Political Theory: O.

P Gauba
Socialism:
C.EM Joad- Socialism proves to be a diff creed in the hands of its exponents, varying with the
temperaments of its advocates & the nature of the abuses that have prompted their
advocacy like a hat that has lost its shape because everybody wears it.
It is an economic system under which the means of production are placed under the control
& ownership of public authority in order to ensure that they are properly utilized for public
interest.
Evolutionary socialism:
Attitude of compromise, small parliamentary changes ,liberal , subscribe equilibrium
Revolutionary: wholesale transformation of society, Marxian. Classless society
Fabian Socialism: Fabian society founded in 1884 after fabius Quintus (roman general).
Based on Ricardian law of rent rather than labor theory of value.
No relying on working class educated the middle class with Socialist message. Introduce
socialism through small degrees through state & cooperative ownership of industries.
Ricardian law: with the growth of industrialization, demand of food grains rises & rent of the
land goes up. Thus landlords benefit from capitalism.
Formed during the years of democracy revolution in Britain, when workers obtained
franchise & legalization of trade unions.
George Bernard Shaw, Sydney Webb, Beatrice Webb, Graham Wallace.
Emancipation of land & industrial capital. Equality of opportunity. Dissemination of socialist
ideas [democratic, gradual, not immoral, constitutional & peaceful]. Universal education.
German social democracy: Ferdinand Lassale - working class to form a political party to gain
legal status & majority in the legislative organ of the state
Revisionist: Eduard Bernstein1.
Class struggle less intense as working class condition had improved
2.
Middle class had expanded
3.
Majority in small scale industries than large scale.
Karl Kautsky defended Marxism which remained the doctrine of socialist parties in Europe.
Syndicalism:
In France & Latin countries, labor unions as cells of social order.
Accepted class theory, abolition of state, industrial action as only effective action, all power
given to producer.
Successful during 1899-1937, after ww1 equal rights to consumer also.
Independent eco orgs to restrict the powers of the state.
Guild Socialism:
During British labor movement 1916-26
Upheld class struggle, abolition of wages & representation of workers in ind control,
introduced imp of consumer, abolish old state & form a new org for civil activities of
community.
Liberal democracy as the political frame work for capitalism. Adoption of socialist goal
reassures the people & used as safety valve i.e. Evo socialism.
Even pure socialist sys felt the need to introduce modicum of market principles. I.e. Mkt
socialism, production control in public ownership but allocation as per mkt principles.
Fascism:
Ideology underlying inn the movement founded in Italy by Benito Mussolini. Distorted form
of idealism. Italy -1922 Germany 1933, japan 1930s.
Italy & Germany used treaty of Versailles as object of injustice. enlisted diverse groups &
classes for program of expansionist aggression.

Theory of reaction: reaction to democracy, socialism, communism. Rejects equality,

individual no rights. Dictator whose will is law. state an end & individual a mean. Monopoly
of state, unity through homogeneity (Aryan in Germany).does not support international org
for disputes, relies on military solutions. Single party system.
In Italy began as a movement for revolutionary changes but later developed as a force
against it. Concentration of eco control, stripped capitalism of democratic character. Thus
lower wages, inferior working conditions. unlimited political power to those who control
means of production. Obstructing the supply of true news. press, wireless, publishing &
cinema under gov control. judiciary subordinated to fascist ideals. Replace materialism by
mystical political idealism (holiness & heroism). Unified nation image to counter class
conflict, repudiates eco motive behind actions.
Denies class war beneficial for transformation of society. W M McGovern & R M MacIver
regarded fascism as movement of lower middle class. But it appealed to small businessmen.
It did not emanate from lower middle class but the fascist militia were recruited from the
subclass of trade less dregs of the working class with no class loyalty. served the capitalist
class at the expense of the masses. demolishes constitutional government.
Anarchism:
Abolition of state. William Godwin (1756-1836) & P J Proudhon (1809-65)
Different views on how to eliminate state & its replacement.
Philosophical Anarchism:
Individual owns himself & does what is right for himself. recognizes no duty to others, Max
Stirner (1806-56). Upholders suspicious of authority but recognize rational authority of
experts in their fields as well as moral authority that contracts should be kept. Do not accept
the coercive authority of state.
Socialist anarchism:
Freedom of individual the capacity to satisfy his needs. Social &eco equality necesay
condition. Proudhon postulated mutual aid as method of achieving goals. Mutualism. Power
of state & capital coterminous, thus proletariat cannot liberate itself using them. Advocated
peaceful method of direct action. Network of autonomous local communities & producer
associations linked by federal principle. Each person possesses his own tools that he owns
singly or collectively & is rewarded for his labor only. Exchange of equivalent items only &
credit for producers on minimal interest by credit bank. Experiment failed.
Kropotkin (1842-1921) survival of fittest does not apply to social relations. Without state
humans would develop bonds of instinctive solidarity.
Everything belonging to everybody distribution according to needs, ie. Communist
anarchism.
Revolutionary Anarchism:
A version of socialist anc, Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76) chief exponent. Collectivization of
means of social production, hence collectivism. Encouraged popular insurrection in which
capitalist & landed property was expropriated & collectivized. State would be abolished &
replaced by autonomous federally linked communes. Society organized below upwards. To
foster revolt, used propaganda by deed, ie. Local insurrection, assassination, terrorism. Each
group to manage their own production & distribution as per collective decision.
Anarcho- Syndicalism:
Revolutionary anarchism with trade unions in place of communes. George Sorrel (18471922). Laws of every society contain structural violence. Capitalist sys epitome of violence
which should be fought with general strike. Recommended use of myth to mobilize masses.
Pacific anarchism:

