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The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the most important and commonly used types of RF
antenna.
The dipole aerial or antenna is widely used on its own, but it is also incorporated into many other RF
antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the overall antenna.
The dipole is a simple antenna to construct and use, and many of the calculations are quite
straightforward. However like all other antennas, the in-depth calculations are considerably more
complicated.
Although the half wavelength dipole antenna is the most popular, a variety of other formats are also
available.
Dipole types
The dipole antenna consists of two conductive elements such as metal wires or rods which are fed by a
signal source or feed energy that has been picked up to a receiver. The energy may be transferred to
and from the dipole antenna either directly straight into a from the electronic instrument, or it may be
transferred some distance using a feeder. This leaves considerable room for a variety of different
antenna formats.
Although the dipole antenna is often though in its half wave format, there are nevertheless many forms
of the antenna that can be used.
Half wave dipole antenna: The half wave dipole antenna is the one that is most widely used .
Being half a wavelength long it is a resonant antenna. Read more about the Half wave dipole
Multiple half waves dipole antenna: It is possible to utilise a dipole antenna or aerial that is
an odd multiple of half wavelengths long.
Folded dipole antenna: As the name implies this form of the dipole aerial or dipole antenna is
folded back on itself. While still retaining the length between the ends of half a wavelength, an
additional length of conductor effectively connects the two ends together. Read more about
the Folded-dipole
Short dipole: A short dipole antenna is one where the length is much shorter than that of half a
wavelength. Where a dipole antenna is shorter than half a wavelength, the feed impedance
starts to rise and its response is less dependent upon frequency changes. Its length also
becomes smaller and this has many advantages. It is found that the current profile of the
antenna approximately a triangular distribution.Read more about the Short-dipole
Non-resonant dipole: A dipole antenna may be operated away from its resonant frequency
and fed with a high impedance feeder. This enables it to operate over a much wider bandwidth.
Most dipoles tend to be multiples of half wavelengths long. It is therefore possible to feed the dipole at
any one of these voltage minimum or current maximum points which occur at a point that is a quarter
wavelength from the end, and then at half wavelength intervals.
The basic half wave dipole antenna with centre feed point
The dipole feed impedance is made up from two constituents:
Loss resistance:
The loss resistance results from the resistive or Ohmic losses within the
radiating element, i.e. the dipole. In many cases the dipole loss resistance is ignored as it may
be low. To ensure that it is low, sufficiently thick cable or piping should be used, and the metal
should have a low resistance. Skin effects may also need to be considered.
Radiation resistance:
impedance that results from the power being "dissipated" as an electromagnetic wave. The aim
of any antenna is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible.
As with any RF antenna, the feed impedance of a dipole antenna is dependent upon a variety of factors
including the length, the feed position, the environment and the like. A half wave centre fed dipole
antenna in free space has an impedance 73.13 ohms making it ideal to feed with 75 ohm feeder.
element may fall to ten ohms or less, and methods need to be used to ensure a good match is
maintained with the feeder.
For a dipole antenna that is an electrical half wavelength long, the inductive and capacitive reactances
cancel each other and the antenna becomes resonant. With the inductive and capacitive reactance
levels cancelling each other out, the load becomes purely resistive and this makes feeding the half wave
dipole antenna far easier. Coaxial feeder can easily be used as standing waves are not present, and it is
also much easier to match to a transmitter output that may only want to see a resistive load. Loads that
include reactances lead to higher voltage of current levels that the transmitter may not be able to
tolerate.
The impedance for a half wave dipole antenna in free space is dipole 73 which presents a good match
to 70 coaxial feeder and this is one of the reasons why coax with this impedance was chosen for many
applications.
Using the half wave dipole formula given above it is possible to determine the radiation pattern of the
half wave dipole antenna from the far field E vector.
Practical tips
When developing, designing and installing a half wave dipole antenna, there are a number of general
hints and tips that can be followed to ensure the optimum performance. These are above the normal
ones used for antenna installation, for example ensuring height is optimum, etc.
necessary to use a balanced feeder, or if coaxial feeder needs to be used, then some form of
balun must be used.
Half wave dipole is not a half wave: A half wave dipole antenna is not the same length as a
half wavelength in free space. End effects mean that the actual length required is slightly shorter.
