1

Published By: Arghyam, Bangalore, India.

Citation: Gravity Water Systems in Eastern Ghats, India.
Produced by: Arghyam, Bangalore, India.
Year: 2011
Available from: ARGHYAM, #599, 12th Main, HAL 2nd Stage, Indiranagar, Bangalore, Karnataka INDIA.
PIN- 560008
Email: info@arghyam.org | Phone: +91 (080) 41698941 / 42
Fax: +91 (080) 41698943| www.arghyam.org
All photographs used in this publication remain the property of the original copyright holder (see individual
captions for details). Photographs should not be reproduced or used in other contexts without written permission
from the copyright holder.

To access this document on your mobile, or to share them with the rest of your organization, use this code. If you
havent already got a QR reader installed, youll need to download the software. Once done, simply fire up the app
and snap a picture of the code. The app will do the rest.

Development project such as this is a result of sustained effort of many organizations and people over time.
Studying the gravity water flow system to the level of detail that this document outlines would not have been
possible without the support of Arghyam's partner and implementing NGO Visakha Jilla Navanirman Samiti
(VJNNS).

We

are

thankful

to

the

extensive

support

from

the

staff

at

VJNNS.

We express deep gratitude to the people of the villages that we visited- the Panchayat Sarpanchs, Anganwadi
workers, farmers and families for their time. The treks across the terrain in which these villages are located and
the forests in which the springs are located made us realize the relevance and potential impact that these
interventions can effect. We have enormously benefitted from the technical analysis of pipeline and engineering
details contributed by R.Mohanasundar.

GWFS

Gravity Water Flow Systems

VJNSS

Visakha Jilla Nava Nirman Samithi

GOI

Government of India

PTG

Primitive Tribal Groups

ST

Scheduled Tribes

HGL

Hydrographic Gradient Line

LPS

Liters Per Second

LPCD

Liters Per Capita Per Day

"All of you are right. The reason every one of you is telling it differently is because each one of you touched the
different part of the elephant. So, actually the elephant has all the features you mentioned."[1] - from The elephant
and the blind men

It appears that the ongoing water crisis of availability and quality is much like the classic story of The Elephant
and the Blind Men. The enormity of the problem often overwhelms the planners who much like the blind men
scope out a part of the problem each time. The picture that develops portrays a wide array of problems. But unlike
this story, the interpretation of water crisis should be done carefully considering both the macro (large scale) and
the micro aspects. Here the macro level refers to the basin level planning and micro refers to the local, community
and household level approach to address the quality and availability issues. Gravity water flow system is an
intervention at the community level where provisioning this system can address a village's drinking water problem
at the local level without the need to wait for the results of centralized planning to reach them. At the same time
such a participatory approach ensures a high degree of adoption of these systems by the community.
This document has been prepared in response to a general need for technical information on gravity flow water
systems that have been implemented in the Eastern Ghats of India. Although detailed design books and manuals on
GWFS have been around since the early 1970s the approach to commissioning such a project in different parts of
the world is being revised continuously. For instance, with the advent of modern technology the topographical
survey is no more done using theodolite, abney level or barometric altimeter. Similarly much of the piping material
is now plastic based (PVC/HDPE) which offer a greater degree of flexibility and cost savings.
Having said this, a caveat is in order. Spring sources have been found servicing the drinking water requirement of
households throughout the year at a minimal cost, in the study area. This does not imply that the spring source is a
comprehensive solution in itself. The areas where GWFS has been supplying water throughout the year to the
families have low population density and therefore low water demand. Spring source in other hilly regions may be
considered only for augmentative use if the water demand exceeds that of the available springs.

The Gravity Water Flow System (GWFS) as implemented by VJNNS in Visakhapatnam district was observed and
extensively studied in order to bring together a set of standardized and technically sound practices which can help
the organization as well as many other agencies may be interested in exploring the feasibility of such a system in
their geographies.
We summarize the key findings of the analysis at the onset to make it convenient for the reader to gauge the
relevance of this report vis a vis their requirement.
Hydro geological understanding of the target area is paramount to any intervention approach. Although springs
have been traditionally used in this region, harnessing them as a reliable source of drinking water supply is possible
only if there is a clear understanding of spring catchment systems.
Spring catchment systems can be viable and sustainable sources of domestic water supply. In hilly regions where
springs are a common occurrence emphasis should be given on these resources than going for ground water directly.
In the study area it was observed that borewells have failed repeatedly, whereas a stable and perennial GWFS
successfully served the same area.
Water Quality: Spring catchment systems often are the cleanest source of water occurring naturally. With little or no
treatment this source can be harnessed for drinking water needs.
Energy Efficient System: The geography of hilly terrain offers a tremendous advantage of supplying the water from
the spring source to the point of use at the least or no distribution cost at all. This is by far the strongest factor which
makes GWFS the supply system of choice.
Simple Technology: The system is based on the simple phenomenon of water flow under gravity from a point of
higher elevation (source) to a point situated on a lower elevation. Pipeline design for the entire water supply system
remains the only technically challenging aspect. This too can be addressed with training.
Operation and Maintenance: A lower level of sophistication implies very low operational spending. The system once
put in place runs smoothly requiring only a routine inspection of pipeline and taps. Technical glitches what so ever
are addressed by the villagers themselves. The construction of the system involves concrete tanks and high density
polyethylene (HDPE) piping for transmission as well as distribution. These usually last 6 to 8 years without
undergoing any damage or defect.
Community ownership: Use of natural springs is often a traditional practice in many hilly regions. The people have a
higher degree of familiarity with this source and acknowledge it as a part of their village ecosystem. When such a well
integrated water resource is formalized and developed further with the help of the community itself then it certainly
ensures a much greater sense of ownership among the people.
Traditional Knowledge: GWFS underscores the importance of traditional knowledge of the community and
participatory development in water resource planning.
Benefit Cost Ratio: In times of increasing problems and shrinking budgets, GWFS wherever appropriate offers a high
impact and value for the capital spent.

MAP 1: MAP OF INDIA WITH ANDHRA PRADESH

HIGHLIGHTED. GRAVITY WATER FLOW SYSTEMS IN
VISHAKAPATNAM AND EAST GODAVARI DISTRICTS OF THE
STATE HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED IN THIS REPORT.

PHOTO 1: A KONDAPALLI VILLAGER

PHOTO 2: PEOPLE FROM THESE VILLAGES DEPEND ON THE FORESTS FOR MOST OF THEIR NEEDS

Running along a north-east south west direction,

Eastern Ghats cover an area of 75000 sq Km of the
Indian peninsular. The Mahanadi basin marks the
northern boundary for this range while the southern
limit is flanked by Nilgiri hills. While Bastar,
Telengana and Karnataka plateaus including the
Tamil Nadu uplands lie on the west of these ghats, the
eastern side is an extensive coastal area.
With such a large geographical expanse, these ghats
enclose within them a vibrant and diverse set of
tribes, cultures and biodiversity. The component hills
of middle section of Eastern Ghats include
Nallamalais, Yerramalais, Palikonda, Velikonda,
Seshachalam and Kambakam Hills whose average
elevation is 750 meters.
The area which concerns this report lies in the
middle section of these ghats, in Andhra Pradeshs
Visakhapatnam and East Godavari districts. The
region falls under tropical monsoon climate receiving
rainfall from both south-west monsoon and northeast retreating monsoon. The average rainfall here
ranges between 1200mm to 1600mm exhibiting a
semiarid climate. The mean temperature in January
ranges between 20 degree to 25 Celsius and
maximum temperature shoots up to 41 Celsius
during hot season.
Geologically, this region is underlain by granite and
granitic gneiss basement rocks. Repeated cycles of
tropical weathering have created an aquifer system
with extensive, low storage, ground water bodies that
are annually recharged to varying degrees by the
monsoonal rains. [2]
The landscape has many residual hills (with outcrop
granitic basement) and an extensive pediment with a
large number of small (2nd order) sub-basins
drained by ephemeral streams (whose orientation
is often controlled by fault lineaments). [2] Fig 1.
shows the study region marked on hydrological map
of Andhra Pradesh.

