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Table I
Per-Cent Life
Lost per Cycle
Peak
Kva
60
55
50
45
40
.
.
.
.
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
Per-Cent Life
Lost per Cycle
Peak
Kva
60 . .7.11703
55 . .0.54503
.0.04224
50 .
45 . .0.00365
40 . .0.00033
0.31270
0.03205
0.00348
0.00035
0.00004
Table IV
Table 11
.
60
55
50
45
40
Per-Cent Life
Lost per Year
Frequency
Peak
Kva
per Year
1
0.31270
.
2............... 0.06410
3............... 0.01044
.
.
6............... 0.00210
...
.
.0.00040
...........10
..............
Peak
Economics
per Year
.1.
60
55.
50.
456.
40
2.
3.
1.
Per-Cent Life
Lost per Year
7.11703
1.09006
0.12672
0.02190
0.00330
Total: 8.35901
Total: 0. 38974
Frequency
Kva
Design
T. H. PUTMAN
Conclusion
Using a method such as that outlined
in this paper, it is possible to estimate
the per-cent loss of life (and hence the
thermal life expectancy) of a distribution transformer from actual load cycle
data and to evaluate the effect of heavier
loading schedules on the thermal life of
the transformer insulating system.
In the course of developing this method
of calculating transformer thermal life
expectancy, it was found that:
1. The significant portion of the thermal
aging occurring during an annual load
cycle takes place over a relatively small
portion of the annual cycle.
2. A large portion of this significant aging
occurs during the annual peak load cycle.
3. Both the magnitude of the annual peak
load and the shape of the annual peak load
cycle must be considered in life expectancy
calculations.
References
1. THERMAL AGING PROPERTIES OF CELLULOSE
INSULATING MATERIALS, G. Malmlow. Acta
Polytechnica, Stockholm, Sweden, (Electrical Engineering Series), vol. 2, 1948, pp. 7-67.
DETERIORATION
INSULATION
2. ELECTRICAL
TREATED AS A CHEMICAL RATE PHENOMENON,
T. W. Dakin. AIEE Transactions, vol. 67, pt. I,
1948, pp. 113-22.
3. LIFE EXPECTANCY OF OIL-IMMERSED INSULATION STRUCTURES, W. A. Sumner, G. M. Stein,
A. M. Lockie. Ibid., pt. III (Power Apparatus
and Systems), vol. 72, Oct. 1953, pp. 924-30.
4. GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE THERMAL EVALUA-~
TION OF ELECTRICAL INSULATION, L. J. Berberich,
T. W. Dakin. Ibid., vol. 75, Aug. 1956, pp.
752-61.
(1)
MEMBER IEEE
1018
Paper 63-918, recommended by the IEEE Transformers Committee and approved by the IEEE
Technical Operations Department for presentation
at the IEEE Summer General Meeting and Nuclear
Radiation Effects Conference, Toronto, Ont.,
Canada, June 16-21, 1963. Manuscript submitted January 2, 1963; made available for printing April 8, 1963.
T. H. PUTMAN is with the Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.
The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable
suggestions which he received during the course
of this work from Dr. Clarence Zener, Director of
the Westinghouse Research Laboratories, and E.
C. Wentz of the Westinghouse Transformer
Division.
DECE-MBER 1963
where
E=volts, output voltage
IM-=amperes, maximum output current
LD = load factor, ratio of average current
to maximum current
Section B-B
Section A-A
WTNL ($E+FS$S1W)=$/yr,
annual cost of
supplying no load loss
The total annual cost of the transformer is the sum of the three cost terms
defined above, or
FT$T+ WNL($E+FS$SIW)+
IM2RT(FS$s/W+LS$E)
(2)
ST = (k3diS1 k2S2)t3+$etc
(5)
Pi=wdiVi=wdiS1t3
/ 4W A2
pV
Pch
2 \A C2 / CBA i
ment.
(4)
.SW
2B2
)t-I
S32S42}
(6)
(3)
Putman-Economics and Power Transformer Design
1019
c0< c,<c2<C3
(Fs$siw+Ls$SE) (
2B2-)
(7)
TVVL=Pi=WddjSlt3
R=PC
RL'2
8p W2
IM2 \w2B2
S2
(S2S42St
(8)
-=0
C= {FT[(k3diSi +k2S2)t3+$etc] +
wdiS1t( FS$s,w+$E)+
(8pET2IM2)\( S2 \t-5(Fs$s+
C= { [FT(k3diSl+k2S2)+
(FS$s,w+$E)wdiSolt3+ FT$etc+
1020
(9)
(Fs$s,w+Ls$E)
(8pET
w02B2
s2
S32S42/
=3/5{ FT(k3diSl+k2S2)+
(Fs$s,w+$E)wdtSI}t3 (13)
Inspection of equation 13 shows that the
constraint is one which relates the transformer size, t, to the load, to certain material properties, to operating conditions,
and to economic factors. From this constraining equation a number of interesting
facts concerning power transformers can
be deduced.
