. Catanzarite,J.Shao,M.(2011)."TheOccurrenceRateofEarthAnalogPlanetsOrbitingSunLikeStars".The
AstrophysicalJournal738(2):151.arXiv:1103.1443.Bibcode:2011ApJ...738..151C.doi:10.1088/0004
637X/738/2/151.
91. "70Virginisb".ExtrasolarPlanetGuide.Extrasolar.net.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20120619.Retrieved
20090402.
92. Williams,D.,Pollard,D.(2002)."Earthlikeworldsoneccentricorbits:excursionsbeyondthehabitablezone".
InternationalJournalofAstrobiology1(1):6169.Bibcode:2002IJAsB...1...61W.
doi:10.1017/S1473550402001064.
93. Sudarsky,Davidetal.(2003)."TheoreticalSpectraandAtmospheresofExtrasolarGiantPlanets".The
AstrophysicalJournal588(2):11211148.arXiv:astroph/0210216.Bibcode:2003ApJ...588.1121S.
doi:10.1086/374331.
94. Williams,D.,Pollard,D.(2002)."Earthlikeworldsoneccentricorbits:excursionsbeyondthehabitablezone".
InternationalJournalofAstrobiology(CambridgeUniversityPress)1(1):6169.
Bibcode:2002IJAsB...1...61W.doi:10.1017/S1473550402001064.
18/22
10/29/2015
95. Jones,B.W.Sleep,P.N.Underwood,D.R.(2006)."HabitabilityofKnownExoplanetarySystemsBasedon
MeasuredStellarProperties".TheAstrophysicalJournal649(2):1010.arXiv:astroph/0603200.
Bibcode:2006ApJ...649.1010J.doi:10.1086/506557.
96. Butler,R.P.Wright,J.T.Marcy,G.W.Fischer,D.A.Vogt,S.S.Tinney,C.G.Jones,H.R.A.Carter,
B.D.Johnson,J.A.McCarthy,C.Penny,A.J.(2006)."CatalogofNearbyExoplanets".TheAstrophysical
Journal646:505.arXiv:astroph/0607493.Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..505B.doi:10.1086/504701.
97. Barnes,J.W.OBrien,D.P.(2002)."StabilityofSatellitesaroundCloseinExtrasolarGiantPlanets".The
AstrophysicalJournal575:1087.arXiv:astroph/0205035.Bibcode:2002ApJ...575.1087B.doi:10.1086/341477.
98. Canup,R.M.Ward,W.R.(2006)."Acommonmassscalingforsatellitesystemsofgaseousplanets".Nature
441(7095):834839.Bibcode:2006Natur.441..834C.doi:10.1038/nature04860.PMID16778883.
99. Lovisetal.(2006)."AnextrasolarplanetarysystemwiththreeNeptunemassplanets".Nature441(7091):305
309.arXiv:astroph/0703024.Bibcode:2006Natur.441..305L.doi:10.1038/nature04828.PMID16710412.
100. "AstronomersDiscoverRecordFifthPlanetAroundNearbyStar55Cancri".Sciencedaily.com.November6,
2007.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26September2008.Retrieved20080914.
101. Fischer,DebraA.etal.(2008)."FivePlanetsOrbiting55Cancri".TheAstrophysicalJournal675(1):790801.
arXiv:0712.3917.Bibcode:2008ApJ...675..790F.doi:10.1086/525512.
102. IanSample,sciencecorrespondent(7November2007)."CouldthisbeEarth'sneartwin?Introducingplanet55
Cancrif".London:TheGuardian.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2October2008.Retrieved17October2008.
103. Than,Ker(20070224)."PlanetHuntersEdgeClosertoTheirHolyGrail".space.com.Retrieved20070429.
104. Robertson,PaulMahadevan,SuvrathEndl,MichaelRoy,Arpita(3July2014)."Stellaractivitymasquerading
asplanetsinthehabitablezoneoftheMdwarfGliese581".Science.arXiv:1407.1049.
Bibcode:2014Sci...345..440R.doi:10.1126/science.1253253.
105. "Researchersfindpotentiallyhabitableplanet"(inFrench).maxisciences.com.Retrieved20110831.
106. SchulzeMakuch,D.Mndez,A.Fairn,A.G.VonParis,P.Turse,C.Boyer,G.Davila,A.F.Antnio,M.
R.D.S.Catling,D.Irwin,L.N.(2011)."ATwoTieredApproachtoAssessingtheHabitabilityof
Exoplanets".Astrobiology11(10):10411052.Bibcode:2011AsBio..11.1041S.doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0592.
PMID22017274.
107. "Kepler22b:Earthlikeplanetconfirmed".BBC.December5,2011.RetrievedMay2,2013.