It is these ephemeral streams that forms one of the

key natural endowments of this hilly region. While
the most common source of drinking water supply in
these hills has been ground water tapped via
borewells, the geoginic contamination( high iron
load) makes it unfit for drinking. It is under these
circumstances that the traditional source spring
catchments have been explored, studied and
analyzed for their use as reliable source of drinking
water.

A discussion on people of this region is in order

because the actual impact of the drinking water
intervention through GWFS can be holistically
assessed only when the social milieu and economic
context of the region is known. The communities
inhabiting this region are distinct ethnic groups
categorized as Scheduled Tribes (STs) which practice
shifting cultivation. Agriculture has been their
primary mode of sustenance but the changing
political and socio-economic landscape of the region
(which obviously reflects the national trend) has
made them adopt alternative means of livelihood like
charcoal production, coffee plantation and as migrant
labourers to nearby towns.
In order to ensure the development of these
communities, certain groups were identified for the
first time in 1975- 76 by the Government of India
(GOI). These groups were observed to be the poorest
among the already poor scheduled tribes earlier
identified. This new group was termed Primitive
Tribal Groups (PTGs). Criteria fixed for identification
of these PTGs [3] are:
1. Pre-agricultural level of technology
2. Very low level of literacy
3. Declining or stagnant population
The tribes found here are Bhagata, Konda Dora,
Valmiki, Kondu, Konda Savara (PTGs). Valmikis form
a substantial population in Visakhapatnam district.
They live in large villages side by side with Bhagatas
10

and Konda Doras. The way Bhagatas live or dress

isnt very different from the Valmikis. Both these
communities are relatively prosperous; their houses
are well built and primarily agrarian. It is important
to note that at an altitude between 800 m and 900 m
the difficulties of communication have prevented a
massive immigration of non-tribals from other parts.

Orissa and has settled in this region. They largely

remain unassimilated and maintain a distinct identity
of their own. They are now referred to as Kondus.
A hallmark of these tribes is community ownership of
the natural resources that they benefit from. Their
practices are largely in tune with the environments
regenerative capacity.

The Samanta tribe from Orissa migrated to this

region during the early wave of hydel projects in

Poorly developed weathered

granitic basement aquifer

Visakhapatnam

FIGURE 1: HYDROLOGICAL MAP OF ANDHRA PRADESH (STUDY AREA HIGHLIGHTED IN RED)

[2]

11

PHOTO 3: MAN CARRYING CHARCOAL

PRODUCE TO THE MARKET. CHARCOAL
PRODUCTION BY FELLING BUSHES AND
TREES FROM FOREST IS ONE OF THE
MAJOR LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES IN THE
REGION.

PHOTO 4: A PATCH OF CLEARED FOREST LAND WITH TREES FELLED FOR CHARCOAL PRODUCTION

12

Lack of safe drinking

water
Source far from village
Malfunctioning/fallen
in disused borewells
Damaged spring boxes
Geogenic
contamination in
ground water
Contamination from
open defecation

Poor Sanitation and Hygine

Access to clean drinking Water

As much as the drinking water contamination poses a

serious threat, an equally big problem is poor state of
sanitation in this area. Almost all the villages practice
open defecation, which obviously is a leading cause of
poor hygiene and health of the people.
Amidst these seemingly simple issues of poor quality
drinking water, lack of clean sanitation and hygiene
VJNNS planned an intervention in this area by
helping people adopt naturally occurring springs as a
source of drinking water. Springs in this region are
abundant and have very good quality of water as they

Developing gravity fed water supply from the springs

as an alternative to stream and well water for
drinking offers tremendous advantage in terms of
highly localized solution to the problem.
At the same time GWFS affects a strong community
controlled management and operation of the
instituted water resource. Both these benefits are of
significance in this region considering the deficient
state of public works and poor state of public utilities.
The intervention as planned by the implementing
organization involves a concerted efforts towards
improving health, sanitation and hygiene in the
region by first helping the villages develop an
alternative source of drinking water i.e. springs
which ensure clean and potable quality drinking
water. The intervention approach is shared in the
scheme below.
Based on this scheme, a seven step procedure is
adopted to address the issues raised in the
intervention
approach.

Lack of personal
hygiene
Open defecation
Failed usage of
introduced ISLs
because of nonavailability of water in
proximities.

High occurance of water

borne disease

Health impacts

Comprehensive healthcare data of the study area is

difficult to come by, as the number of surveys done in
the region is few and infrequent. A significant
proportion of the illnesses prevalent in the region are
due to the source of drinking water that is used. A
study titled Illness and Treatment among Khonds of
Visakhapatnam District by Rao et.al [4] of the Andhra
University published in 2006 illustrates the intensity
of the problem. In a survey of sample drawn from
among the Khond tribe the team found 46% people
suffer from various illnesses of the sample size of
2000 people who drink stream water. From a sample
size of 657 people who drink well water, 67.5%
suffered from various illnesses. Now these are some
serious numbers considering the small population
size of this group.

lie underneath a less permeable sheath of rocky bed.

While developing a spring source, the choice of
spring is such that it is distant from the village than in
its immediate vicinity. This ensures that a clean and
uncontaminated spring source is chosen for drinking
water supply.

13

TABLE 1 FREQUENCY OF ILLNESS VERSUS SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER IN KONDH TRIBES

[4]

PHOTO 5: A GWFS STANDPOST AND A DYSFUNCTIONAL ANDPUMP IN THE FOREGROUND

14

15

The primary objective of this study is to document this

rather new source of drinking water system detailing
the design process, explaining water transport across
the hilly terrain by leveraging the flow of water under
gravitational effect and finally develop a
comprehensive set of information on how this system
can be adopted in regions with similar geographical
features
and
need.
Of the 27 GFWS systems commissioned by VJNNS till
date, we visited 8 villages to see the GWFS
implementation. Out of the 8, 4 projects were chosen
for detailed observation considering that they
represent the entire gamut of issues related to
planning, design and commissioning such a system.
The list of these 8 villages visited and their details in
Table 2.

For instance, the villages of Bappannadhara,

Boradakota, Mirtwada and Kondapalli share a
common spring source. The terrain across which the
pipeline runs is quite challenging in terms of design
and accessibility. The source lies deep in the forest
and in the administrative boundary of Kondapalli
village. This made water sharing complex due to
Kondapalli asserting its ownership of the spring.
The entire list of villages where VJNNS has
implemented GWFSs can be found in Appendix A.
A set of parameters were listed on which the 4 GWFS
were observed. This set was developed based on an
understanding of the necessary elements required
for a successful implementation of GWFS. The case
study section examines some villages on the set of
questions in the implementation of GWFS in a village.

GWFS systems from the following 4 systems were

observed and documented in detail: Bappannadhara,
Pallada, Gondipakala, Chikkudubatti and Jellurmettu Boradavedi.

To gather information for the above aspects of a

GWFS system we conducted the following exercises
to understand the process adopted by VJNNS:

Villages sharing a spring source were closely

examined for water sharing issues and conflicts if
any. Aspects like shared responsibility (for O &M),
property rights and community participation in those
villages were explored for insights on how to run
such a shared system, efficiently.

Design and
Planning

Network
Sizing

Construction

Pipeline Walk
Interaction with villagers
Discussion with VJNNS

Costing
and
Budgeting

Operation
&
Maintenance

GWFS & COMMUNITY

FIGURE 2: IMPLEMENTATION STAGES EXPLORED IN THE STUDY

16

TABLE 2 VILLAGES VISITED DURING THE TRIP

Village

No of
Units

No of
Househol
ds
Serviced

Supporting
Agency

Bappannadhara

85

CARE, India

Chikkudubatti

60

CARE, India

Gondipakala

147

CARE, India

Status of Unit
( Functioning
/ Non
Functioning )
Functioning

Functioning
Functioning

District Name
/Block(Mandal)
Name

Year of
Commen
cement

Remarks

East Godavari
/Prattipadu
Visakhapatnam /
Chintapalli

2009

Technically challenging and

successful

2007

Visakhapatnam /
Chintapalli

2004
-

Diguvupakala,
Chitralagoppu,
Jellurmettu,
Boradavedi

130

Arghyam,
Bangalore

Functioning

Visakhapatnam /
Chintapalli

2009

Project on going, construction

completed

Pallada

67

Arghyam,
Bangalore

Functioning

Visakhapatnam /
Chintapalli

2009

Project on going, construction

completed

Ravipakala

60

CARE, India

Visakhapatnam /
Chintapalli

2007

Supplies to Bodakondamma Temple as

well as the village.