Abolition of state in peaceful manner. Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910).inspired by the law of love
expressed by Jesus. Denounced state as organized violence.
Libertarian Anarchism:
Herbert Spencer (1820- 1903).concept of blessedness of anarchy envisage the development
of market society to a stage where the state is dissolved & society becomes self-regulated.
Revival of laissez faire [minimum interference]. F A Hayek [1899-1992] observed that social
order exists independently of the state.product of human sociability. Robert Nozick [19382002]- state has no powers beyond functions of protection, justice & defense. Legal rights
product of voluntary exchanges.
Gandhism:
M K Gandhi [1869-1948]. Ethics the guiding star to all human behavior. Spiritualization of
politics. Purity of means as well as ends. Adopted satyagraha to achieve swaraj. Politics &
ethics inseparable. Religious tolerance.

Feminism
stands for the concern with the status and role of women in society, voice of protest against
the inferior status accorded to women in society.
Patriarch-rule of father
Enlightenment: an intellectual movement of 18th-century France, Germany and Great
Britain.
Difference between sex and gender: sex -- limited to a biological differences whereas gender
-- cultural ideas that construct images and expectations of both female and male. Distinctive
features for male and female, masculinity and femininity. Masculinity: aggressiveness, logical
outlook, and control of emotional expression and attitude of dominance.
Femininity: peacefulness, intuitiveness, emotional expressiveness and submissiveness.
Some variations possible in different social context. These are products of social organization
based on patriarchy and capitalism. Feminism: advocacy of equal rights for women and men.
Right to own property, education, vote and occupation of choice. Mary Wollstonecraft 1759 -97, essay: vindication of rights of women 1792. No right to divorce.
Streams of feminism:
Liberal feminism: conventional movement, absolute equality of opportunity men and
women, completely removal of gender-based discrimination.
Radical feminism: Shulamith firestone 1945, historically women the first oppressed group,
human reproductive biology responsible for considering women the weaker sex. Infants
depended on lactating women and they in turn depended on men. The advent of reliable
contraceptives, baby foods and test-tube babies the dependencies can be eliminated.
Kate Millett 1934: sexual politics 1971. The relationship between the sexes based on power
and for the sustained by ideology. Similar to relationship between classes and races. Hence
to be treated as political relationship. Domination over women in two forms, social authority
and economic force. Both women exercised enormous influence on developing women's
liberation movement in 1970s.
Socialist feminism: combination of patriarchal analysis of radical feminism and class
analysis of Marxism. It implies capitalists and men have benefited from Woman's
subordination. Sheila Rowbotham 1943 chief representative. Books -- women, resistance and
revolution 1972, hidden from history 1973, the past is before us 1989. showed that class
exploitation and women's oppression closely linked.
Nature of politics:

politics is now treated as a social process rather than an aggregate of formal institution of
the state.
The political situation: the political process postulates the existence disagreement or conflict
and effort for the resolution of that conflict through the authority of the government. Political
conflict concerned with public issues whether local, regional, national and international.
Politics as authoritative allocation of values: David Easton 1953.
Values: things considered valuable, spiritual or material.
Allocation: distribution of these things through which consists of a web of decisions.
A policy is authoritative when the people it will affect consider that they must or ought to
obey it. thus authority does not signify the use of brute force, it denotes the capacity to
secure more or less willing compliance from its subjects for a particular decision on a course
of action.
Geoffrey K Roberts 1971, as an activity politics is a process in a social system and by which
the goal of the system are selected, ordered in terms of priority both temporally and
concerning the resource allocation, and implemented. Political process distinguished from
other social processes by its concern with the public goals of the society.
General characteristics of politics:
extent of involvement of individuals and groups depends upon the level of their
politicization. Politicisation may refer to issues or to human beings. Drawing of individuals or
groups into political activity, giving them a role in the making of public decisions.
Politics as a social process:

involves conflict or dispute regarding allocation of values

is concerned with public goals and decisions
requires authoritative decisions
involves interest groups
is an instrument of conflict resolution

different views of politics:

the liberal view:
-politics as state or group activity
different individuals seek their interests as members of different groups. Each group
conscious of its particular interests, pursues them with a view to securing the authoritative
allocation of values in its favour.
-Process of conciliating interests
different groups have conflicting interests but a common interest also exist to reconcile the
interests of competing groups. Politics is essentially an instrument of conflict resolution.
evolves legitimate and just solution.

-As a means of promoting the common good

since there is a common interest behind the conflicting interests of various groups it the
same as promoting common good. This does not only mean a compromise but a win-win
policy can be made.

The Marxist view

-- Primacy of economic interests
all political institutions and activities are an outgrowth of prevailing economic system,
especially the mode of production. Clash of economic interests the fundamental issue of
social conflict.
-- Politics as an instrument of class domination
the haves and the have-nots, economically dominant class through the medium of state
becomes also the politically dominant class. And acquires new means of exploiting the
oppressed class.
-- Class interests are irreconcilable
the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
with the elimination of the classes, class conflict will disappear and state and politics would
no longer be required.

The communitarian view

-- politics is the arena of mutual co-operation not conflict
Aristotle: the relation between individual and the state similar to that of organ and organism.
In order to flourish in life and individual requires a place in a well functioning community.
Liberals encourage each person to define and seek his own good with in the political
structure whereas communitarian directs him to discover and pursue his own good as an
integral part of the good of the community.
Approaches to the study of politics:
distinction between Method and approach.
Method: procedure of inquiry by which reliable knowledge could be obtained. Example:
scientific, inductive, deductive.
Approach: a wider term which comprehends not only the Method not also the focus of our
study. It consists of criteria of selection, standards governing the inclusion and exclusion of
questions and data. And approaches usually wedded to a particular method.

Traditional versus contemporary approaches:

in use before World War 2 -- traditional, after that contemporary. Traditional approach more
value based and contemporary approach on facts. However normative and empirical
approaches cannot be treated as coterminous with the distinction between traditional and
contemporary approaches. philosophical, historical, legal, institutional are traditional
approaches and behavioural, interdisciplinary art contemporary approaches.
Empirical approaches: concerned with a situation which can be observed by our sense
experience, can be verified by repeated observation and whose accuracy can be tested.
Normative approaches: tends to express a preference for a particular type of order as
dictated by a sense of duty, universal need, commitment to a moral principle on ideal.
Concerned with what ought to be or should be.
Empirical approach largely descriptive while normative approach mainly prescriptive.

Traditional approaches:
philosophical approach -- Vernon Van Dyke (political science: a philosophical analysis; 1960):
" philosophical analysis is an effort to clarify thought about the nature of the subject and
about ends and means in studying it. It may denote efforts arrive at truth through the use of
reason. "
Aims at evolving standards of right and wrong for the purpose of a critical evaluation of the
existing institutions, laws and policies. Most of the classical thinkers dwelled on two main
themes-'Art of government' and 'grounds of political obligation'.

Aristotle: man is by nature a political animal

Machiavelli: Art of government, on the assumption of selfish nature of man
Hobbes: focused on the grounds of political obligation, absolutist view.
Hegel and Rousseau: carried on the same view on different grounds
Locke: postulated rights of the individual against the state
Kant: evolved the concept of human dignity
.S Mill: sought to explore the limits of political obligation by defining the conditions of state
intervention
T.H Green: developed his theory of rights on moral grounds and sought to limit the authority
of the state
Lasky: tried to build an elaborate system of individual rights

John Rawls: revived kant's notion of rational negotiators to build his theory of Justice.

Historical approach: arriving at Laws governing politics through an analysis of historical

events and political thought.
George H Sabine-it is necessary to recapitulate the circumstances under which a particular
theory was produced for understanding its relevance to the present situation. Political theory
is not only a product of history, it also served as an instrument of moulding history by its
ideological force.

Legal approach: understand politics in terms of law. It focuses on the legal and constitutional
framework in which different organs of government have function, enquiries into their
respective legal position, powers and the procedure that makes their actions legally valid. All
political processes become effective and stable must culminate in legal provisions.