Voltage maxima at the antenna ends: The points of maximum voltage are at the ends of the
antenna. If used for transmitting make sure these cannot be accidentally touched, and also
ensure they are adequately insulated. This is important when using wire antennas where the
ends are used as anchor points. These should also be away from nearby objects that can act to
absorb power and detune the antenna.
The half wave dipole antenna is possibly the most widely used forms of the dipole - even the most
widely used form of antenna. It is simple, effective and can be incorporated as the driven element in
many other forms of antenna from Yagi antennas to parabolic reflectors and many more.
then it is found that there is a fourfold increase (i.e. two squared) in the feed impedance. In free space,
this gives an increase in feed impedance from 73 to around 300 ohms. Additionally the RF antenna
has a wider bandwidth.
Increase in impedance:
impedance of the dipole is reduced by factors such as parasitic elements, a folded dipole
provides a significant increase in impedance level that enables the antenna to be matched more
easily to the feeder available.
Wide bandwidth: The folded dipole antenna has a flatter frequency response - this enables it
to be used over a wider bandwidth.
Where:
d1
d2
is
is
the
the
S
r is the step up ratio
conductor
diameter
for
the
feed
conductor
diameter
for
the
non-fed
is
the
distance
between
arm
of
arm
of
the
the
dipole
the
dipole
conductors
When determining the length of a folded dipole using thick conductors, it should be remembered that
there is a shortening effect associated with their use as opposed to normal wire or thin conductors.
The widespread use of folded dipole antennas can be seen when looking at their use in domestic
television and VHF FM broadcast antennas that are used. In addition to this, folded dipoles are used in
very many commercial applications as well.
The radiation pattern shown on a polar diagram is taken to be that of the plane in which the diagram plot
itself. For a dipole it is possible to look at both the along the axis of the antenna and also at right angles
to it. Normally these would be either vertical or horizontal planes.
One fundamental fact about antenna radiation patterns and polar diagrams is that the receiving pattern,
i.e. the receiving sensitivity as a function of direction is identical to the far-field radiation pattern of the
antenna when used for transmitting. This results from the reciprocity theorem of electromagnetics.
Accordingly the radiation patterns the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting or receiving,
whichever is more convenient.
Driven element: The driven element is the Yagi antenna element to which power is applied. It
is normally a half wave dipole or often a folded dipole.
Reflector : The Yagi antenna will generally only have one reflector. This is behind the
main driven element, i.e. the side away from the direction of maximum sensitivity.
Further reflectors behind the first one add little to the performance. However many
designs use reflectors consisting of a reflecting plate, or a series of parallel rods
simulating a reflecting plate. This gives a slight improvement in performance, reducing
the level of radiation or pick-up from behind the antenna, i.e. in the backwards
direction.Typically a reflector will add around 4 or 5 dB of gain in the forward direction.
Director:
There may be none, one of more reflectors in the Yagi antenna. The director or
directors are placed in front of the driven element, i.e. in the direction of maximum sensitivity.
Typically each director will add around 1 dB of gain in the forward direction, although this level
reduces as the number of directors increases.
The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting of a main forward lobe and a number of spurious
side lobes. The main one of these is the reverse lobe caused by radiation in the direction of the reflector.
The antenna can be optimised to either reduce this or produce the maximum level of forward gain.
Unfortunately the two do not coincide exactly and a compromise on the performance has to be made
depending upon the application.
Straightforward construction. - the Yagi antenna allows all constructional elements to be made
from rods simplifying construction.
The construction enables the antenna to be mounted easily on vertical and other poles with
standard mechanical fixings
The Yagi antenna also has a number of disadvantages that need to be considered.
Inductive: If the parasitic element is made inductive it is found that the induced currents are in
such a phase that they reflect the power away from the parasitic element. This causes the RF
antenna to radiate more power away from it. An element that does this is called a reflector. It can
be made inductive by tuning it below resonance. This can be done by physically adding some
inductance to the element in the form of a coil, or more commonly by making it longer than the
resonant length. Generally it is made about 5% longer than the driven element.
Capacitive: If the parasitic element is made capacitive it will be found that the induced currents
are in such a phase that they direct the power radiated by the whole antenna in the direction of
the parasitic element. An element which does this is called a director. It can be made capacitive
tuning it above resonance. This can be done by physically adding some capacitance to the
element in the form of a capacitor, or more commonly by making it about 5% shorter than the
driven
element.
It is found that the addition of further directors increases the directivity of the antenna, increasing
the gain and reducing the beamwidth. The addition of further reflectors makes no noticeable
difference.
