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Silicon is the most important semiconductor in todays electronics

|SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

200 mm and 300 mm Si wafers.

|SOURCE: Courtesy of MEMC, Electronic Materials,
Inc.

GaAs ingots and wafers.

GaAs is used in high speed
electronic devices, and
optoelectronics.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of Sumitomo Electric
Industries, Ltd.

hyb orbitals

Si crystal in 2-D

Electron energy
Ec +

Valence
electron

CONDUCTION
BAND (CB)
Empty of electrons
at 0 K.

Ec
B

Bandgap = Eg
Ev
VALENCE BAND
(VB)
Full of electrons
at 0 K.

Si ion core
(+4e)
0

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) A simplified two dimensional illustration of a Si atom with four hybrid

orbitals, hyb. Each orbital has one electron. (b) A simplified two dimensional
view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent bonds. (c) The energy band
diagram at absolute zero of temperature.

Fig 5.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

A two dimensional pictorial view of the Si crystal showing covalent

bonds as two lines where each line is a valence electron.
Fig 5.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron energy
Ec+
CB
Ec
h > Eg
Ev

Free e-

Eg
Hole

hole

e-

VB
0

(a)

(b)

(a) A photon with an energy greater than Eg can excite an electron from the VB to the
CB. (b) When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, a free electron and a hole in the Si-Si bond
is created.
Fig 5.3

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

eh+

Thermal vibrations of atoms can break bonds and thereby create electronhole pairs.
Fig 5.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a)

CB

Eg

(d)

VB

(b)

(e)

(c)

A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of electrons
from neighboring bonds.
Fig 5.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(f)

Ex

Hole energy

(a)

Electron Energy

V(x)

Electrostatic PE(x)

Ex
CB
CB

(b)
VB
VB

x
x=0

x=L

When an electric field is applied, electrons in the CB and holes in the

VB can drift and contribute to the conductivity. (a) A simplified
illustration of drift in Ex. (b) Applied field bends the energy bands
since the electrostatic PE of the electron is -eV(x) and V(x) decreases in
the direction of Ex whereas PE increases.
Fig 5.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

E g(E)

E c+

(E-Ec)1/2

[1- f(E)]

CB

For electrons

Area = n

Ec

Ec

nE(E)

EF

EF

Ev

Ev
For holes

VB
0
(a)

g(E)
(b)

f(E)
(c)

pE(E)
Area = p

nE(E) or pE(E)
(d)

(a) Energy band diagram. (b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy
per unit volume). (c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy
of a state). (d) The product of g(E) and f(E) is the energy density of electrons in
the CB (number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under
nE(E) vs. E is the electron concentration in the conduction band.
Fig 5.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

CB
Ec
EFi
Ev

Ec
EFn

Ec

Ev

EFp
Ev

VB

(a)

(b)

(c)

Energy band diagrams for (a) intrinsic (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors. In all cases, np = ni2
Fig 5.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

As+
e-

Arsenic doped Si crystal. The four valence electrons of As allow it to

bond just like Si but the fifth electron is left orbiting the As site. The
energy required to release to free fifth-electron into the CB is very
small.
Fig 5.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron Energy

CB
Ec
~0.03 eV
Ed

As+

As+

As+

As+

Ev
As atomsites every 106 Si atoms

x Distance
into
crystal

Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm As. There are donor
energy levels just below Ec around As+ sites.
Fig 5.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

h+

B-

B-

Free

(a)

(b)

Boron doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons. When it

substitutes for a Si atom one of its bonds has an electron missing and
therefore a hole as shown in (a). The hole orbits around the B- site by
the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds as shown in (b).
Eventually, thermally vibrating Si atoms provides enough energy to
free the hole from the B- site into the VB as shown.
Fig 5.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron energy
B atom sites every 106 Si atoms

x Distance

Ec

into crystal

B-

Ea

B-

B-

B~ 0.05eV

h+
Ev

VB

Energy band diagramfor a p-type Si doped with 1 ppmB. There are

acceptor energy levels just above Ev around B- sites. These acceptor
levels accept electrons fromthe VB and therefore create holes in the VB.
Fig 5.12
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

V(x)
x
Electrostatic PE(x) = -eV

Electron Energy
Ex

Ec
Ed
EF

EFi

Ev
n-Type Semiconductor
A

B
V

Energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor connected to a

voltage supply of V volts. The whole energy diagram tilts because the
electron now has an electrostatic potential energy as well

Fig 5.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

T < Ts

Ts < T < Ti

T > Ti

CB
EF
As+ As

As

Eg

As

+
+
EF As As+ As+ As

EF

As+ As+ As+ As+

VB

(a)T=T1

(b)T=T2

(c)T=T3

(a) Below Ts, the electron concentration is controlled by the ionization of

the donors. (b) Between Ts and Ti, the electron concentration is equal to
the concentration of donors since they would all have ionized. (c) At high
temperatures, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the
number of electrons from ionized donors and the semiconductor behaves
as if intrinsic.
Fig 5.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

ln(n)
INTRINSIC
slope = -Eg/2k

ln(Nd)