108. Scharf,CalebA.(20111208)."YouCan'tAlwaysTellanExoplanetbyItsSize".ScientificAmerican.Retrieved
20120920.:"Ifit[Kepler22b]hadasimilarcompositiontoEarth,thenwe'relookingataworldinexcessof
about40Earthmasses".
109. AngladaEscude,GuillemArriagada,PamelaVogt,StevenRivera,EugenioJ.Butler,R.PaulCrane,Jeffrey
D.Shectman,StephenA.Thompson,IanB.Minniti,Dante(2012)."AplanetarysystemaroundthenearbyM
dwarfGJ667CwithatleastonesuperEarthinitshabitablezone".arXiv:1202.0446[astroph.EP].
110. AngladaEscud,GuillemTuomi,MikkoGerlach,EnricoBarnes,RoryHeller,RenJenkins,JamesS.
Wende,SebastianVogt,StevenS.Butler,R.PaulReiners,AnsgarJones,HughR.A.(20130607)."A
dynamicallypackedplanetarysystemaroundGJ667CwiththreesuperEarthsinitshabitablezone"(PDF).
Astronomy&Astrophysics.arXiv:1306.6074.Bibcode:2013A&A...556A.126A.doi:10.1051/0004
6361/201321331.Retrieved20130625.
111. Staff(September20,2012)."LHS188HighpropermotionStar".Centrededonnesastronomiquesde
Strasbourg(StrasbourgastronomicalDataCenter).RetrievedSeptember20,2012.
112. Mndez,Abel(August29,2012)."AHotPotentialHabitableExoplanetaroundGliese163".UniversityofPuerto
RicoatArecibo(PlanetaryHabitabilityLaboratory).RetrievedSeptember20,2012.
113. Redd(September20,2012)."NewfoundAlienPlanetaTopContendertoHostLife".Space.com.Retrieved
September20,2012.
114. "AHotPotentialHabitableExoplanetaroundGliese163".Spacedaily.com.Retrieved20130210.
115. Tuomi,MikkoAngladaEscude,GuillemGerlach,EnricoJones,HughR.R.Reiners,AnsgarRivera,
EugenioJ.Vogt,StevenS.Butler,Paul(2012)."HabitablezonesuperEarthcandidateinasixplanetsystem
aroundtheK2.5VstarHD40307".AstronomyandAstrophysics(accepted)549:A48.arXiv:1211.1617.
Bibcode:2013A&A...549A..48T.doi:10.1051/00046361/201220268.
116. Aron,Jacob(December19,2012)."NearbyTauCetimayhosttwoplanetssuitedtolife".NewScientist.Reed
BusinessInformation.RetrievedApril1,2013.
19/22
10/29/2015
117. Tuomi,M.Jones,H.R.A.Jenkins,J.S.Tinney,C.G.Butler,R.P.Vogt,S.S.Barnes,J.R.Wittenmyer,
R.A.oToole,S.Horner,J.Bailey,J.Carter,B.D.Wright,D.J.Salter,G.S.Pinfield,D.(2013).
"Signalsembeddedintheradialvelocitynoise".Astronomy&Astrophysics551:A79.arXiv:1212.4277.
Bibcode:2013A&A...551A..79T.doi:10.1051/00046361/201220509.
118. Torres,AbelMendez(May1,2013)."TheHabitableExoplanetsCatalog".HabitableExoplanetsCatalog.
UniversityofPuertoRico.RetrievedMay1,2013.
119. LaurenM.Weiss,andGeoffreyW.Marcy."Themassradiusrelationfor65exoplanetssmallerthan4Earth
radii(http://arxiv.org/abs/1312.0936)"
120. Moskowitz,Clara(January9,2013)."MostEarthLikeAlienPlanetPossiblyFound".Space.com.Retrieved
January9,2013.
121. Barclay,ThomasBurke,ChristopherJ.Howell,SteveB.Rowe,JasonF.Huber,DanielIsaacson,Howard
Jenkins,JonM.Kolbl,ReaMarcy,GeoffreyW.(2013)."ASuperEarthSizedPlanetOrbitinginorNearthe
HabitableZoneAroundaSunLikeStar".TheAstrophysicalJournal768(2):101.arXiv:1304.4941.
Bibcode:2013ApJ...768..101B.doi:10.1088/0004637X/768/2/101.
122. Johnson,MicheleHarrington,J.D.(18April2013)."NASA'sKeplerDiscoversItsSmallest'HabitableZone'
PlanetstoDate".NASA.Retrieved18April2013.
123. Overbye,Dennis(18April2013)."TwoPromisingPlacestoLive,1,200LightYearsfromEarth".NewYork
Times.Retrieved18April2013.Citeerror:Invalid<ref>tagname"NYT20130418"definedmultiple
timeswithdifferentcontent(seethehelppage).