Functioning
Boradakota
&Kondapalli

Dharapalli

120
35

CARE, India
CARE, India

Functioning
Functioning

East Godavari /
Prattipadu
East Godavari /
Sankavaram

2008

Supplies to three more villages via a

balancing tank.

2007

17

Walking along the entire length of the pipeline from

the spring source to distribution tank and further to
stand post was an important part of the exercise. This
revealed numerous finer details of pipeline layout
and flow dynamics which could not have otherwise
been known. These treks-cum hikes along the
pipeline is termed pipeline walks. A direct
consequence of the pipeline walk is the elevation
profile of each GWFS. The pipeline walk was
conducted using a handheld GPS system to note
elevation of the source and mark points along the
pipeline. Noting the elevation of the distribution tank
and then computing the elevation difference between
the source and the distribution tank gave us an
estimate of the pressure heads. This is an important
consideration in the planning of GWFS. Smaller head
difference as well as large distance between source
and distribution tank can make it difficult to
implement the system.
Pipeline walk was also done because all the 27
projects implemented so far have been based on
approximations and experience based understanding
of VJNNS team. Until this current effort no elevation,
distance and alignment profiling had been done.

alignment, marking the orientation using GPS and

developing an elevation profile of each transmission
pipeline. Finally HGL, head difference, flow rate,
pressure at the end point were calculated to check
the degree of efficiency of the entire system.
This lack of vital scientific data often made it difficult
for an outsider to understand or even comprehend
the process of construction of GWFS. With more
technical data available, it can now be shared with
people not familiar or associated with the project.
Table 3 shows the data gathered from pipeline walk
conducted for Chikkudubatti village.
The waypoints were marked using GPS at 30 feet
intervals and elevation noted at all those locations
where there was a visible change in elevation of the
terrain, and also at points where there was a change
in the diameter of the pipeline. The data thus
obtained was scatter plotted to see the topographic
profile of the terrain through which the pipeline
passed.
GPS data, elevation curve and the pipeline profile of
two more villages is shared in Appendix B.

We conducted pipeline walks for three sites;

Pallada, Jellurmettu and Kondapalli; examining the

18

PHOTO 6: A SECTION OF PIPELINE OF PALLADA GWFS

PHOTO 7: A SECTION OF PIPELINE OF KONDAPALLI GWFS

19

TABLE 3: A SAMPLE DATA SET FROM CHIKKUDUBATTI VILLAGE

Sr No

Waypoint Name

Distance

Leg length

1 Chikkudubati Village
Chikkudubatti Source
2 Tank

0 ft
0.4 mi

0.4 mi

3 Cbp1

0.4 mi

31 ft

4 Cbp2

0.4 mi

10 ft

5 Cbp3

0.4 mi

15 ft

6 Cbp4

0.4 mi

27 ft

5 true
286
true

7 Cbp5

0.4 mi

44 ft

9 true

Position
N17 47.971 E82
28.435
N17 47.687 E82
28.306
N17 47.692 E82
28.303
N17 47.693 E82
28.304
N17 47.695 E82
28.304
N17 47.697 E82
28.300
N17 47.704 E82
28.301

2 true
29
true
35
true
55
true

N17 47.848 E82

28.293
N17 47.851 E82
28.295
N17 47.852 E82
28.296
N17 47.854 E82
28.299

40 Cbp38

0.6 mi

15 ft

41 Cbp39

0.6 mi

24 ft

42 Cbp40
Chikkudubatti
43 Distribution Tank

0.6 mi

9 ft

0.6 mi

16 ft

Course

203
true
331
true
35
true

Elevation
2672 ft
2731 ft
2732 ft
2730 ft
2733 ft
2731 ft
2728 ft

2705 ft
2700 ft
2706 ft
2706 ft

Topographic Profile
Topographic
profile

2735
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

2730
2725
2720
2715
2710
2705

2700

f
t

2695

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Distance from the source ( ft)

20

PHOTO 8: DISCUSSION WITH GONDIPAKALA VILLAGE MEMBERS

Out of the 6 villages visited, we interacted

with the people of Gondipakala, Pallada and
Bappannadhara

GWFS here was installed as early as 2004.The

interactions here helped us see the long term
impacts of GWFS. Both direct and indirect
impacts were explored with the villagers. As
this village has abundant water, they shared it
with two other settlements willingly.

GWFS installation in Pallada is only 10

months old and the short term impacts and

issues around the process of implementing

were elicited during the interaction.

The issues of this village were different from

the others. This project in VJNNS opinion was
one of the most difficult ones to achieve.
There were no spring sources in proximity to
the village. A spring source supplying water
to Kondapalli was chosen to supply to this
village also. The source belongs to Kondapalli
and during any dispute or lean season
Kondapalli people either block the source or
cut
the
supply
pipes.

21

VJNNS provided necessary information on

cost estimation, general considerations for
technical decisions and the processes.

The information gather from the above three

processes will be shared through case studies
of these villages and also from the
Appendices.

22

A spring occurs when the water table is at the

ground surface, often along a hillside or in a low
area. Although water flow may be quite variable
during the year and from
Year-to-year, even a small flow can be worth
developing; for instance a gravity spring/seep
spring of one liter/ minute is over a 1000 liters/
a day. The usable flow rate, at the time of year
the water is required, must be determined
before starting development. [6}

Springs in which there is a free flow of water due

to aquifer pressure is called Artesian springs.
They occur when water is trapped between
impervious layers and is forced to the surface
under pressure. At these springs the water
comes vertically out of the ground. They are
usually the easiest to develop, requiring no
collection just an intake for piping. [5][6]

These springs have little or no aquifer pressure,

being visible only as a wet area or by a difference
of vegetation indicating water is present. They
usually require a collection system connected to
the distribution pipeline. [6]
In Eastern Ghats, the area where VJNNS has
implemented GWFS has poorly developed granitic
basement aquifer and have abundant gravity
springs.
Unlike the artisan springs, these springs are
independent of the aquifer pressure. Due to their
continuous nature gravity springs are a reliable
source to tap for drinking water purpose. Also in
most of the villages where this supply system is
implemented, there is no other alternate source
of clean drinking water.

23

FIGURE 3: ARTESIAN SPRINGS OCCUR WHEN WATER IS TRAPPED BETWEEN IMPERVIOUS LAYERS AND IS
FORCED TO THE SURFACE

FIGURE 4: GRAVTIY SPRINGS FLOW ON A NATURAL UNDERGROUND SLOPE TO THE SURFACE. THE WATER
FLOWS MORE OR LESS HORIZONTALLY OUT OF THE GROUND.

24


VJNNS is working in the region since the early 1970s.
Their focus has been health and education between
the 1970s and 1980s. During this period the
Government started numerous programs to improve
health and literacy in this region.
Due to Government intervention, VJNNS moved on to
other unmet needs like drinking water. As VJNNS also
worked in healthcare related issues it found that the
occurrences of water borne diseases were very high
in this region. Thus VJNNS began to explore solutions
to provide clean drinking water to the villages.
Early interventions were borewells and open dug
wells as a source of drinking water. But these were
not adopted by the villagers due to difference in taste,
which occurred because of high iron levels in ground
water of this region. The spring box system
developed by the government also fell into disuse
because of similar issues. Due to very low water
levels in the summer season, people broke open
these spring boxes to gain access to the water. They
also carried out their washing and cleaning activities
here, thus contaminating it. And so the quality of the
water remained poor.
As an experimental one of the enterprising team
members from VJNNS, Mr.Parthasarathy observed
the springs and peoples preferences. He then
developed a solution i.e. GWFS which had a good
chance of adoption by people.
Seeing the farmers in hilly region use bamboo to
transport water from streams lead to an idea that

Expression of interest by the

community
Formation of a committee
Training Community
Selection of a suitable springSpring flow (perennial/seasonal)
and yield
Ascertaining property rights
Altitude measuring
Water quality testing
Planning matching yield with
demand, peak demand, spring
yield variance
Construction- collection tank,
pipeline, distribution tank,
distribution network

water could be piped from the spring to the villages.