Institutional approach: government itself an institution, and its various organs will also be
recognised as institutions. In short an institution is a set of offices and agencies arranged in
hierarchy where each office has certain functions and powers. relies heavily on description.
Drawbacks are;
neglected the voting behaviour and political attitude of individual
neglected the study of international politics
concerned with the established institutions only, neglected role of violence or threats of
violence.
Neglected role of informal groups and processes in shaping politics
it is inadequate in itself but any other approach will be incomplete without being due
attention to institutions.
Contemporary approaches:
Behavioural Approach: the work of American political scientists after the Second World War
but origins may be traced back to the work of Graham Wallace and Arthur Bentley
Human nature too complex to be explained by the simple utilitarian propositions. Wallace
insisted on analysing as for how people actually behaved in a political situation. Bentley a
pioneer of group approach to politics, primarily sought not to describe political activity, but
to provide for new tools of investigation. Charles E Merriam founded the Chicago School. He
deprecated the work of historians as they ignored the role of psychological, social logical,
and economic factors in human affairs. Also a ardent champion of democracy. G E.G. Catlin,
treated power as essence of politics and argue that analysis of power should not be inclined

in favour of any particular value system. Politics as policy science further developed by
Harold Laswell (Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, 1936).
after Second World War Americans David B Truman, Robert Dahl, Evron M Kirkpatrick
published the papers on behavioural approach. Geoffrey K Roberts, political behaviour as an
area of study within political science, is concerned about those aspects of human behaviour
that take place with in political context. According to David Easton and intellectual
foundations of behaviourism consist of eight tenets:
Regularities: discoverable uniformity in political behaviour can be expressed in theory like
statements to provide for explanation and prediction.
Verification: validity of such statements must be testable.
Techniques: the means of acquiring and interpreting data should be examined selfconsciously, refined and validated for the purpose of observing , recording and analysing
behaviour.
Quantification: measurement that should be expressed in terms of actual quantities will
facilitate proper analysis.
Values: objective scientific enquiry should be value free or value neutral.
Systematisation: establishing close interrelationship between theory and research.
Pure science: utilise political knowledge in the solution of urgent practical problems of
society.
Integration: integration of political science at the other social sciences in order to evolve a
comprehensive view of human affairs.
Behaviouralism thus focused on microlevel situations rather than attempting macrolevel
generalisations.
Post Behavioural Revolution: By the mid-1960s behaviouralism gained a dominant position in
the methodology of political science. But critics argued its failure to come to grips with
normative issues due to its strict adherence to pure science. In 1969 David Easton in his
presidential address to the American political science Association announced a new
revolution in political science-'Post behavioural Revolution', with greater concern with public
responsibilities of the disciplines and with political problems. Relevance and Action were the
twin slogans of Post Behaviouralism.
Models of Political Analysis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

determine the nature of politics

politics recognised as a process
a process involves a set of interactions among its components
identify these components
arrange the data according to their interrelationship

Systems Analysis:
conceives politics in terms of a political system. Robert Dahl, " any collection of elements
that interact in some way with one another can be considered a system ". Elements of the
system should be looked in as abstract way rather than as concrete things.
first model developed by David Easton, 1957. Politics-'authoritative allocation of values'.
Allocation of values because there are corresponding demand from the society or the
environment. It becomes authoritative because it gets support from the environment. These
are the inputs whereas policies and decisions are the outputs. The outputs go back into the
environment through a feedback mechanism giving rise to fresh demands.
Source of the demands can be the people, politicians, administrators, opinion leaders
depending on the nature of the regime. Demands are sub classified into four types:
1.
2.
3.
4.

demands for allocation of goods and services

regulation of behaviour (public safety, market control, health and sanitation)
participation in the political system
communication and information, affirmation of norms

supports are sub classified as:

1.
2.
3.
4.

extractions (tribute, taxes, personal service)

regulation of behaviour
allocation or distribution of goods and services
symbolic outputs, affirmation of values

demands serve as a guide for determining the policies and goods, and support will enable it
to achieve its goals. This conversion of demands and support into policies and decisions
should be very balanced. Structural mechanisms, cultural mechanism, increased
communication channels, control by legislative, executive, administrative organs help of
with the overload of demands.
Criticised for inability in the analysis of political power and mass political behaviour.
Structural-Functional analysis:
provides standard categories for different types of political systems. Originated in the sphere
of social anthropology (Radcliffe-Brown and B.Malinowski). Gabriel Almond and J.S Coleman
identified four characteristics of political systems:
1. all political systems have political structures
2. same functions performed with different frequencies and by different kinds of
structures
3. all political structures are multi- functional
4. all political systems are mixed systems: based on the culture which is always a
mixture of modern and traditional.