In summary:
Reflectors - longer than driven element = Inductive
Directors - shorter than driven element = Capacitive
One of the chief reasons for using a Yagi antenna is the gain it provides.
The Yagi or Yagi-Uda antenna gain is of great importance, because it enables all the transmitted power
to be directed into the area where it is required, or when used for reception, it enables the maximum
signal to be received from the same area.
Gain for reception and transmission are equal when a passive antenna is used - i.e. one without any
active elements.
It is found that as the Yagi gain increases, so the beam-width decreases. Antennas with a very high level
of gain are very directive. Therefore high gain and narrow beam-width sometimes have to be balanced
to provide the optimum performance for a given application
Number of elements in the Yagi: One of the main factors affecting the Yagi antenna gain, is
the number of elements in the design. Typically a reflector is the first element added in any yagi
design as this gives the most additional gain. Directors are then added.
Element spacing: The spacing can have an impact on the Yagi gain, although not as much as
the number of elements. Typically a wide-spaced beam, i.e. one with a wide spacing between
the elements gives more gain than one that is more compact. The most critical element positions
are the reflector and first director, as their spacing governs that of any other elements that may
be added.
Antenna length: When computing the optimal positions for the various elements it has been
shown that in a multi-element Yagi array, the gain is generally proportional to the length of the
array. There is certain amount of latitude in the element positions.
The gain of a Yagi antenna is governed mainly by the number of elements in the particular RF antenna.
However the spacing between the elements also has an effect. As the overall performance of the RF
antenna has so many inter-related variables, many early designs were not able to realise their full
performance. Today computer programmes are used to optimise RF antenna designs before they are
even manufactured and as a result the performance of antennas has been improved.
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.5
The front to back ratio is important in circumstances where interference or coverage in the reverse
direction needs to be minimised. Unfortunately the conditions within the antenna mean that optimisation
has to be undertaken for either front to back ratio, or maximum forward gain. Conditions for both
features do not coincide, but the front to back ratio can normally be maximised for a small degradation of
the forward gain.
V log periodic
The type that is most widely used is the log periodic dipole array, LPDA, and that will be described here.
are spaced quite close together in terms of the operating wavelength. This means that the fields from
these elements will cancel one another out as the feeder sense is reversed between the elements.
Feed arrangements
The log periodic dipole antenna presents a number of difficulties if it is to be fed properly. The feed
impedance is dependent upon a number of factors. However it is possible to control this by altering the
spacing, and hence the impedance for the feeder that connects each of the dipole elements together.
Despite this the impedance varies with frequency, but this can be overcome to a large extent by making
the longer elements out of a larger diameter rod. Even so the final feed impedance does not normally
match to 50 ohms on its own. It is normal for a further form of impedance matching to be required. This
may be in the form of a stub or even a transformer. The actual method employed will depend to a large
degree on the application of the antenna and its frequency range.
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR:
The parabolic reflector antenna or dish antenna has been used far more widely in recent years with
advent of satellite television.
However the dish antenna finds uses in many radio and wireless applications at frequencies usually
above about 1GHz where very high levels of RF antenna gain are required along with narrow
beamwidths.
Although more difficult to manufacture than some simpler antennas, its performance means that the
parabolic reflector antenna or dish antenna is widely used in a number of applications.
As with any form of antenna, the parabolic reflector antenna has a number of advantages and
disadvantages. These need to be considered against those of other antenna types before selecting he
one that is optimum for the job.
Advantages:
Some of the major advantages of the parabolic reflector antenna include the following:
High gain: Parabolic reflector antennas are able to provide very high levels of gain. The larger
the 'dish' in terms of wavelengths, the higher the gain.
High directivity: As with the gain, so too the parabolic reflector or dish antenna is able to
provide high levels of directivity. The higher the gain, the narrower the beamwidth. This can be a
significant advantage in applications where the power is only required to be directed over a small
area. This can prevent it, for example causing interference to other users, and this is important
when communicating with satellites because it enables satellites using the same frequency
bands to be separated by distance or more particularly by angle at the antenna.
Disadvantages:
Like all forms of antenna, the parabolic reflector has its ,limitations and drawbacks:
Requires reflector and drive element: the parabolic reflector itself is only part of the antenna.
It requires a feed system to be placed at the focus of the parabolic reflector.