He intuitively implemented this system in the first
village, Damanapalli with the Panchayati Raj
Institution (PRI) Funds. It was the first GWFS
constructed by VJNNS. It was constructed largely on
his approximations. The experiment worked.
Since then VJNNS has implemented around 27 of such
systems on their own, they have advised the
Chintapalli block administration; Visakhapatnam
district, to implement such systems in 2 of their
villages and 15 other NGOs in the region.

25

Drawing on their experience over a period of time

they have developed a process to implement the
GWFS in a village.

Typically the villagers approach VJNNS with an

application requesting GWFS system in their village.

Following the application, a study of existing water

sources and water practices of people is undertaken
to understand the needs clearly. A baseline survey of
the village is carried out to explore the following

Technical survey of the source is a crucial parts of

GWFS system. The process of engaging with
community to get desirable results will be discussed
in detail.
Watersanitation
practices
Source
Identification
and estimation
of the viability
of sources

Source of water
defecation practice
personal hygiene practices
Investigating already existing
source of water
Identification of springs in the area
: Historical knowledge of villagers
in identifying potential spring
sources
Local
community
to
identify the springs that
dont dry up during the
summer season
Measuring the yield over a
period of few months to
see if any change in yields
Assessing the habitation in
the catchment of the spring

Elder people in the village usually aware of

springs that have been alive since their
childhood, and such springs could be a potential
source
If in the vicinity of the spring is a pasture where
the animals go grazing during the most dry
season, that spring is a probable source
Localized green vegetation in otherwise dry
areas may also indicate the presence of a spring
It is often necessary to follow the streams and
rivulets, walking and hiking for hours to find the
rising point of a potentially good source.[7]
Measuring the yield during the source
identification over a period of month to see the
variation will reduce the probability of getting
the source wrong
Spring has a consistent yield with little variation
during rainy season and dry season.
If the identification process is carried out during
the summer (in this case march may)the
margin of error is reduced significantly, as all the
other sources that are fed from aquifer recharge
will dry up.
The springs eye or the source origin when
excavated more or increased in size should alter
the yield of the spring.
Any spring with a consistent yield during the
non lean period with yields between 1 lps to 3
lps and with yields of 0.5 lps in lean periods have
been observed to be a reliable source.
The more distance a source is from the village, a
spring with better yield will be more reliable.
To get a distant source on a undulating terrain to
supply to a village, diameter of the pipe is
decreased to use the siphon effect to help more
the water.
To break pressure of the water in the pipes they
do not use break pressure tanks but vary the
diameters to use the pressure.
Sometimes, underground sources may emerge
directly into a stream or rivulet. It may be
necessary to check for changes in the flow of
water along the stream or rivulet to be
investigated in order to locate a spring with
potential for development.

26

to understand the water

quality of the spring.
Calculate the yield of the
spring using the Bucket
method

Viability

Survey of elevation of source and

distribution tank ( approximation)
How viable will it be to supply the
water to the village
What will be the possible
expenditure for te supply line to
the village is again estimated.
Using Bucket method the yield of
the source is measured.

Socio-cultural
background

Number of families, children,

Festivals and celebrations, eating
habits
Number of schools, education
qualification of people
If they are farmers who engage in
Podu cultivation then what type of
crops do they grow? ( maize,
turmeric, corn)
People who make charcoal from
the trees felled in the forest.
Number of people who are
employed in other occupations.
Pensioners
Number of CBOs, committees and
unions in the village
Healthcare information of the
village is collected from the
community health worker .

Education
Occupation

Institutions
Health Survey

After the Socio-technical survey and study of the

water source a plan to construct and implement a
GWFS for the village is submitted to the Panchayat.
On approval by the Panchayat, a village committee is
formed that is responsible for the activities, like

First build a collection pit by damming the flow.

Make sure that the basin collects all of the
available flow. Then place a pipe through the top
of the dam so that all of the collected water now
flows freely through the pipe. Allow the spring to
run for some time after the dam construction
has been completed, and measure when the flow
becomes steady. If the flow of the spring is such
that the measuring bucket gets filled up too
quickly (in less than 5 seconds), the flow should
be channelled through several pipes, each of
which is measured separately. In this case, the
total flow is the sum of these separate
measurements. For the flow measurement, place
a bucket of a known volume under the pipe to
catch the water. For springs with very low flow,
a 1 litre bucket will suffice . For a bigger flow,
one might use a ten or twenty litre bucket;
alternatively, the flow can be divided into
several channels which are then measured
separately (see photo on cover page). With a
watch, measure the amount of time taken (in
seconds) to fill the bucket. Divide the volume of
water collected by the time of collection to find
the rate of flow in litres per second. Make at
least 4 to 5 readings in this way. If the amount of
time taken to fill the bucket varies by more than
10% to 20% between measurements, you know
that the collecting basin is either being drained
or is still filling up. Repeat the measurements
until a stable reading is achieved.

training of the villagers on various aspects of the

GWFS construction and maintenance.
Water Testing is carried out at the spring source
using field level water quality testing kits to ascertain
potable quality of the water from that source.

FIGURE 5: YIELD
MEASUREMENT BY BUCKET
METHOD [7]

27

A local staff / animator from the implementation

organization supports the committee members in the
process. This peer learning process is very effective.

The results obtained from the survey are shared with

the villagers. A micro plan is developed for the village
through a participatory exercise. During this exercise
a pipeline network is decided. On an average every
10 households share one stand post between them.
Often households are requested to move their cattle
shed away from the stand-post to avoid source
contamination. Similarly during this process they
decide an area for all sanitation practices in a manner
that they are away from the stand posts to avoid
contamination. The villagers develop their own set of
rules to en sure that neither the source nor the stand
posts are misused by the people. In most cases the
villagers agree and follow these rules b y mutual
consent.

A committee is constituted from the village

Panchayat members and other interested individuals
are formed. The committee members are trained in
basics of water and sanitation practices and this
committee in turn trains their fellow people.

The approval of Panchayat, formation of committee

and engagement with the committee members is
taken seriously by VJNNS. The organization believes
that for GWFS to stay in use and get adopted by the
people as their own system these are necessary. In
one of the villages where the committee was lacking
the required level of activity and dedication, VJNNS
withdrew from the village.

Each committee member is responsible for a specific

area. He is responsible for cooperation and successful
adaptation of new practices (regarding water and
sanitation) which they have been trained on earlier.

Following the ground work a bank account is opened,

jointly operated by village committee and VJNNS. The
fund allocated for construction of the GWFS and
monthly user fee (collected from the villagers is
deposited.

PHOTO 9: MICRO PLANNINF MAP OF PIPELINE AND VILLAGE ASSETS SHOWN ALONG WITH VARIOUS STANDPOST
LOCATIONS

28

Trainings were conducted on the following four

subjects:

Water Source Management

Household Water Management
Personal Hygiene

Whether it is a water supply and/or a sanitation

scheme that is proposed, the ultimate aim is to
improve the health and quality of life of the
community.
Technical
developments
or
improvements will give maximum benefit only if
they are part of a wider hygiene education
program. This may involve the changing of long
held attitudes and practices and may well take
considerably longer to achieve than the actual

construction of the scheme. Hygiene education

must be a community activity so that everyone
goes forward together without any group being
left behind. It is usual for the women to be the
ones who are primarily concerned with the
health of the family, and education will normally
concentrate on them. However, it is often the
children who are the easiest to educate
regarding the benefits of hygiene education, and
then they insist on changes being made within
the family unit.