All political systems must perform a specific set of tasks if they are to remain in existence,
these are the functional requirements of the system. Inputs and outputs recognised by
Easton can be best understood as functions or functional requisites of political system.
Identified four input functions:

political socialisation and recruitment- the process whereby an individual acquires

attitude and orientations towards political phenomena.
Interest articulation: opinions, attitudes, beliefs converted into demands
interest aggregation: divergent interests collated and translated into concrete
demands
political communication: components for political system, individuals, groups and
institutions transmit and receive information regarding functioning of the political
system

The outputs are:

rulemaking (legislature), rule application (executive), rule adjudication (judiciary)
they identified a chief characteristics of development of political system:
structural differentiation: roles more specialised and autonomous
secularisation of culture: dynamic decision-making chosen instead of traditional orientations
and attitudes
Cons:
primarily concerned with systems survival, hence inclined towards conservatism
is not suited for analysis of power relations in society
Western type liberal Democratic system taken as a standard for institution building

Communications Theory:
Karl Deutsch: chief exponent, sought to apply concepts and methods of modern information
technology and physiology of nervous system for analysis of the political system. Also
introduced the techniques of cybernetics (operation of control and communication systems:
biological and man-made machinery) to political analysis.
Communication as a centre of all political activity, Directing the course of its activity.
Problems of communication studied into three context:

communication within the political system

between political system and its environment
between will political systems

analysis of communications involves study of:

structures meant for sending and receiving messages

channels used (capacity, rate of utilisation, rate of flow, amount of lag and gain)
process storage of information
feedback mechanism
codes and languages used
contents of the messages

it is important to distinguish between what goes out from the source and what is received at
the other end (detect distortion).

Decision-making analysis:
it is concerned with analysis of political systems, systems and behaviour in terms of the
decision-making mechanism and functioning. If any departure from rational decision-making
then reason must be investigated and recorded.
Some of the prevailing models are:
identification of variables of stages-Richard Synder and Harold Lasswell
based on analogies between economic and political decision-making involving notions of
maximising advantage from the decision.-Anthony Downs, JM Buchanan and G Tullock.
Game theory which involves quantification of the results of decision strategies in certain
types of competitive situation

Marxian Analysis:
deals with a wide range of social phenomena. Political analysis by proxy. Marxism seeks
abolishing of politics.
Marxist analysis starts with a distinction between base (substructure) and superstructure.
Economic structure of the society (base) is responsible for creating and transforming its
social structure including its legal and political structure, religion and morals. Since the
political system is neither independent not autonomous no useful purpose will be served by
undertaking analysis of political system per se.
In Each stage of historical development society is divided into two antagonistic classes.
Some neo Marxists have realised that superstructure can be made strong to strengthen the
base itself.
Hegemony (based on consent): Antonio Gramsci-a web of beliefs and institutional as well as
social relations. In the capitalist society, family, school, church and other primary is groups
play a leading role in in creating consent which keeps the system going.

Interdisciplinary perspective on political science:

tendency to draw on or contribute to more than one discipline is called interdisciplinary.
Use of history:
history is used as a rich storehouse of data for an understanding and interpretation of
political phenomena
it also gives us not only an account of events but also cause and effect relationships or
rather laws of historical development. This knowledge can be used for understanding the
course of politics in a given situation
John Seeley: 'history with the political science has no fruit; political science without history
has no root!'

Use of Economics:
economics is primarily concerned with analysing the factors which affect human behaviour
in the process of material production, distribution and exchange. It enquires into the factors
which affect decision about investment for use of resources (capital, labour, goods).
However these decisions greatly affected by noneconomic factors such as cultural values,
personality, political needs etc. It started in the 18th-century as political economy which
stood for the study and practice of management of government and the nation. Modern
political economy is the political aspects of economic policy-making saw that the social
policy is economically efficient as well as politically acceptable.

Use of Sociology:
it is chiefly concerned with the behaviour of men in an associative process. It enquires into
how institutions, stabilised systems of expectations and actions fulfil the varying needs of
man in society. The practice of politics involves taking public decisions. Any such decision to
be effective must take into account the social motivations of relevant groups. Hence an
enquiry into value orientations, attitudes, habits, beliefs and prejudices of the people
become indispensable.

Use of Psychology:
it is primarily interested in learning the motives of human behaviour and the causes of
variation in individual and group behaviour. Some actions are the product of man's mental
make-up but some are also shaped by the pattern of man's participation in varying social
situations. Politics involves the formation and expression of public opinions, patterns of
leadership, impact of propaganda and role of mass communication in inculcating political
culture. Social psychology proves helpful in understanding these aspects.

Use of Philosophy:
it is primarily concerned with an enquiry into essence of reality, limits of knowledge, nature
of truth, relation between man and universe, the purpose of universe, the foundations of
morality and beauty and so on.