Cost : The antenna needs to be manufactured with care. A paraboloid is needed to reflect the
radio signals which must be made carefully. In addition to this a feed system is also required.
This can add cost to the system
Size: The antenna is not as small as some types of antenna, although many used for satellite
television reception are quite compact.
However as signal levels are low, directive antennas must be used to provide sufficient gain
while being able to receive signals from only one satellite in the visible sky. The parabolic
reflector antenna is able to meet these requirements and has the added advantage that it would
not be as long as a Yagi or equivalent gain and directivity.
Microwave links: Terrestrial microwave links are used for many applications. Often they are
used for terrestrial telecommunications infrastructure links. One of the major areas where they
are used these days is to provide the backhaul for mobile phone / cellular backhaul.
Satellite communications:
require high levels of gain to ensure the optimum signal conditions and that transmitted power
from the ground does not affect other satellites in close angular proximity. Again the ideal
antenna for most applications is the parabolic reflector antenna.
Radio astronomy: Radio astronomy is an area where very high levels of gain and directivity
are required. Accordingly the parabolic reflector antenna is an ideal choice.
In all these applications very high levels of gain are required to receive the incoming signals that are
often at a very low level. For transmitting this type of RF antenna design is able to concentrate the
available radiated power into a narrow beamwidth, ensuring all the available power is radiated in the
required direction.
Focus The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector is the point at which any incoming
signals are concentrated. When radiating from this point the signals will be reflected by the
reflecting surface and travel in a parallel beam and to provide the required gain and beamwidth.
Vertex This is the innermost point at the centre of the parabolic reflector.
Focal length
The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its
Aperture The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its "opening" or the area
which it covers. For a circular reflector, this is described by its diameter. It can be likened to the
aperture of an optical lens.
Gain: The gain of the parabolic reflector is one of the key parameters and it depends on a
number of factors including the diameter of the dish, wavelength and other factors. Read more
about the parabolic reflector antenna gain.
Feed systems: The parabolic reflector or dish antenna can be fed in a variety of ways. Axial or
front feed, off axis, Cassegrain, and Gregorian are the four main methods.Read more
about Parabolic reflector feed types.
For most domestic systems a small reflector combined with a focal point feed are used, providing the
simplest and most economical form of construction. This is the form that is most widely used for satellite
television applications. These antennas may not always look exactly like the traditional full dish antenna.
For mechanical and production reasons the feed is often offset from the centre and a portion of the
paraboloid used, again offset from the centre. This provides mechanical advantage. Nevertheless the
principles are exactly the same.
The theory behind the parabolic reflector can be understood relatively easily.
Some of the mathematics behind the parabolic reflector antenna can be straightforward and easy to
understand.
The basic concept of the parabolic reflector antenna theory rests on the parabolic shape and its unique
properties.
The measurements and references for the parabolic reflector antenna formula can be seen on the
diagram below:
Where:
f
D
is
c is the depth of the reflector
is
the
the
diameter
of
focal
the
length
reflector
In addition to this the f/D ratio is important. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the
focal length can be obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.
Where:
f -is the focal length of the reflector
D- is reflector diameter in same units as wavelength
c -is depth of the reflector
The radiation from the feed element induces a current flow in the conductive reflector surface which, in
turn, re-radiates in the desired direction, perpendicular to the directrix plane of the paraboloid. The feed
element can be any one of a multitude of antenna types. Whichever type is used, it must exhibit a
directivity that efficiently illuminates the reflector and must have the correct polarization for the
application -- the polarization of the feed determining the polarization of the entire antenna system. The
simplest feed is a half-wave dipole which is commonly used at lower frequencies, sometimes in
conjunction with a closely coupled parasitic reflector or "splash plate". At higher frequencies a horn-type
becomes more feasible and efficient. To adapt the horn to a coaxial antenna cable, a length of
waveguide is used to effect the transition.
There are two dimensions for the parabolic antenna that are of particular importance. These are the
focal length, f and the diameter, D. Typically one of the parameters used to specific parabolic antennas
is the f / D ratio. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the focal length can be
obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.
The focal feed system is one of the most widely used feed system for larger parabolic reflector antennas
as it is straightforward. The major disadvantage is that the feed and its supports block some of the
beam, and this typically limits the aperture efficiency to only about 55 to 60%.