124. Borucki,WilliamJ.etal.(18April2013)."Kepler62:AFivePlanetSystemwithPlanetsof1.4and1.6Earth
RadiiintheHabitableZone".ScienceExpress340(6132):587.arXiv:1304.7387.Bibcode:2013Sci...340..587B.
doi:10.1126/science.1234702.Retrieved18April2013.
125. Chang,Kenneth(17April2014)."ScientistsFindanEarthTwin,orMaybeaCousin".NewYorkTimes.
126. Chang,Alicia(17April2014)."AstronomersspotmostEarthlikeplanetyet".APNews.Retrieved17April
2014.
127. Morelle,Rebecca(17April2014)." 'MostEarthlikeplanetyet'spottedbyKepler".BBCNews.Retrieved
17April2014.
128. Clavin,WhitneyChou,FeliciaJohnson,Michele(6January2015)."NASA'sKeplerMarks1,000thExoplanet
Discovery,UncoversMoreSmallWorldsinHabitableZones".NASA.Retrieved6January2015.
129. Jensen,MariN.(16January2015)."ThreenearlyEarthsizeplanetsfoundorbitingnearbystar:Onein
'Goldilocks'zone".ScienceDaily.Retrieved25July2015.
130. Jenkins,JonM.Twicken,JosephD.Batalha,NatalieM.Caldwell,DouglasA.Cochran,WilliamD.Endl,
MichaelLatham,DavidW.Esquerdo,GilbertA.Seader,ShawnBieryla,AllysonPetigura,ErikCiardi,
DavidR.Marcy,GeoffreyW.Isaacson,HowardHuber,DanielRowe,JasonF.Torres,GuillermoBryson,
StephenT.Buchhave,LarsRamirez,IvanWolfgang,AngieLi,JieCampbell,JenniferR.Tenenbaum,Peter
Sanderfer,DwightHenze,ChristopherE.Catanzarite,JosephH.Gilliland,RonaldL.Borucki,WilliamJ.(23
July2015)."DiscoveryandValidationofKepler452b:A1.6RSuperEarthExoplanetintheHabitableZone
ofaG2Star".TheAstronomicalJournal150(2):56.arXiv:1507.06723.Bibcode:2015AJ....150...56J.
doi:10.1088/00046256/150/2/56.ISSN15383881.Retrieved24July2015.
131. "NASAtelescopediscoversEarthlikeplanetinstarshabitablezone".BNONews.23July2015.Retrieved
23July2015.
132. Torres,Abel(20120612)."LiquidWaterintheSolarSystem".Retrieved20131215.
133. Munro,Margaret(2013),"MinersdeepundergroundinnorthernOntariofindtheoldestwatereverknown",
NationalPost,retrieved20131006
134. Davies,Paul(2013),TheOriginofLifeII:Howdiditbegin?(PDF),retrieved20131006
135. Taylor,Geoffrey(1996),"LifeUnderground"(PDF),PlanetaryScienceResearch,retrieved20131006
136. Doyle,Alister(4March2013),"Deepunderground,wormsand"zombiemicrobes"rule",Reuters,retrieved
20131006
137. Nicholson,W.L.Moeller,R.Horneck,G.PROTECTTeam(2012)."TranscriptomicResponsesof
GerminatingBacillussubtilisSporesExposedto1.5YearsofSpaceandSimulatedMartianConditionsonthe
EXPOSEEExperimentPROTECT".Astrobiology12(5):46986.Bibcode:2012AsBio..12..469N.
doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0748.PMID22680693.
20/22
10/29/2015
138. Decker,HeinzHolde,KensalE.(2011)."OxygenandtheExplorationoftheUniverse(article)(book:Oxygenand
theEvolutionofLife)".pp.157168.doi:10.1007/9783642131790_9.ISBN9783642131783.
139. Stewart,IanCohen,Jack(2002).EvolvingtheAlien.EburyPress.ISBN9780091879273.
140. Goldsmith,DonaldOwen,Tobias(1992).TheSearchforLifeintheUniverse(2ed.).AddisonWesley.p.247.
ISBN0201569493.
141. Guidetti,R.&Jnsson,K.I.(2002)."Longtermanhydrobioticsurvivalinsemiterrestrialmicrometazoans".
JournalofZoology257(2):181187.doi:10.1017/S095283690200078X.
142. Baldwin,Emily(26April2012)."LichensurvivesharshMarsenvironment".SkymaniaNews.Retrieved
27April2012.
143. deVera,J.P.Kohler,Ulrich(26April2012)."TheadaptationpotentialofextremophilestoMartiansurface
conditionsanditsimplicationforthehabitabilityofMars"(PDF).EuropeanGeosciencesUnion.Retrieved
27April2012.
144. Palca,Joe(September29,2010)." 'Goldilocks'Planet'sTemperatureJustRightForLife".NPR(NPR).
145. "ProjectCyclops:Adesignstudyofasystemfordetectingextraterrestrialintelligentlife"(PDF).NASA.1971.