Training on personal hygiene, water handling

practices and management of household waste is
provided before the commencement of construction
of GWFS.

PHOTO 10: VILLAGE LEVEL TRAINING ON WATER AND SANITATION ISSUES, SOURCE: VJNNS

29

PHOTO 11: USE OF FLASH CARDS TO EXPLAIN GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES, SOURCE: VJNNS

30

Construction expenditure incurred for:

As a part of preconstruction training an exposure

visit is organized to a village where GWFS has been
implemented. The visiting villagers interact with the
people to understand how they use and maintain
their GWFS. They understand the practices, benefits
and advantages of the system. In all they get to know
what has been the experience of the other village
from the GWFS implementation till the present.
Village committee members and some proactive
women and individuals are taken on these exposures.
It is essential to have women as a part of the village
committee and also encourage more women to take
part in the entire exercise. It is essential because they
take care of the children and the house and run their
household when they are convinced it will have an
impact on the whole family and thereby to the whole
village.Hardware Procurement
The procurement of hardware is done by VJNNS after
discussing it with village committee. A written
approval is given by the village to procure provided
required material. An inventory list is maintained by
the animator (community worker) who usually
belongs to the same village and is employed by
VJNNS. The animator in turn is then monitored by the
village committee.

Shramdaan( donation of hard work): In the

implementation phase a significant portion of the
construction work is done by voluntary contribution
of labor by the villagers themselves. The following
are the contribution of villagers through shramdan:

Channel Digging
Foundation Works
All unskilled labor requirements during the
process of implementation: including the
construction of both source and distribution
tanks, laying the pipeline etc.

Wages of mason and plumber

Material cost of: cement, stones, chips, steel
and HDPE (Teflon coated) pipes
Expenditure of one such system is shared in
Appendix E.

Collection box protects the source of the spring from

animals venturing into the spring area, from their
droppings and from rain water overflow. If the spring
flows over an area it is necessary to collect it at a
place to make the flow manageable. During the rainy
season rubbles stones other things carried by water
may block the pipes to avoid this source tank is
protected.

Base material
Plastering
material
Cover

Rubbles, gravels, chipped stones

Side walls : Cement plastering (
1:4 ratio of cement: sand)
Bottom floor: Cement plastering
(1:3 ratio of cement: sand)
RCC Blocks ( 1:2:4) of (gravel
chip: cement: sand)

The standard dimensions of the spring collection box

are shared in the engineering diagram of the crosssection of source tank. In some places the dimensions
are other than the standard. The reason for the
smaller size is to do with the nature of the source. If
the source is found to be on a Soft stone (which is
recognized by the spread of wetness on the stone)
then the area around it is not excavated thus limiting
the size of collection box.
For hard stone plastering is not required. Plastering
the inner walls of the tank is necessary. Plastering is
done on the floor of the tank with 1:3 ratio of cement:
sand).

31

FIGURE 6: CROSS-SECTION
OF SPRING COLLECTION TANK

FIGURE 7: COLLECTION BOX

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

PHOTO 12: SPRING COLLECTION BOX ,

PALLADA

32

Unplastered wall of a soft

spring
RCC Cover for the source

Eye of spring/ spring origin/

spring inlet ( shown in detail in
photo 9)
Plastered wall of the souce box

Spring outlet (shown in

more detail photo10)

PHOTO 13: EYE OF THE SPRING, POINT WHERE THE PEN IS PLACED IN THE TANK

33

Spring outlet

Plastered wall on the outlet side to

reduce loss of water from the wall

PHOTO 14: OUTLET OF THE SPRING INDICATED WITH THE PEN

34

FIGURE 8: CROSS-SECTION DIAGRAM OF DISTRIBUTION TANK

35

Inlet hole
Inlet chamber and sedimentation tank

Filter chamber

Outlet chamber
Screening plate
Outlet valve

Flush valve to flush out water during

cleaning process
FIGURE 9: FRONT VIEW OF THE DISTRIBUTION TANK
WITH SLOW SAND FILTER

36

Distribution tank is composed of three main

chambers, namely:

Inlet chamber
Filtration chamber (made up of two slow
sand filters in series) filters
Distribution chamber

Length= 5 meters
Width= 2 meters
Height= 2.7 meters

Usually the distribution tank is placed around 1.5

meters above the ground level. This is to keep it safe
from interference by people and animals. This
protects the water in the tank from contamination.
Length = 1 m
The water from the source tank is fed to the inlet
tank. The inlet is kept at the upper end of the tank.
This reduces the energy and velocity of water before
it enters the tank. If the velocity of the water is high,
the filtration process through the slow sand filter will
not be efficiently. The pipe bringing the water is
taken all the way down to the inlet chamber rather
than letting it fall from the top. At the bottom of the
inlet chamber there is a hole through which water
passes to the filter chamber. Letting the water at the
bottom of the inlet chamber also helps in the process
of sedimentation of the particles carried by the water
from the source tank.

Width =2 m

The water from the inlet chamber goes to the filter

chamber from a hole at the bottom of the wall
separating the inlet chamber from the filter.

Height =2.7 m

Height 2.7 m
Volume =5.4 m3

Length = 2.5 m
Width =2 m

The water is purified in the filter chamber before it is

distributed using a combination of slow sand filter
and reverse slow sand filter.
Composition of the filter chamber: The filter chamber
is made up of two sub chambers, a screening plate
which rests at around 70 cms from the floor of the
tank.
FIGURE 10: CROSS SECTION OF FILTER TANK

37

Screening plate is made of 5 cm thick perforated

concrete slab. The perforations are 1cm-2 cm in
diameter. This screen plate is placed 70 cm from the
bottom of the filter chamber. The purpose of this
screen filter is to screen leaves, dry twigs and other
undesirable floating particles from the water.

It is 70 to 80 cm in height and it is composed of

pebbles and fine sand from river bed). In the reverse
slow sand filter, a layer of sand, approximately 40 cm
in thickness is placed on top of the screen plate
followed by a 40 cm layer of pebbles.
Details of the filter media is described in the filter
media preparation.

Slow sand filter is based on the sieve like

action of a fine layer of biological organisms
(called biofilm) which forms in the
interstices of the sand and gravel layers.
This biofilm cleans the water of its
impurities and biological contamination.

Outlet chamber of the distribution tank is connected

to the transmission line going to the village. The
outlet chamber also has a direct tap as an auxiliary.
The outlet chamber is provided with a vertical open
ended pipe attached along with the transmission
pipeline. This is to ensure that the atmospheric
pressure is maintained in the pipeline thus enabling a
continuous flow.

The second filter is made exactly similar to reverse

slow sand filter, except that the first media put on the
screen plate in this case is of pebbles which is then
followed by sand on top of the pebbles.
Water enters the filter chamber from below the
screen plate in the first filter, rises above slowly
through the sand and then the pebbles. Then it
overflows into the second filter from the top. The
water traverses the entire section and passes through
the screen plate again. The water from the chamber
beneath the screen plate now leaves to the last
chamber, the outlet /distribution chamber of the
tank.