HORN ANTENNA :
The horn antenna is used in the transmission and reception of RF microwave signals, and the antenna
is normally used in conjunction with waveguide feeds. The horn antenna gains its name from its
appearance. The waveguide can be considered to open out or to be flared, launching the signal towards
the receiving antenna.
Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and as feeds for parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well
as being used as RF antennas in their own right. One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for
short range radar systems, such as those used for automotive speed enforcement.
When used as part of a parabolic reflector, the horn is orientated towards the reflector surface, and is
able to give a reasonably even illumination of the surface without allowing radiation to miss the reflector.
In this way it is able to maximise the efficiency of the overall antenna. The use of the horn antenna also
minimizes the spurious responses of the parabolic reflector antenna to signals that are not in the main
lobe.
Summary
The horn antenna is a particularly useful form of antenna for use with RF microwave applications and
waveguide feeder. Although it is not used below RF microwave frequencies because waveguides are not
used at low frequencies as a result of the sizes needed, the horn antenna is nevertheless a very useful
form of RF antenna design for use at high frequencies.
Two major factors associated with radio antenna design are the antenna resonant point or centre
operating frequency and the antenna bandwidth or the frequency range over which the antenna design
can operate. These two factors are naturally very important features of any antenna design and as such
they are mentioned in specifications for particular RF ntennas. Whether the RF antenna is used for
broadcasting, WLAN, cellular telecommunications, PMR or any other application, the performance of the
RF antenna is paramount, and the antenna resonant frequency and the antenna bandwidth are of great
importance.
Antenna resonance
An RF antenna is a form of tuned circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has
aresonant frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each
other out. At this point the RF antenna appears purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of
the loss resistance and the radiation resistance.
Antenna bandwidth
Most RF antenna designs are operated around the resonant point. This means that there is only a
limited bandwidth over which an RF antenna design can operate efficiently. Outside this the levels of
reactance rise to levels that may be too high for satisfactory operation. Other characteristics of the
antenna may also be impaired away from the centre operating frequency.
The antenna bandwidth is particularly important where radio transmitters are concerned as damage
may ccur to the transmitter if the antenna is operated outside its operating range and the radio
transmitter is not adequately protected. In addition to this the signal radiated by the RF antenna may be
less for a number of reasons.
For receiving purposes the performance of the antenna is less critical in some respects. It can be
operated outside its normal bandwidth without any fear of damage to the set. Even a random length of
wire will pick up signals, and it may be possible to receive several distant stations. However for the best
reception it is necessary to ensure that the performance of the RF antenna design is optimum.
Impedance bandwidth
One major feature of an RF antenna that does change with frequency is its impedance. This in turn can
cause the amount of reflected power to increase. If the antenna is used for transmitting it may be that
beyond a given level of reflected power damage may be caused to either the transmitter or the feeder,
and this is quite likely to be a factor which limits the operating bandwidth of an antenna. Today most
transmitters have some form of SWR protection circuit that prevents damage by reducing the output
power to an acceptable level as the levels of reflected power increase. This in turn means that the
efficiency of the station is reduced outside a given bandwidth. As far as receiving is concerned the
impedance changes of the antenna are not as critical as they will mean that the signal transfer from the
antenna itself to the feeder is reduced and in turn the efficiency will fall. For amateur operation the
frequencies below which a maximum SWR figure of 1.5:1 is produced is often taken as the acceptable
bandwidth.
In order to increase the bandwidth of an antenna there are a number of measures that can be taken.
One is the use of thicker conductors. Another is the actual type of antenna used. For example a
folded dipole which is described fully in Chapter 3 has a wider bandwidth than a non-folded one. In fact
looking at a standard television antenna it is possible to see both of these features included.
Radiation pattern
Another feature of an antenna that changes with frequency is its radiation pattern. In the case of a beam
it is particularly noticeable. In particular the front to back ratio will fall off rapidly outside a given
bandwidth, and so will the gain. In an antenna such as a Yagi this is caused by a reduction in the
currents in the parasitic elements as the frequency of operation is moved away from resonance. For
beam antennas such as the Yagi the radiation pattern bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over
which the gain of the main lobe is within 1 dB of its maximum.
For many beam antennas, especially high gain ones it will be found that the impedance bandwidth is
wider than the radiation pattern bandwidth, although the two parameters are inter-related in many
respects.
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice
versa
Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals travel,
they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design.
Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays, differing
from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and
magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to one
another and to the direction of motion of the wave.