RetrievedJune28,2009.
146. JosephA.Angelo(2007).LifeintheUniverse.InfobasePublishing.p.163.ISBN9781438108926.Retrieved
26June2013.
147. Turnbull,MargaretC.Tarter,JillC.(2003)."TargetSelectionforSETI.I.ACatalogofNearbyHabitable
StellarSystems".TheAstrophysicalJournalSupplementSeries145(1):181198.arXiv:astroph/0210675.
Bibcode:2003ApJS..145..181T.doi:10.1086/345779.
148. Siemion,AndrewP.V.Demorest,PaulKorpela,EricMaddalena,RonJ.Werthimer,DanCobb,Jeff
Howard,AndrewW.Langston,GlenLebofsky,Matt(2013)."A1.1to1.9GHzSETISurveyoftheKepler
Field:I.ASearchforNarrowbandEmissionfromSelectTargets".TheAstrophysicalJournal767(1):94.
arXiv:1302.0845.Bibcode:2013ApJ...767...94S.doi:10.1088/0004637X/767/1/94.
149. Wall,Mike(2011)."HabStars:SpeedingUpIntheZone".Retrieved20130626
150. Zaitsev,A.L.(June2004)."TransmissionandreasonablesignalsearchesintheUniverse".Horizonsofthe
Universe.PlenarypresentationattheNational
AstronomicalConferenceWAC2004"HorizonsoftheUniverse",Moscow,MoscowStateUniversity,June7,
2004(inRussian).Moscow.Retrieved20130630.
151. Grinspoon,David(12December2007)."WhoSpeaksforEarth?".Seedmagazine.com.Retrieved20120821.
152. P.C.Gregory,D.A.Fischer(2010)."ABayesianperiodogramfindsevidenceforthreeplanetsin47Ursae
Majoris".MonthlyNoticesoftheRoyalAstronomicalSociety403(2):731747.arXiv:1003.5549.
Bibcode:2010MNRAS.403..731G.doi:10.1111/j.13652966.2009.16233.x.
153. B.JonesUnderwood,DavidR.etal.(2005)."ProspectsforHabitable"Earths"inKnownExoplanetary
Systems".AstrophysicalJournal622(2):10911101.arXiv:astroph/0503178.Bibcode:2005ApJ...622.1091J.
doi:10.1086/428108.
154. Moore,Matthew(October9,2008)."MessagesfromEarthsenttodistantplanetbyBebo".London:
.telegraph.co.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11October2008.Retrieved20081009.
Externallinks
"CircumstellarHabitableZoneSimulator".Astronomy
Lookuphabitablezonein
EducationattheUniversityofNebraskaLincoln.
Wiktionary,thefree
"TheHabitableExoplanetsCatalog".PHL/Universityof
dictionary.
PuertoRicoatArecibo.
"TheHabitableZoneGallery".
WikimediaCommonshas
"StarsandHabitablePlanets".SolStation.
mediarelatedtoHabitable
NikosPrantzos(2006)."OntheGalacticHabitableZone".
zone.
SpaceScienceReviews135:313322.arXiv:astro
ph/0612316.Bibcode:2008SSRv..135..313P.doi:10.1007/s1121400792369.
21/22
10/29/2015
InterstellarRealEstate:Location,Location,LocationDefiningtheHabitableZone
(http://btc.montana.edu/ceres/astrobiology/files/HabitableZone.htm)
"Exoplanetsinrelationtohoststar'scurrenthabitablezone".www.planetarybiology.com.
"exoExplorer:afreeWindowsapplicationforvisualizingexoplanetenvironmentsin3D".
www.planetarybiology.com.
Shiga,David(November19,2009)."Whytheuniversemaybeteemingwithaliens".NewScientist.
Simmonsetal."TheNewWorldsObserver:amissionforhighresolutionspectroscopyofextra
solarterrestrialplanets"(PDF).NewWorlds.
Cockell,CharlesS.Herbst,TomLger,AlainAbsil,O.Beichman,CharlesBenz,WillyBrack,
AndreChazelas,BrunoChelli,Alain(2009)."Darwinanexperimentalastronomymissionto
searchforextrasolarplanets"(PDF).ExperimentalAstronomy23:435461.
Bibcode:2009ExA....23..435C.doi:10.1007/s106860089121x.
Atkinson,Nancy(March19,2009)."JWSTWillProvideCapabilitytoSearchforBiomarkerson
EarthlikeWorlds".UniverseToday.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Circumstellar_habitable_zone&oldid=687308604"
Categories: Searchforextraterrestrialintelligence Planetaryhabitability Astronomicalhypotheses
Extraterrestriallife Astronomyprojects
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon24October2015,at18:40.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
22/22

Circumstellar Habitable Zone - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Circumstellar Habitable Zone - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

10/29/2015

You might also like