Concept of the State:

meaning of the state: the contemporary concept of the state owes its origin to Machiavelli
expressed it is 'the power that has authority over men'. Max Webber-'a state is human
community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force with in a given
territory'.

Elements of the state:

Population: the state is a human institution. Population can constitute a state when it is
united by the condition of interdependence, consciousness of common interest, and genral
regard for a set of common rules.
Territory: a state must possess a territory where it's authority is accepted without dispute or
challenge. A state comes into existence only when its population is settled in a fixed
territory.
Government: JW Garner-'government is the agency or machinery through which common
policies are determined and by which common affairs are regulated and common interests
promoted'. The state is an abstract concept but the government is concrete. Authority of the
state is exercised by government. A citizen has to deal with the government. Also
transactions between two states takes place through their respective governments.
Sovereignty:
it denotes the or ultimate power of the state to make laws or take political decisions. It is by
virtue of its sovereignty that a state declares to the agency of the government its laws and
decisions and issues commands that are binding on all citizens, claims obedience thereto,
and punishes the offenders.

The State and other Associations:

State and Society:
society is an association of human beings which fulfils all the needs of life. The state fulfils
the particular needs of political organisation. A society governed by a common set of rules,
regulations and a supreme decision making authority qualifies for being a state.

Society binds men into multifarious relationships-all such relationships do not fall in the
domain of the state.Social relationships can extend beyond the state too.The state depends
on society for its existence. Thus man owes much more to society than to the state.
State and Civil Society:
originally the term 'civil society' was applied synonymously with 'state'. In ancient Rome
Marcus Cicero used it for a society whose members lived together as citizens, abided by civil
laws. John Locke equated civil society with political society. When people relinquish the state
of nature and set up a government for the protection of the natural rights to life, liberty and
property they enter into civil society. GWF Hegel sought to distinguish civil society from the
state which were based in 'universal egoism' and 'universal altruism' respectively. In his view
civil society represented an organisation in which an individual dealt with all other
individuals as means to serve his self-interest. Karl Marx believed that in actual practice civil
society represented the state itself. In contemporary discourse the term civil society is used
to describe the intermediate associations between individual and the state. Its serves as a
channel of communication between them. Civil liberties-legal instruments of protection of
the individual from arbitrary acts of government. These include personal freedom, freedom
of movement, freedom of thought etc.
State and Government:
the state is represented by the government. The government is the administrative organ of
the state. Government commands our obedience; and commands our loyalty. Any theory
this does not provide for a concrete control mechanism over the government is bound to
have disastrous consequences. Idealist theory does not make a distinction between state
and government. The liberal democratic theory demands that the government should be
responsible to the people and should work with the continuous consent of the people.

Rise And Growth of the modern nation-state:

the family was the first institution to emerge from the state of savagery. This brought sense
of attachment, obligation, ordered and security in the life of man. Originally was matrilineal
but later transformed to patriarchal family.
The tribal state:
usually small in size. governed by chief, often assisted by advisory council. Some were
nomadic whereas some settled permanently. Main purpose was the preservation of internal
order and the waging of aggressive or defensive war.
Many authors including Engel, hold that although they had institution of authority they did
not possess characteristics of the state in proper sense.

The Oriental empire:

eventually cities developed (fertile valleys of the Nile, Euphrates, Ganges, yellow River,
Yangtze) which attracted surrounding people belonging to different kinship groups. This was
followed by their conflict and intermingling which eventually resulted in the creation of the
state. This increased prosperity led to development of art of war. Empires of Egypt, Babylon,
India and China were developed. The rulers became supreme along with the class of priests
who became the guardians of religion. the subjects were delegated to slavery and
debasement. Elaborate network of officials was created by the ruling classes to fortify their
authority. But the large size of empires eroded central authority, led to local revolts and
external invasions, and consequent disintegration of the empires.
The Greek City State:
the mountains and the sea divided this area into numerous valleys and Islands. These could
be easily defended, yet because of the sea were not isolated. Small communities settled in
secluded valleys giving rise to city states.
They were free from despotism. The small size provided for closer relations between
government and the citizen. Population divided into citizens and slaves (75%). Prominent
cities were Athens, Sparta, Argos, Attica, Orinth, Thebes. They disintegrated due to mutual
rivalry, frequent internal wars and external invasions (Macedon and Rome).