FIGURE 11: SKELETON OF SCREEN PLATE

38

Outlet chamber

Slow sand filter

Reverse slow
sand Filter

Inlet
chamber

FIGURE 12: TOP VIEW OF THE DISTRIBUTION TANK

FIGURE 13: 3D VIEW OF DISTRIBUTION TANK

39

Teflon coated (inner walls) HDPE pipe with

diameters ranging from 2.5 inches to 1.25 inches is
used in the design of GWFS. Most of the pipes used
spread out open or with very little protection from
the sun and human activity. The material of the pipe
is therefore an important consideration.
HDPE is one of the modern plastics widely regarded
for its strength, durability and low price. These pipes
are easy to lay, maintain and replace. Their flexibility
is also quite advantageous for the hilly terrain in this
region. Flexibility imparts easier alignment across the
terrain. Teflon coating is preferred to minimize the
frictional losses due to the flow.
The pipelines is either laid in trenches or buried a
few inches below the ground. This offers surface
protection to the pipes from being damaged.
Factors considered for selection of a path for
transmission pipeline are:

Commons land with community ownership is

preferred.
The path chosen should have minimum
disturbance from human activity.
As far as possible cultivated land is avoided. If a
pipe is taken through a cultivated land, there is a
possibility that pipeline is damaged during
ploughing, harvesting etc.
Shortest distance is preferred after considering
the above. This is necessary to reduce the cost of

pipe and also frictional losses due to the length of

pipe.
Paths which people use to walk are avoided to
reduce possibility of damages.
Peoples convenience and agreement among
people will be taken by drawing village maps to
decide the path of transmission line from
distribution tank to stand post

At its heart, GWFS is essentially an age old technique

of channelizing water over long distances to the point
where we would like to use it. In our case it is
drinking water, which is transmitted to habitations
or villages through pipes. The flow in the
transmission is maintained by gravitational potential
available on account of elevation difference. The
water source (springs) is located at a higher elevation
than the village. The discharge from these springs
flow downward under the effect of gravity. When this
gravitational flow is carefully channelized, it can
drive a fairly large supply network because in steep
terrain, gravitational potential maintains a pressure
head in the water distribution system.
To understand the technical parameters, some
fundamentals of the flow dynamics and basic
concepts of pipeline flow should be understood. Refer
to the box below for an outline of concepts involved.
These concepts have been from earlier works on
GWFS by Thomas D Jordan (Jr) at Practical Action
manual from SKAT consulting and others.

40

The main pipeline which transmits the water is referred to as transmission main and the branch line that distributes
the water is service main. The distribution network may have different configurations which are planned in
accordance with the village layout. All the projects studied have a branched configuration. It is important to note that
the cost of water distribution network depends upon the proper selection of the geometry of the network. Since most
of the implementations studied, cater to not more a relatively smaller number of households (maximum of 450
households) the distribution network doesnt appear to have much impact. But when planned for a larger number
distribution network planning is critical.

A set of basic physical principles govern the behavior of water and the dynamics of flow. An understanding of these
principles is necessary to design and successful engineer a GWFS in any hilly region.
The energy due to gravity at a site is equal to the elevation difference between points. This elevation difference is
termed head with units of feet (for water, more accurately, as feet of head of water).
In the case of water, this energy is equal to:
1 foot of elevation drop = 0.433 psi of pressure head
or, for every 2.31 feet of elevation drop = 1 psi of pressure head
Pipe size and flow rate must be matched to this energy using the following steps:
the elevation drop or elevation head is measured
a flow rate is chosen
the end-of-pipe pressure is
then a pipe size can be chosen- different pipe sizes and pipe materials will have different flows for a given elevation
drop (i.e., they have different friction losses) (friction losses are only lost to the water system as energy is converted
into heat)

This states that for constant water flow in a pipe, flow in one part of a pipe is equal to flow at any other part of the pipe,
as shown by:
Point A Flow = Point A Velocity x Point A Area,
= Point B Velocity x Point B Area, etc
As flow is velocity multiplied by pipe area, changing the pipe cross sectional area (a larger or smaller pipe) will cause a
change in velocity. This becomes useful when selecting a pipe size or in negative pressure conditions.

When no water is flowing in a gravity-pressured pipe (as when a trough float valve is closed) it is in static equilibrium.
Water levels are at static level and pressures in the pipe are termed static heads. As no water is flowing there is no
energy loss to friction and the pressures in the pipe are their highest at all points (equal to their elevation below the
inlet), highest pressure being at the lowest point.
41

When water is flowing in the pipe friction loss occurs that reduces the pressure energy at all points along the pipe.
With a constant flow a system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium and pressures are termed dynamic heads.

To fully illustrate the conditions along a pipe, static and dynamic equilibrium conditions can be plotted on a drawing
of the profile of the system. When the points of static or dynamic equilibrium are connected they form a line that is
termed the hydraulic grade line (HGL). This line represents the energy level at each point along the pipe (refer to
Figure 1, below).
The HGL for static equilibrium is a horizontal line at the level of the water source, as in static conditions the pipe has
an energy level equal to its elevation below this water source elevation (no friction loss is occurring).
The HGL for dynamic equilibrium is a line sloped downwards from the water inlet to either the pressure at the trough
float valve or to zero if the outlet flow is to atmosphere. This line always slopes downward, indicating a loss of energy
as water flows downhill and energy is lost due to friction.

Siphons are a unique gravity flow situation where the pipeline goes over a point that is higher than the supply water
elevation before falling to the delivery elevation. A siphon uses the differences in elevation and atmospheric pressure
to flow water. If the both ends of the pipe are submerged and air is removed at the high point (primed), atmospheric
pressure on the supply water surface will move water up the pipe to the high point (if this point is set at an
appropriate elevation) and gravity will move the water from there down to the delivery point. Alternatively, with a
check valve (foot valve) on the intake and a control valve on the outlet, closing the outlet valve, filling up the siphon
pipe with water, then opening the outlet valve will start the siphon flow.

A siphon will work better under the following conditions

the short leg is as short as possible
the high point is as low and as close to the inlet water surface as possible
the high point is less than 15 feet above the HGL (decrease by 3 ft for every 3000 ft elevation above sea level)
the slope of the long leg is greater than the HGL slope
the flushing flow rate is used to avoid air buildup at the high point
minimum fall across the siphon is used
an inlet check valve and outlet control valve are used
an outlet box is used to prevent entry of air into the siphon (water can be piped from this box to the trough)

42

FIGURE 14: HGL FOR A TYPICAL GWFS

[5]

FIGURE 15: HGL FOR A GWFS SYSTEM WITH UNDULATING TERRAIN

[5]

43

The only fitting required in the entire GWFS pipeline

network is joining the pipes using joints. A joint is
required in two cases:

The pipeline fitting is done by a plumber hired for

laying the transmission pipeline between the source
and distribution. Prefabricated joints made of GI
pipes (Galvanized Iron Pipes) are used to join HDPE
pipes. It is recommended to reduce the number of
joints as much as possible to reduce the frictional
losses. The diameter of the pipes used in GWFS
ranges from 2.5 inches to 1.25 inches.

When diameter of the pipe changes

To join pieces of pipes in a regular run of the
pipeline. The standard lengths of pipes
provided by the manufacturer:

Diameter
(in inches)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.25

Length of pipes in
roles (in meters)
50
150
200
250

TABLE 4 TABULATION OF THE CHANGE IN DIAMETER OF PIPELINE OBSERVED DURING THE PIPELINE WALKS

Sr Village Name /Source

No Name

1
2
3
4

Distance
from Source
to
Distribution
tank (km)
Bappannadhara/Kondapalli 2.7 km
Source
Kondapalli / Kondapalli
0.965
Source
Pallada
1.45

Diameters changed through the pipeline ( in inches)

Boradavedi/Jellurmettu
Source

0.65

Starting Change 1
Dia

Change 2

Change
3

Change 4

2.5

1.5

1.25

1.5

2.5

1.5

1.25

1.5

1.25

2.5

1.5

PHOTO 15: A GI PIPE JOINT

44

Peak demand in the village ranges from 2 to 3 hours

in the morning. On an average there are 10 taps in a
village of 0.5 inch diameter. During the peak hour,
assuming that all the taps are kept open (at the
maximum flow rate of 4 liter/minute) the total flow
from 10 taps will be is 40 liters/minute.
The distribution chamber of the distribution tanks
are built for a capacity of around 6000 liters. Now
Since the total demand is 2400l/hr the tank can
easily supply for this demand. Therefore the GWFS
has the ability to supply at a stretch for around 3
hours of peak demand.

For an average of 10 taps, at consumption rate of 3

- 4 l/min.
Total need = 30 to 40 l / min.
Taps (0.5 inch taps minimum 3 liter - maximum
4 liters/min output while functioning in parallel)
Demand/ hour = 2400 liter/hour discharge (10
taps x 3 liter/min x 60 min)
Tank capacity = 6000 liters (maximum)
Gondipakala, Kondapalli (high yield at source)
Therefore, 3 hrs supply is possible.