EXTRINSIC

Ts

IONIZATION
slope = E/2k

Ti
ni(T)

1/T

The temperature dependence of the electron concentration in an n-type

semiconductor.
Fig 5.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

600oC 400oC
L

200oC

27oC 0oC

Intrinsic Concentration (cm-3)

1018

2.41013 cm-3
1015

Ge
1012

1.451010 cm-3

109

Si
106

2.1106 cm-3

GaAs
103

1.5

2.5
3.5
3
4
1000/T (1/K)
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic concentration.
2

Fig 5.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

e-

KE = 1/2mev2

KE > |PE|
KE |PE|

rc
As+
KE < |PE|

Scattering of electrons by an ionized impurity

Fig 5.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron Drift Mobility(cm2 V-1s-1)

50000

LT -1.5

10000

Nd

=1014

Ge
Nd =1013

Nd =1016
Nd =1017

1000

Nd =1018
100

Nd

Si

=1019

T1.5

10
70

100

Temperature (K)

800

Log-log plot of drift mobility vs temperature for n-type Ge and n-type

Si samples. Various donor concentrations for Si are shown. Nd are in
cm-3. The upper right inset is the simple theory for lattice limited
mobility whereas the lower left inset is the simple theory for impurity
scattering limited mobility.
Fig 5.18

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Drift Mobility(cm2 V-1s-1)

2000
1000

Holes

Electrons

100
50
1015

1016

1017

1018

1019

1020

Dopant Concentration, cm-3

The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration in Si for
electrons and holes
Fig 5.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

INTRINSIC

Resistivity

LOGARITHMIC SCALE

log( )

Semiconductor

Metal

log(n)

EXTRINSIC
Lattice
scattering

IONIZATION
T

log( )

-3/2

3/2

T
Impurity
scattering

1/T

High Temperature

Low Temperature

Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity for a doped (ntype) semiconductor.

Fig 5.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

E
Impurities
forming
a band
g(E)

CB

CB

EFn
Ec

Ec
Ev
EFp

Ev

VB
(a)

(b)

(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors form a

band that overlaps the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.
Fig 5.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy
CB
Ec

cb(kcb)

h = Eg

vb(kvb)
Ev

VB

Distance

Direct recombination in GaAs. kcb = kvb so that momentum conservation

is satisfied
Fig 5.22
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

CB
Ec
Er
Ev

Er

Er

Phonons

Recombination
center

VB

(a) Recombination
CB
Ec

Ev

Et

Et

Et

Trapping
center

VB

(b) Trapping
Recombination and trapping. (a) Recombination in Si via a recombination center which has a localized
energy level at Er in the bandgap, usually near the middle. (b) Trapping and detrapping of electrons by
trapping centers. A trapping center has a localized energy level in the band gap.
Fig 5.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

CB
Ec
Ed

Ev
VB
Low level photoinjection into an n-type semiconductor in which
nn < nno
Fig 5.24

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Low level injection in an n-type semiconductor does not affect

nn but drastically affects the minority carrier concentration pn.
Fig 5.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Illumination

A
-

- + - -- - - - + - - - --

+
-

- + - + + +- + - - + -+ - + - + - - + - - + +
- +
- + - - - + -+ +
-

n-type semiconductor in Illumination with

h >Eg
the dark.
creates excess holes:
pn = pno<< nno
pn = pno+pn = nn

C
- - + - - - + - - - - + + - +
- - +
- + - - - + -+

+
-

In dark after
illumination. Excess
holes are disappearing
by recombination.

Illumination of an n-type semiconductor results in excess electron

and hole concentrations. After the illumination, the recombination
process restores equilibrium; the excess electrons and holes simply
recombine.
Fig 5.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

G and pn(t)
Gph
Illumination

0
pno+pn()

pn(t') = pn(0)exp(-t'/h)

hGph
pno
toff

Time, t
t'

Illumination is switched on at time t = 0 and then off at t = toff. The excess

minority carrier concentration, pn(t) rises exponentially to its steady
state value with a time constant h. From toff, the excess minority carrier
concentration decays exponentially to its equilibrium value.
Fig 5.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Light

D
L

W
V

Iph

A semiconductor slab of length L, width W and depth D is illuminated

with light of wavelength . Iph is the steady state photocurrent.