The Roman World Empire:

situated at the head of navigation of the only important river. Relations of various tribes
were governed by compromise or treaty. Monarchy was replaced by aristocracy of birth and
wealth.
The Feudal State:
after the fall of the Roman Empire central authority was eroded. In the mediaeval age which
began in the fifth century of the Christian era, powers began to be exercised by feudal
chiefs. The King exercised only superficial control as the Lord over the feudal vassals.
The Christian church emerged as another symbol of authority. By the beginning of the 14th
century popes were using the authority arbitrarily. This led to the challenge to power of the
Church and monarchy restored. On the other hand, advent of Industrial Revolution led to an
emergence of new industrial merchant class. All of these factors led to the decline of the
feudal state.
The Modern Nation-State:
with the dissolution of the feudal system and erosion of the authority of the Church, new
individualism appeared which demanded greater freedom for man. This took the form of the
nation-state. Bonds of nationality and language, strengthened by natural boundaries, group
the feudal fragments into more permanent combinations. This process is led to the
emergence of France, Spain, England, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Russia and later
Germany.

The earlier nation states they largely monarchies. But since the 18th century there has been
a slow transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy . The process of
formation of nation states started in Europe as early as the 16th century. But the industrial
revolution led to development of colonies and their exploitation. Hence the 19th-century
Europe is characterised by a strange paradox: a nationstate with liberty, equality and rule of
law at home, and imperialistic exploitation abroad. These colonies gained independence
mostly after the Second World War.
Current crisis of the nation-state:
some communities are scattered over different parts of the world this entertain a sense of
unity on the basis of common race, culture, language, religion and profess national
consciousness on that ground, but are unable to organise themselves as a single state. e.g
the Kurds are scattered over Iran, Iraq, Turkey.
People that have migrated to other countries still are deeply attached to their country of
origin.

Contemporary trends in advanced industrial countries and the Third world:

first world (Western capitalist countries, Japan, Australia and New Zealand; often including
Israel and South Africa)
second world (Communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, led by former Soviet Union)
third world (the newly independent, developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America)
it was non-aligned during the Cold War. After dissolution of second world in 1991, economic
division of the world recognised two broad categories: the developed world and the
developing world also identified as the North-South divide.

Trends in advanced industrial countries:

Western writers-the course of development in the advanced industrial countries is determine
by the level of their industrialisation and modernisation and not by their ideological
commitment. This meant that the Western world and the Communist states would follow a
similar course of development. James Burnham -the rise of a new class of managers was
common to all economies. This symbolised the shift of power from the legal owner of the
means of production to the effective manager.
Several economists argued that economic growth constitutes a uniform process involving
definite stages of growth in all industrial economies irrespective of their adherence to
diverse political ideologies. WW Rostow, JK Galbraith, Simon Kuznet in 1960s postulated
similar patterns of development.
Post-industrial society-developed by Daniel Bell. Character of social-economic organisation
of a country the advanced stage of industrial development is determined by the level of its

industrial development and not by the prevailing ideology. The difference between and
industrial society are:
in industrial society, Corporation is the chief economic and social institution, work is machine
oriented. Whereas in a post-industrial society, Corporation has a less central place, work
relations are more people oriented, and a majority of labour force works in service rather
than industry.
Trends in the Third world:
the developing countries situated in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Politically non-aligned
during cold War. But now economically linked with the developed world due to globalisation.
Some countries had adopted socialist path without aligning with the second world. At the
end of cold War Albania, Yugoslavia, Mongolia and Yemen relinquished socialism whereas
China, Vietnam, North Korea and Cuba retained socialist systems with a more liberal outlook.
Willy Brandt commission, entitled North-South: a programme of survival drew distinction
between the two hemispheres. Technically however this division was found in correct. A
large number of the third world countries came under military rule because of their political,
administrative and economic instability.
Status of Civil Society:
it is now regarded as an important organ of democratic society. It includes a wide range of
associations and social movements which provide ample opportunities to the citizens to
develop their capacities and express their interests and diverse identities. Loose
organisation of citizens. No legal authority but moral authority. No definite source of income,
needs to create by mobilising subscriptions, grants and donations.

Concept of Sovereignty: Latin word 'superanus' meaning supreme.

JW Garner: defined sovereignty as 'characteristic of the state in virtue of which it can not be
legally bound except by its own will or limited by any other power than itself.'It attributes
supreme power to the will of the sovereign, it is by nature an absolute, unlimited and
perpetual power. Its not arbitrary and can not be exercised without reason.

Historical development:
in ancient days Aristotle talked of supreme power located in different bodies but the power
of the ruler limited by the law which existed above him. In the Middle Ages power of the king
limited by the feudal lords and the Pope. After the Crusades and rise of commerce and trade
the control of the feudal lords and the Pope diminished thus paving the way for the king to
be the supreme ruler.
Jean Bodin (1530-96): held Henry 3 in high esteem. Defined sovereignty as 'the absolute and
perpetual power of commanding in a state', as the 'supreme power over citizens and
subjects unrestrained by law'. This was a significant departure from the Medieval outlook
where law was conceived as part of universe and the King, councils under the law. The state

as source of law was alien to them. The sovereign was above the law but not above duty and
moral responsibility. Two important limitations on the powers of the sovereign: a) the
sovereign could not lawfully abrogate fundamental laws (Salic law of France, which excluded
females from dynastic succession) b) sovereign could not tax the subjects without their
consent.