Concrete Screen plate : 5 cm

diameter 2 cm)

thickness, (Hole

Two filters namely slow sand filter and reverse slow

sand filter are used in the distribution tank. Material
used and the preparation of the filter media is same
in both the filters except the order in which the
material are layered. In the case of slow sand filter
the bottom layer is made up of pebbles and sand on
top.

There are 18 taps in the case of Gondipakala, and

16 taps in Kondapalli village.
Tank capacity in Kondapalli = 6000 liters
Yields of spring source very high.
In this case the source has the ability to supply 24
x7 of peak demand, because of this high yield.

Pebbles (dia 3 to 5 cm)

Sand screened from 16 gauge mesh

Both treated with bleaching powder.

Pebbles -30 to 40 cm
Sand: 40 cm

Another tank known as the Balancing Tank (tank

to hold the balance water) is installed to supply
water to two other neighbouring villages and the
capacity of this tank is also 6000 liters.

Whereas the peak demand in most of the cases is

never more than 2400 3000 liters / hour.

Capacity of filter: Filter area minimum 2 sq meters to

maximum 2.25 sq meters.
Each square meter area of the filter can filter around
2.53 m3 (2530 liters) of water/ hour. If the flow rate
of the water through the filter is increased, then the
water may not be filtered effectively. Therefore it is
necessary to have at least 2 square meter of filter to
meet a peak demand of around 6000 liters /hour.

Periodical cleaning of the slow sand filter is

important because over time the thickness of the
biofilm increases and this reduces the flow rate of
water. If the biofilm formation in the filter is not
checked it can impair the filtration process
completely. Due to this the filter is cleaned once in
45

every six months by removing all the layers of sand

and gravel and reconstituting them again. Before the

sand and gravel is put in again, it is washed

thoroughly and treated with bleaching powder.

PHOTO 16: A STANDPOST CONSTRUCTED ACCORDING TO GWFS GUIDELINES

A user fee of Rs 5 to Rs 10 is collected from every

household to meet O&M expenses of GWFS.

Height of tap from ground should be 21- 24

inches. Surface should be flat and no pit
should be constructed to keep pot, to avoid
stagnation of water.
Tap projection should not be more than 9
inches, if more the tap will sag. 0.5 inch dia
tap used, to ensure a continuous flow with
good pressure.
Platform dimension: 1 .5 meter by 1 meter.
These guidelines to build a stand post are
necessary to avoid contamination of water
and ensure good quality at all times.
A drain from the platform should be
constructed to avoid water stagnation on the
platform.

Water quality is tested either sending water samples

to a regional testing lab or by using field test kits. The
samples unfiltered and filtered are tested and quality
improvement is evaluated.

Training is conducted on the following aspects:

Maintenance involves cleaning the distribution tank

and filter media once in every 6 months. Silt
deposited from the tank is also cleared and thus a
periodic cleaning ensures quality of water using.
Apart from this ay damage, replacement or
renovation work is undertaken with the funds
collected as user fee from the villages.

Maintenance of source, tanks, taps ,pipelines and

operation of supply is explained to people.
They are shown how to check leakage, change
pipes and manage waste water.
Fixing monthly user fee and methods of collection
and payment..
Course of action in case of breakdowns.
Opening of bank account to manage user fee and
expenses for O&M, more towards financial
management
46

After a successful trial run of the system it is

transferred to the villagers i.e. the villagers take
charge of operating the system and its upkeep from
here on. This is a relatively smooth process as most
of them are familiar and trained on all the aspects of
GWFS.

Processes that facilitate the efficient functioning of

GWFs are curtail for its long term sustainability.
Monitoring these processes ensures transparency
and high level of efficiency. For example, monitoring
bank account transactions and expenditures builds
confidence among the users who pay monthly for
water supply. The appointed committee is mandated
to oversee every aspect of GWFS operation and
ensure that no irregularities occur at any stage. of the
system.

Water usage committee collects the user fee for

maintenance of the system. A fee ranging from Rs 5
10 per home /month is levied to cover the costs of
O&M.
The financial details of the total funding, expenses
incurred and the villagers contribution is stated
clearly on a display board which is usually erected at
the entrance of the village. This is a rudimentary
method to make all the project details public and
often found to be highly effective.

The field staff of VJNNS checks on a regular basis if

the system is working and if the committee is
functioning to peoples satisfaction. Although a
proper follow-up mechanism is not in place the
project has not suffered any setback or problem.
However it is difficult to follow up with the village
after a GWFS is constructed and successfully
implemented. It is observed that the funds allocated
for the project is spent by the time it is implemented.

47

48

PHOTO 17: GONDIPAKALA VILLAGE

PHOTO 18: 3MEN SORTING COFFEE BEANS, GONDIPAKALA

49

CASE STUDIES

Village
GWFS in this village was commissioned in 2004. The
people of this village approached after seeing a
similar system in Digupakala village.
Gondipakala makes an interesting study in how
availability of water impacts the overall development
of a village, from childrens health to agriculture.
Technically this village has a typical GWFS
construction involving processes described in the
earlier sections. What is noteworthy is the course of
development of this village after it constructed a
GWFS for itself. It is also an interesting in the long
term impacts GWFS because the facility here is
almost 8 years old.

GWFS commencement year:

Number of households served:
Elevation of Village:
Elevation of source:
Elevation of Distribution tank:
Source to Distribution tank distance:

Peak Water Demand: 16 taps x 3l/min x

The source harvested for Gondipakala is owned by a
farmer from Digupakala (which already has a GWFS
helped by VJNNS). This farmer having experienced
the benefits of GWFS, knew that this spring source on
his land could help Gondipakala. He readily agreed to
share the spring with Gondipakala as an act of
charity. 110 households now benefit from this
source. This was further scaled up to 37 more
households of two settlements which came up
adjacent to the village.

The yield of this source is approximately 3l/sec. This

is considered a good yield and the water harvested is
sufficient for the household needs of this village. This
remaining water which gets harvested is diverted to
other farm activities like cultivation, coffee beans
cleaning etc.

60 min =

The village relied on a small stream which ran closer

to the village, for all their water requirements. This
meant that the women spent around 2 hours to fetch
water every time they needed it. This obviously
reduced their availability for more productive
activities like tending to their farms. Their
contribution to income generation due to this was
rather small.
Men, apart from farming worked as casual laborers
during the lean season. There was very little work to
be found in the drier months. On occasions like
festivals or marriages people paid Rs 500 to Rs 1000
to truck water.
50

An Anganwadi worker shared her experience saying, I

used to open the centre late and close it early in the
evening because of our water problems. Now that I
have water supplied right at my door step. I am able to
take care of the children well and also manage to pack
a lot of other activities in the time gained.

The village underwent many obvious and also subtle

changes in the years since GWFS implementation.
The piped water supply round the clock has almost
had a liberating effect on the women. It means sure
and certain water availability. The 2 hour hike to the
stream and back is totally eliminated. Quite
obviously, there is more water available now due to
proximity of the tap and 24 hour nature of the supply.
There is also a remarked change in hygiene practices
of the families in this village. Activities like hand
washing and bathing are more frequent now.
Since the source harvested for this village has a high
yield there is a significant amount of water left even
after household demand is met. This excess water is

channelized to the farms and kitchen gardens around

the households. This is remarkable because farming
here was either rain fed or from irrigation channels
fed from streams. This limited the cropping period as
well as the scope of farming. With the development of
the new source, farming is gradually extending over
the entire year than being limited to rainy season.
The farmers are also experimenting with newer
crops and horticultural varieties than being limited to
coffee which was grown traditionally. For instance, a
progressive farmer from the village is experimenting
with strawberry cultivation for over a year now,
which is the first in this region.
A progressive farmer from the village is experimenting
with strawberry cultivation for over a year now, which
is a first in this region.
The coffee which these farmers harvested was sold to
coffee board without any value addition and these
fetched lower margins. When the coffee board
observed the improved water availability in the
village, it helped the villagers with coffee beans
washing equipment and also supported with funds to
build a cemented platforms to dry the beans. The
farmers of this village have been identified as
progressive ones. The farmers in the village have
been experimenting with different variety of crops
and fruits since the water supply have been fixed.

