International Symposium on Performance Science

ISBN 978-2-9601378-0-4

The Author 2013, Published by the AEC

All rights reserved

A sustainable playing technique for piano

performance: Movement science and
implications for curricula
Barbara James and Margaret Cook
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia

A sustainable technique is required for longevity in performing. However, factors in the music environment such as heavy action keyboards
and repertoire with repetitive movements at high tempi and sound levels
predispose body tissues to injury. A century ago, music pedagogues realized economy of muscle use was needed for an efficient technique and
proposed theoretical concepts to take advantage, wherever possible, of
the natural mechanical laws such as the ever-present gravity and rotational arm movement. Despite these hypotheses and recent empirical research demonstrating the value of using arm weight and forearm rotation, relevant significant findings proving their role in economic movement lack application generally to curricula, resulting in an ongoing high
injury rate among pianists. Movement sciences are important in the
analysis of technique and injury, thus this paper explores their application to piano playing, focusing on neural processes producing movement
and structural and mechanical limitations of body tissues, plus the potential of mechanical laws. Implications are discussed for warming-up
before playing, training children in technique methods, and employing
music ergonomics as a model for teaching at graduate and post-graduate
levels to cater to performers, teachers (and their professional development), researchers, and applied science writers.
Keywords: efficient piano technique; music curriculum; motor learning;
injury prevention; music ergonomics

Piano performance must have an underpinning efficient technique created by

natural movement, emanating from a highly organized neuromuscular system
(MS) with a complex control mechanism. Comprehending technique delivery
requires a multi-disciplinary approach incorporating the movement sciences

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(MacKie 2007). Playing technique changed over time with newer approaches
needed for adaptations in the pianoforte action, larger concert spaces, demands on performer-composer piano virtuosos by an avid musical public,
and more numerous competitions. Newer approaches pioneered a century
ago (e.g. Matthay 1903) included the use of whole-arm action, not just hand
and fingers, termed use of arm weight, leading to the concept of efficiency
with economic muscle use. Following was the proposal that rotational forearm movement aided efficiency by placing the fingers in a strategic position
to play (Bernstein 1967). Technique must be sustainable while performing to
prevent fatigue, and daily hours of practice over the years also makes it vital
in the long-term. However, the reality is that many pianists experience pain
while they play, or suffer injuries (Zaza 1998) with complex causal factors
such as repetitive movements of the forearm-hand and static postures involving neck and upper back flexion. Despite earlier theoretical concepts and
recent empirical research delivering new awareness of the potential of the
neural and MS systems to generate motor skills, a lack of application to curricula has allowed growth in quasi-scientific approaches and techniques.
This paper reviews neurological and bio-physiological systems by assessing
their application to playing technique and injury processes.
MAIN CONTRIBUTION
Neurological processes
Neurological processes are central to music interpretation by the brain, which
communicates with the MS to execute movement leading to the development
of motor skills facilitating the playing action. Brain structures are plastic,
responding to environmental changes and music tasks by enlarging several
areas including: the corpus callosum, joining both hemispheres for information exchange; the cerebellum, controlling balance and timing; the auditory cortex, monitoring tone, timbre, and phrasing of notes; and the motor
cortex, with the hand-area exhibiting little difference between hands (Altenmuller and Gruhn 2002). Changes are optimized if music training begins
before eight years. Technique is gradually automated through integration of
motor, somatosensory, and auditory areas of the brain (Jabusch et al. 2009).
Developing motor patterns relies on perception via sensory faculties including: (1) audition, always necessary to control the mentally imaged-sound
through an ear-fingers feedback loop triggering a sound that influences the
next sound; (2) proprioceptors in all MS tissues, working with audition and
vision sense the position, orientation, and ongoing movement; (3) the tactile
sense responsible for touch and later reproduction also relies on audition;

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and (4) vision, which is important early for hand-eye coordination but then
declines with greater reliance on proprioception, audition, and touch. Understanding the role of sensory faculties helps in planning practice for gradual
skill acquisition.
Biophysiological structures, functions, and mechanics
The architecture, movement potential, and limitations of the MS are central
to producing economic movement, as it is more efficient to use body segments and tissues according to their design. The upper limb tapers distally
with largest muscles situated proximally, and is constructed of linking segments from sternum to fingertips which act as a kinetic chain (Furuya et al.
2009) with energy produced by larger proximal muscles and transferred distally. Proprioceptors transfer information from movement-generating and
transmitting tissues for ongoing motion.
Skeletal structures
Bones and joints are critical to technique because movement direction and
path shape are delineated by joints enveloping paired bones connected by
ligaments, and bone architecture influences how force is delivered in the
playing action. It also determines how movement paths are curved because:
(1) most joints act as lever systems with arms similar to a compass; (2) horizontal trajectory movement stems from the hand following a curvilinear path;
and (3) the forearm rotates round an imaginary longitudinal axis with the
long bones (radius and ulna) crossing each other to produce different playing
positions for the wrist/hand. The hand maintains a pronated playing position
producing elbow lateral rotation through upper arm lateral movement, facilitating the anti-clockwise rotation of the forearm. The architecture of the hand
bones supported and strengthened by three arches means the hand can shape
itself with curved MP joints, little finger and thumb under and fingers curved
(the close hand), allowing larger and rapid force transmission. Curved fingers
on the keys have relatively equal length and produce faster playing.
Muscle structure and composition
Muscles provide the internal energy necessary for movement, and they vary
in size, shape, and function, giving different endurance qualities. Muscles
have different proportions of fiber type with fast twitch fibers more plentiful
in small muscles designed to generate short bursts of strength or speed. However, they fatigue faster than slow twitch fibers which use oxygen for energy