Hugo Grotius (1583-1645):

A Dutch jurist, father of international law. Brought out the implications of sovereignty of the
state in the international sphere. i.e independence of the sovereign state from foreign
control. Two distinct foundations for international:
nations are subject to natural law in the same manner as citizens
he recognised a 'voluntary' law of nations based upon the free consent, whether explicit as
expressed treaties or implicit as expressed in usages and customs.
Introduced the idea of external sovereignty to the existing idea of internal sovereignty.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679):

as men emerged from the state of nature (characterised by the Jungle Law) and form a
state to attain order, peace and security, they create a sovereign and surrender their natural
rights to it. The surrender is complete, final and irrevocable. Defying the authority would
mean reversion to the state of nature. He added legitimacy to the authority of the sovereign
by a) sovereign is the product of the will of the people and b) it enjoys it supreme authority
for its functional value, by its virtue of providing order, peace and security.

John Locke (1632-1704):

the supreme power held by the people. The natural rights of life, liberty and property were
retained by the people and the state was created for the protection of these vital rights.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78):
introduced doctrine of popular sovereignty. The social contract was concluded between the
people in their individual capacity on the one hand, and the people in their corporate
capacity on the other. Therefore sovereignty is retained by the people themselves in their
corporate capacity, represented by the general will, while their actual will is subordinated to
their real will. i.e sovereignty belongs to the people and government an agent of the general
will which reigns supreme.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832):

sovereignty not limited by law, but subject to moral limitations. Sovereign should justify his
authority by useful legislation with the object of greatest happiness of the greatest numbers.
John Austin: (1790-1859)
introduced positive law which expressed the will of the legal sovereign and hence not bound
by the dictates of natural law or any other superior law. Disobedience led to punishment.
The characteristics of law: a) must emanate from a determinate source i.e. the sovereign,
located in the state. b) must be the expression of the command of the sovereign. c) must be
backed by sanctions. Natural law or superior law don't not have these characteristics. In
case of conflict with any natural or superior law, the positive law must prevail. Thus giving
the sovereign supremacy of power, a monistic view of law, state and sovereignty.
Characteristics of Sovereignty:
Absoluteness: the of the sovereign reigns supreme in the state. He is not responsible with
the authority. Also he may pay due regard to international law by his free consent.
Permanence: it is the corollary of its absoluteness. Bodin 'if power be held only for a certain
time it is not sovereign power'. Government maybe formed and dissolved but the State
remains unaffected.
Universality:
it extends to all individuals, groups, area and things within the jurisdiction of the state.
Immunity or ex-territoriality is because of its free consent and not due to any external
obligation or restriction. International associations and multinationals operating within the
state are subject to the sovereignty.
Inalienability:
sovereignty cannot be transferred or given away without destroying the state itself. It is
replaced by another state.
Indivisibility:
sovereignty cannot be divided between or shared by different sets of individuals or groups.
The principle of federal state an exception. It involves allocation of powers between the
federal government and state government. Similarly in India the subjects of legislation are
divided into the union list, state list, concurrent list. Unitary and Federal are forms of
government, not forms of the state.
Aspects of sovereignty:
Titular sovereignty: in constitutional monarchies such as England, Japan
de jure and de facto sovereignty: in case of revolutions the overthrown (legal sovereign)
government is said to retain de jure sovereignty whereas the actual sovereign is
characterised by de facto sovereignty. This is temporary until they evolve suitable means to
legitimise their authority.

Popular sovereignty: it regards people as the source of all authority in the state. People
themselves the best judges of right and wrong.
Historical development:
Marcus Tullius, Cicero (106 -43 BC): a Roman philosopher postulated that the ultimate source
of political authority may be traced to the aggregate people of a state.
Marsiglio of Padua (1275-1343): an Italian philosopher tried to prove that papacy and clergy
should submit themselves to the whole of people. Priesthood should be confined to
Administration of sacraments and teachings of divine law, but even these functions should
be regulated and controlled by the elected government.
Johannes Althusius (1557-1638): a German jurist conceived sovereignty as, the supreme
power of performing those acts which are necessary for the material and spiritual benefit of
the members of a state. Since people cannot perform these functions directly, they delegate
to their representatives.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau regarded chief exponent of this doctrine.