51

PHOTO 19: STRAWBERRIES GROWING IN A NURSERY

PHOTO 20: CHILDREN CONNECTING A HOSE TO THE FARM

52

ridges. It is noteworthy that this was accomplished

by VJNNS and the people of this village with a

Bappannadhara is situated at 900 meters above sea

level in the hilly region of East Godavari district.
GWFS here was implemented in 2009. This village is
included as a case study because of the technical
challenge involved in implementing the system and
to highlight the importance of ascertaining the
ownership status of the spring sources that are
harvested for GWFS

Village:
GWFS commencement year:
Number of households served:
Elevation of Village:
Elevation of source:

The spring source for Bappannadhara is directly

shared by Kondapalli and indirectly (fed by overflow)
by Boradakota and Mirtwada. The source is owned
by Kondapalli and the people here often assert and
tend to control the supply of water. During the visit it
was found that water supply to Bappannadhara was
impaired due to a suspected obstruction in the
pipeline which was perhaps done by Kondapalli
village. Had a clear ownership status and water
sharing process been established in the planning
stages of this GWFS implementation, such a situation
would not have risen. The learning from this
experience is that source ownership and property
rights must be clearly established before undertaking
GWFS implementation.

All the villages under this GWFS lie in a hilly terrain

where pipeline design is often challenging.
Transporting water across a distance of
approximately 3 kms and also ensuring a good endpipe pressure can be a rigorous undertaking. The
orientation of the village from the source is such that
the transmission pipeline had to negotiate two hill

Elevation of Distribution tank:

Source to Distribution tank distance:

Peak Water Demand: 10 Stand post x 3

liters/min x 60 min/hour =

minimal understanding of pipeline engineering. The

pipeline alignment had to be economical as well as
sound enough to maintain a smooth flow.

The yield of this source is 3 l/sec and is observed to

be sufficient for the two villages sharing it. In fact,
there is a excess flow which is fed to a balancing tank
from where two other villages are using the water.

53

PHOTO 21: A VIEW OF KONDAPALLI VILLAGE

PHOTO 22: SPRING SOURCE OF KONDAPLLI GWFS DEEP IN THE FOREST

54

Diversion tank for

Bappannadhara
Spring Source
Water source collection tank
Bappannadhara Distribution tank
Kondapalli Distribution tank

Mirtwada

Balancing tank
Boradakota

The above figure illustrates the orientation of the

GWFS system of Kondapalli source. As stated earlier,
it is shared by Kondapalli, Bappannadhara,
Boradakota and Mirtwada. The water in the red
coloured transmission line first reaches the
Kondapalli distribution tank from where the excess
water overflows into the Balancing tank which
supplies to Boradakota and Mirtwada.
The second transmission line in violet colour supplies
to Bappannadhara.

This GWFS implementation was difficult to build

because:

Planning and construction did not involve the use

of any precision equipment like a GPS device,
flow meters or gradient measuring instruments.
Source to end use points are spread over a 3 km
distance in a hilly terrain.

The pipeline lies on a flat land for over a

kilometer, where maintaining flow pressure is
scientifically difficult.

The elevation profile of the pipeline illustrates the

terrain and the flow challenges that the design had to
encounter. This profile was plotted using a GPS
device during a pipeline walk from the Kondapalli
source to Bappannadhara distribution tank.
To analyze if the water can flow through this
elevation profile under the various flow conditions
Hazen-William's equation was used. This also gives
the Hydrographic Gradient Lines (HGL). Considering
a pipeline diameter of 2 inches:
Hazen-William's Equation,
Q=

1.292 10 -5 C d 2.63 S 0.54

HGL and principle of continuous flow is explained in

pipeline laying and pipeline fitting section in the
document.
55

PHOTO23: BALANCING TANK 0F KONDAPALLI GWFS WHICH SUPPLIES WATER TO THREE ADDITIONAL VILLAGES

PHOTO 24: DISTRIBUTION TANK AT KONDAPALLI

56

Although the calculation here is done considering a

pipe diameter of 2 inches, in the actual field
observation it was found that the diameter of the
pipe changed at 5 places. The orange line represents
an HGL with a yield of 2 l/sec and considering the

varying pipe diameters. Blue, green and red coloured

lines represent HGLs for yields of 2 l/sec, 1 l/sec and
0.5 l/sec respectively with a constant pipe diameter
of 2 inches.

TABLE 5 CHANGES IN DIAMETERS

Village Name /Source

Name

Distance
from Source
to
Distribution
tank (km)
Bappannadhara/Kondapalli 2.7 km
Source

Diameters changed through the pipeline ( in inches)

Starting Change 1
Dia

Change 2

Change
3

Change 4

2.5

1.5

1.25

1.5

The point on the pipeline where the pipe diameter is

changed is illustrated on the elevation plot.

Changes 1 and 2 were made to facilitate flow

from lower elevation to higher elevation. The
first change in diameter is important because at
this point water has not yet gained sufficient
momentum and if at this point the elevation

increases then it becomes difficult for the water

to flow upwards.

Change 3 is to increase the velocity of the water,

as the distance it has to flow ahead is flat. Change
4 is done to ensure that enough force is generated
so that the water flows upwards to the
distribution tank.

57

Bappannadhara -Elevation Plot from Source to Distribution Tank

1570

HGL line for 0.5 lps

1520

HGL line for 1 lps

1473

1470

1469

1424

Elevation in ft

1420

HGL line for 2 lps

1370

1320

1270

1220
1207

1187
1170
0.00

1000.00

2000.00

3000.00

4000.00

5000.00

6000.00

7000.00

8000.00

9000.00

10000.00

Distance from the source in ft

58

REFERENCES
1. ^ a b "Elephant and the blind men". Jain Stories. JainWorld.com. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
2. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWAT/Resources/GWMATE_CP_19AndhraPradesh.pdf
3.

http://164.100.24.208/ls/CommitteeR/Labour&Wel/33.pdf

4. Rao ,V.L.N., Rao,S., Bharathi ,K. and BusiIllness ,B.R. Illness and Treatment among Khonds of
Visakhapatnam District,Andhra Pradesh. J. Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 83-86 (2006)
5. Government Order, British Columbia., UNDERSTANDING GRAVITY-FLOW PIPELINES Water Flow, Air
Locks and Siphons (Jan 2006)
6. Government Order, British Columbia.,ACCESSING SURFACE WATER SOURCES: Dugouts, Springs,
Creeks, Rivers and Lakes in Technology and Management
7. Meuli,C.,Wehrle,K.,Spring Catchment. SKAT, Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation (2001)

59

Design and Planning:

Network sizing

Construction

Costing and
budgeting
Operation and
Maintenance
GWFS and
Community

How is the demand for GWFS from the community estimated?

What parameters and approaches were adopted to identify a reliable
spring source?
How is the community engaged in the design and planning phase?
What methods were adopted to ensure ownership of a GWFS of the
community?
For what demand is the system designed?
How many years can the system serve the community without any
additional capital investment
What is the per capita water consumption assumed while building the
system?
What is the peak flow factors considered?
What measures were taken to ascertain source protection?
What was the size of the distribution tank arrived at and how?
What is the filtering mechanism adopted to make it fit for potable use?
What is the material used for pipeline construction?
What is the period of reliability of tanks and the pipeline?
What is the role and contribution of the community in the construction
process?
What is the breakup of cost involved for building a GWFS (source,
distribution tank, pipeline, distribution points, labor?
What is the contribution from the village?
What mechanism is adopted to fund the O&M expenses?
Who oversees the O&M issues?
How is the expenditure for O&M issues met?
What was the process adopted to get the community to participate?
What are the direct and indirect benefits that have accrued since the
commissioning of the system?

60