Fig 5.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

n(x,t)

Net electron diffusion flux

Electric current

n1

n(x,t)

n2

xo
xo-l

xo+l
(a)

xo -l

xo

xo +l

(b)

(a) Arbitrary electron concentration n(x,t) profile in a semiconductor. There

is a net diffusion (flux) of electrons from higher to lower concentrations. (b)
Expanded view of two adjacent sections at xo. There are more electrons
crossing xo coming from left (xo-l) than coming from right (xo+l).
Fig 5.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

p(x,t)

Net hole diffusion flux

Electric current

xo-l

xo

x
x o+ l

Arbitrary hole concentration p(x,t) profile in a semiconductor. There

is a net diffusion (flux) of holes from higher to lower concentrations.
There are more holes crossing xo coming from left (xo-l ) than
coming from right (xo+l ).
Fig 5.30

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Semitransparent electrode
n-Type Semiconductor
Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift

Light

Hole Diffusion
Hole Drift

Ex

When there is an electric field and also a concentration gradient, charge

carriers move both by diffusion and drift. (Ex is the electric field.)
Fig 5.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Exposed
As+ Donor

n2

Vo
Ex

n1

Diffusion Flux
Drift
Net current = 0
Non-uniform doping profile results in electron diffusion towards the less
concentrated regions. This exposes positively charged donors and sets up a
built-in field Ex . In the steady state, the diffusion of electrons towards the
right is balanced by their drift towards the left.
Fig 5.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

p(x,t)

Semiconductor
z

Jh + Jh

Jh

x+x

A
y
x

Consider an elemental volume Ax in which the hole concentration is p(x,t)

Fig 5.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

xo

n-type semiconductor

Light

Currents (mA)

Excess concentration

pn(0)
nn(0)

4
pn(x)

Diffusion
Drift

ID,h

Idrift,e

Diffusion

nn(x)
x

ID,e
0

(a)

20

x (m)

40
(b)

60

80

(a) Steady state excess carrier concentration profiles in an n-type

semiconductor that is continuously illuminated at one end. (b)
Majority and minority carrier current components in open circuit.
Total current is zero.
Fig 5.34

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

E c +

CB
Thermalization

Large h

3kT
2

Ec
Eg

h Eg

Ev

VB
Optical absorption generates electron hole pairs. Energetic electrons must
loose their excess energy to lattice vibrations until their average energy is
(3/2)kT in the conduction band.
Fig 5.35
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Semiconductor

Io

Photon flux in

Photon flux out

I(x)

I(x) - I

Absorption of photons within a small elemental volume of width x.

Fig 5.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

 (1/micron)

1000

Vacuum

100

hB
A

CB
Photon

GaAs

10

h A

Si

0.1

VB

0.01

g(E)

0.001
0

2
3
4
5
Photon energy (eV)

The absorption coefficient depends on the photon energy h

and hence on the wavelength. Density of states increases from
band edges and usually exhibits peaks and troughs. Generally
increases with the photon energy greater than Eg because more
energetic photons can excite electrons from populated regions
of the VB to numerous available states deep in the CB.
Fig 5.37
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Longitudinal direction

Current flow
along length

Transverse
direction

T
V

Stress

T
Transverse
stress

L
Longitudinal
stress

Semiconductor

(a)

(b)

Piezoresistor
Force, F

Support

(c)
Si
Cantilever

Piezoresistivity and its applications. (a) Stress m along the current (longitudinal) direction
changes the resitivity by . (b) Stresses L and T cause a resisitivity change. (c) Aforce
applied to a cantilever bends it. Apiezoresistor at the support end (where the stress is large)
measures the stress, which is proportional to the force

Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Pressure
Piezoresistor
Diaphragm

Si

Cross section
Diaphragm

R2

(d)

R1

R3
R4

Piezoresistor

(d) Apressure sensor has four

piezoresistors R1, R2, R3, R4
embedded in a diaphragm. The
pressures bends the diaphragm, which
generates stresses that are sensed by
the four piezoresistors.

Top view
Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Vo
Eo

Neutral
semiconductor
region

Metal
Depletion region
Vacuum
level

W
Metal

m- n

n-Type Semiconductor

EFm

CB
Ec
EFn

m - n= eVo
EFm

Ev

Ec
EFn
Ev

VB

Before contact

CB

VB
After contact

Formation of a Schottky junction between a metal and an n-type semiconductor

when m > n.
Fig 5.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Vr
I

Metal

n-Type Semiconductor

e(Vo-V)

CB
Ec

e(Vo+Vr)

CB
Ec

Ev

Ev

VB

VB

(a) Forward biased Schottky

junction. Electrons in the CB of the
semiconductor can readily
overcome the small PE barrier to
enter the metal.

(b) Reverse biased Schottky junction.

Electrons in the metal can not easily
overcome the PE barrier B to enter the
semiconductor.

1 mA
1 A

V
10 A

0.2 V

(c) I-V Characteristics of a

Schottky junction exhibits
rectifying properties (negative
current axis is in microamps)

The Schottky junction.