VARIATION OF TRANSFORMER VOLUME
WITH RATING
(ETIm)114 cc W1/4
=0
From the above discussion the relationship between transformer size, load, and
specific cost should be clear. In the
following it is assumed that the trans-
Pi
3/5 1FT(k3dS0 +k2S2)+(FS4SW+$E) wdiS1J
wdiSo[Fs$s,w+LS$EI
Pi
3 fixed-volumetric cost
5
core-loss cost
DECEMBER 1 963
DECEMBER 1963
(Fs$sIw+$E)diS1wI5/8 (15)
FT=0.15 $/$-yr
FS$S8W +$E
0.006 $/kilowatt-hour
= 0.0525
$/watt-yr
a2=
a3 = 1)
(17)
Results
The results of this paper can be summarized by a series of statements of the
facts which have been analytically shown
to be true about power transformers:
1021
1. Given the load to be supplied, a transformer size can be determined which has a
minimum specific cost. An increase in
the load reduces the specific cost up to a
certain point. However, for this new
load there is a still larger transformer which
will be more economical.
2. The volume of the optimum transformer should increase as its power rating
to the three-fourths power.
3. Any change which tends to increase
the fixed-volumetric cost will be counteracted by a reduction in size. Any change
which tends to increase the copper-loss
cost is counteracted by an increase in size.
4. The copper loss and iron loss bear a
fixed ratio independent of transformer
rating.
5. High-voltage transformers have a higher
specific cost than low-voltage transformers
of the same rating.
6. The winding current density is independent of transformer size.
7. All per-unit reactances of transformers
tend to increase as the rating to the onefourth power. Apparently the leakage
reactance is kept in bounds by changes in
geometry and winding design in larger
transformers.
8. The optimum proportions of a transformer are independent of its load.
9. The optimum flux density for most
transformer designs probably lies between
1.60 and 1.75 webers/meter.2
( 18)
(19)
(20)
Volume of iron:
(21 )
Coil area:
A,c-ab
A s=at2S4t2
(22)
(25)
(peak value)
j = 4W/wBA cA i = 4Wl/wBS4S3t4
Therefore,
Pc =
W=
j-ccA iB
2 2
(8pW2/c,2B2)(S2/S32S42)t-5
(28)
(29)
(30)
$T=k3d1SiI3k2S2t3$etc
At=dt
(26)
Copper Loss
Let
a2 = b/a
(27)
Pi=wd1 Vi-=wdiSt3
a =d/t
copper loss
V= meter3, volume of copper
then
PC== 2-j2pVC
Iron area:
(23)
The following are the dimensionless
geometric factors:
P,= watts,
Volume of coils:
VC2a32[2(al+1)+7ra31t3= S2t0
Appendix 1. Geometry of
Transformer
Discussion
Paul H. Jeynes (Public Service Electric
and Gas Company, Newark, N. J.): The
procedure described in this paper may
well be accepted as the classical approach
to economic transformer design. It proposes no drastic new departures, but does
organize the reasoning better than has been
done before.
Because it is thus authoritative, it is
desirable to have the numerous formulas
expressed in unmistakable dimensional
units, so they can be conveniently quantified in practical applications of the analysis.
The author has recognized this, and has
taken pains to indicate the units of measurement along with the definition of each term
in words.
However, his presentation starts with
definitions of three basic concepts:
and maintenance
(2) Fr=$/$-yr, capital recovery factor
(3) F7$T=$/yr, annual cost
One's first reaction is that: (1) is incorrect,
(2) is inadequate, and (3) therefore is not
very helpful. This situation could be
remedied, but it demands some explanation.
It is implicit in this approach, though not
specifically stated, that the user is going
to make a choice between proffered designs
which, at the price purchasable from
manufacturer, will accomplish two simultaneous financial objectives:
1. Maximize his profit margin out of
given sales and revenues from his customers.
a3= a/t
(24)
1022
DECEMBER 1 963
salvage.
to
DiECIRMBIER 1963
potential customer.
The optimization assures the manufacturer that he has the best design possible
within his particular manufacturing cost
structure. It, of course, does not assure
him of successfully meeting competition
since this depends upon the manufacturing
cost structure, which is different for different
manufacturers.
REFERENCES
1.
1023