An electromagnetic wave
The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating the
signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of force in the
electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they move away from it.
This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a given distance, e.g. volts per
metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF antenna receives a signal the
magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field changes cause the voltage changes on the
antenna.
There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance between a
point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to choose is the
peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.
Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same as that
in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort measurements close to
the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely to cause interference when they
are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal induced into it. For receiving antennas
they are more susceptible to interference if they are close to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this
inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is barely detectable at distances beyond about two or three
wavelengths from the RF antenna.
Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both RF
antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization.
For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave vibrates.
This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation, and generally only
receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization.
For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as the
elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically
polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarised signals.
An electromagnetic wave
It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this way the
maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the signal there is a
corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of cosine of the angle between
the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal.
Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously they
should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to one
another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received.
For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then
its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change
the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected signals
the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it remains broadly the same.
Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a category
known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation. This has a number
of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the effects of propagation
anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the SPIN that occur on many satellites. Circular
polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation. However it can be imagined by
visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will
then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation
can be seen to be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the
transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of linear and
circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field vector tracing out
an ELLIPTICALLY shaped corkscrew.
However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and vice
versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted vertically,
horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will be some
degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised antenna of the same
sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised antenna receives a linearly
polarised signal.
The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and shape of
the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen is normally
complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.
Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements in the
aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may appear that the
"DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence and only the surface
areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance is higher than would be
measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the conductor and to the square root
of
the
frequency.
The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF antenna
where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss resistance it is
necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors.
Radiation resistance:
resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is
"dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much power in
this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from one type of
antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a variety of factors.
However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a radiation resistance of around
73 Ohms.
Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss resistance is as
low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation resistance as a radiated
signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance divided by the power applied to
the antenna is the efficiency.
A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible. These
include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of resistance, large
circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin effect, and not using
designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are present. Other constraints may
require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using engineering judgement it is normally
possible to obtain a suitable compromise.
It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any RF
antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the antenna feed
impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance obtained.
LOOP ANTENNA:
Loop antennas, or more correctly, closed loop antennas are widely used in many applications, often
providing advantages over other types of RF antenna design. Loop antennas can be placed into two
categories:
The terms refer to the size of the Rf antenna when compared to a wavelength of the frequency in use.
long. Any longer than this and the current phase and amplitude will start to vary over the length of the
conductor and some of the properties start to change.
Small loop antennas may also be split into those that us a single turn, and those that have a multi-turn
loop, as in the case of a coil. One common form of multi-turn small loop antenna is the popular ferrite
rod antenna that is used in many domestic portable radios and is also starting to be used in applications
such as RFID devices. Another form of this antenna was the frame antenna or aerial found in many
domestic radio sets of the 1940s and 1950s. Here a multi-turn coil about 30 centimetres or more square
was built into the set to act as the antenna.
Multi-turn loop antennas are nor normally used for transmitting because the losses are high and the level
of heat dissipated can give rise to rapid temperature increases. Instead single turn loop antennas may
be used if a loop antenna is needed. These antennas have a number of advantages and
disadvantages.
The main advantages of loop antennas are their size and directivity. Often a single turn small loop
antenna is much smaller than a wavelength by its definition. They are also quite directive, and this can
be used to direct the radiated power in the required direction. Both these advantages can be very useful
in many applications. They find uses for transmitting and receiving, particularly on the MF and HF or
short wave bands. Here they provide very compact antennas for applications such as amateur
radio and shipping, etc. as well as receiving antennas for MF or medium wave receivers.
There are naturally disadvantages to this type of RF antenna design. The first is that the Rf antenna can
have a very low radiation resistance, and this results in very high levels of current flowing in the RF
antenna. In turn this means that even small levels of 'DC' resistance can result in significant levels of
power being lost as heat. It is for this reason that single turn small loop antennas are made of very thick
wire, or more often made of a tubular conductor. Additionally this means that they must have an effective
form of antenna matching if the energy is to be efficiently transferred to and from the RF ntenna.
A further disadvantage of this type of RF antenna design is that it can have a very high Q. Not only does
the RF antenna require tuning to bring it to resonance at the frequency of operation, but it may have
such a narrow bandwidth, on frequencies such as the medium waveband or even a little higher, that it
may be insufficient to accommodate the carrier and its sidebands.