Fig 5.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

h >Eg

Depletion Neutral n-type semiconductor

Metal region region
W

CB
Ec

EFm

Ev
VB
Vo
Eo

External Load

The principle of the Schottky junction solar cell.

Fig 5.41
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

h >Eg

Vo+Vr
E >> Eo

iphoto
Metal

W
Vr

n-Si
Sampling
Resistor, R

Reverse biased Schottky photodiodes are frequently used as fast

photodetectors.
Fig 5.42
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Accumulation Region
Ohmic Contact
m

EFm

CB

CB

Ec
EFn

Metal

Bulk Semiconductor

Ec
EFn

EFm

Ev

Ev

VB

VB

n-type Semiconductor

Before Contact

Metal

n-type Semiconductor

After Contact

When a metal with a smaller workfunction than an n-type semiconductor are

put into contact, the resulting junction is an ohmic contact in the sense that it
does not limit the current flow.
Fig 5.43
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a)

(b)

I
Q

I
CB

Q
Ec
EFn

EFm

Metal

CB
Ec
EFn

EFm

VB

VB

Ohmic Contact
Region

Ohmic Contact
Region
Metal

n-Type Semiconductor

n-Type Semiconductor

(a) Current from an n-type semiconductor to the metal results in heat

absorption at the junction. (b) Current from the metal to an n-type
semiconductor results in heat release at the junction.
Fig 5.44
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

When a dc current is passed through a semiconductor to which metal contacts have

been made, one junction absorbs heat and cools (the cold junction) and the other
releases heat and warms (the hot junction).
Fig 5.45
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Cross section of a typical thermoelectric cooler.

Fig 5.46
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Typical structure of a commercial thermoelectric cooler.

Fig 5.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fig 5.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

PE(r)
PE of the electron around
an isolated atom

When N atoms are

arranged to form the
crystal then there is an
overlap of individual
electron PE functions.

V(x)
a

PE of the electron, V(x),

inside the crystal is
periodic with a period a.

x
x=0
Surface

2a

3a

Crystal

x=L
Surface

The electron PE, V(x), inside the crsytal is periodic with the same
periodicity as that of the crystal, a. Far away outside the crsytal, by
choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
Fig 5.48
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The E-k Diagram

Ek

The Energy Band

Diagram
CB

CB

Empty k

e-

e-

Ec

Ec
h

Eg
h+

VB

Ev

Ev
Occupied k

h+

VB
-/a

/a

The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as GaAs. The E-k
curve consists of many discrete points each point corresponding to a possible
state, wavefunction y k(x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal. The points are
so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous curve. In
the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points (yk(x) solutions).
Fig 5.49
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

CB

Indirect Band Gap, Eg

Ec

Direct Band Gap Eg

CB

Photon

Ev

kcb

VB

VB

-k
(a) GaAs

k -k
E

kvb

Ec
Ev
k

(b) Si

CB

Er

Ec

Phonons
Ev

VB

-k

k
(c) Si with a recombination center

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is therefore a direct band gap
semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect band
gap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center.
Fig 5.50
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

CB

CB

Lattice
scattering

Lattice
scattering

k1-

k-

k+

-k
-x

kav = 0

-k

-x

(a)

k3+
k
k1+ 2+

k
kav > 0

(b)

(a) In the absence of a field, over a long time, average of all k values is
zero, there is no net momentum in any one particular direction. (b) In
the presence of a field E in the -x direction, the electron accelerates in
the +x direction increasing its k value along x until it is scattered to a
random k value. Over a long time, average of all k values is along the
+x direction. Thus the electron drifts along +x.
Fig 5.51
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

E
Ev

b'

(a)

VB

-k

b'
(b)

VB

-k

(a) In a full valence band there is no net contribution to the current.

There are equal numbers of electrons (e.g. at b and b') with
opposite momenta. (b) If there is an empty state (hole) at b at the
top of the band then the electron at b' contributes to the current.
Fig 5.52
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

extended
x

Ec

localized

CB

Extended states

Tail states
Localized states

Envelope
x

Mobility
gap

Defects

localized
x

Tail states

Ev

Extended states
VB

Schematic representation of the density of states g(E) vs. energy E for

an amorphous semiconductor and the associated electron
wavefunctions for an electron in the extended and localized states.
Fig 5.53
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

g(E)

The GaAs crystal structure in two dimensions. Average number of valence

electrons per atom is four. Each Ga atom covalently bonds with four neighboring
As atoms and vice versa.
Fig 5.54
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

In the presence of a temperature gradient, there is an internal field and a voltage

difference. The Seebeck coefficient is defined as dV/dT, the potential difference per unit
temperature difference.
Fig 5.55
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)