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and are more numerous in large muscles, making them more efficient in
prolonged use. In addition, tolerance to muscular fatigue increases with muscle cross-sectional area (Herzog 2000) so, functionally, larger proximal muscles are best to generate and transfer energy to smaller muscles such as those
operating the fingers.
Connective tissues
Support, strength, and elasticity for greater flexibility are offered by connective tissues located around individual and bundled muscle fibers and in joint
capsules, tendons, and ligaments. The mechanics of MS structures are affected by increasing core body temperature which amplifies blood flow to the
MS and brain, oxygen delivery, muscle contractile properties, and joint flexibility (Sapega 1981).
Biomechanics
Understanding the natural physical laws is valuable because neuroscience
researchers have confirmed the significance of their strategic use to increase
muscle efficiency. Vertical downward movements are assisted by gravity,
making possible the downswing from above the keyboard with relaxed muscles, similarly with trajectory landings (Furuya et al. 2009), and having
curved fingers to strike keys (Kuo et al. 2006). A longer downswing increases
acceleration rate producing greater momentum and impact force for key depression energy, so important in playing because pianists automatically modulate force to vary loudness and tone timbre. Maximum force is conveyed
with the last finger joint vertically shortening force transfer time and aiding
loud, fast playing. Fast delivery returns a larger reaction force for a rebound
movement to lift the forearm. Conversely, extended fingers are required for
cantabile playing through longer force transmission time attenuating the
sound (Furuya et al. 2010).
Rotational paths are produced by lever systems formed by pairs of long
bones as lever arms with joints acting as fulcrums. For the elbow, the distal
forearm provides the resistance, upper-arm muscles the force to move the
forearm, and the close hand reduces the forearm resistance, so decreasing
muscular energy moving the hand (Furuya and Kinoshita 2008).
Momentum is transferred via the kinetic chain from proximal muscles decreasing energy from hand-forearm muscles (Furuya and Kinoshita 2008).
The multi-joint arm kinetic chain involves wave motion with the translation
of proximal muscle energy, with momentum increased additively at each joint
increasing final finger force shown by the proximal-distal temporal organiza-

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tion (Furuya et al. 2011). Forearm angular rotation round an imaginary longitudinal axis is produced by elbow-spanning muscles which generate the
muscular energy to produce rotational velocity. The close hand lessens the
wrist load and vertical final finger joints deliver more force to the key(s) (Furuya and Kinoshita 2008) and reduce the radius of rotation, optimizing the
rotational velocity for increased tempo and sound (Furuya et al. 2011).
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The evidence supports using arm weight and forearm rotation to increase
physiological efficiency, implying that pianists must develop motor skills to
relax muscles during downward movement for gravitational action to take
over, and to use whole-arm action to transfer muscular energy from proximal
muscles. As all natural movements are curved, advantage must be taken of
rotational movement where possible because linear movement requires muscular control to vary the natural movement path. The elastic energy storage
capacity of the muscle-tendon unit means slightly stretched muscles contract
faster with implications for elbow posture at an 80-degree joint angle which
produces the most efficient movement. As piano technique involves repetitive
continuous movement, a warm-up should precede practice to increase MS
efficiency and reduce injury potential (James 2012) with periods of silent
score rehearsal and analysis to separate those of playing activity (Bravo and
Fine 2009). To maximize musical brain structure potential, specialist pedagogy for children is necessary with training methods planned with consideration of maturation of sensory faculties and body dimensions. Motor skills
must be developed early to use a relaxed downswing which children learn
easily (Furuya et al. 2009), plus forearm rotation with close hand posture.
Music students themselves need movement analysis competence for their
futures as (1) professional pianists or teachers understanding technique and
injury mechanism, (2) specialist researchers in particular sub-disciplines, and
(3) music generalists integrating science and technique to inform the music
fraternity. Music ergonomics, the science of fitting technique to body tissue
potential and limitations, could encompass knowledge for comprehending
playing action from all perspectives.
Address for correspondence
Margaret Cook, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane
4067, Queensland, Australia; Email: m.cook4@uq.edu.au

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