University Technology Mara

(Centre for Graduate Studies)

Faculty
Studies

of

Communication

and

Media

A Thesis Proposal

Computer-Assisted Reporting: A Content Analysis Study Of Journalism Course

Content Among Malaysian Universities

Prepared By

Azman Shah Bin Haji Ismail (2001 309541)

And

Prepared For
Associate Professor Dr. Azmuddin Bin Ibrahim
(December 17, 2003)

ABSTRACT

While newspapers have improved and changed incrementally over the decades, they are
still the same basic media format as existed a century ago. But as we begin the 21

st

century, the newspaper industry is undergoing a transformation. In the space of only the
last five years, electronic publishing technologies have changed the media landscape in
ways unimaginable two decades ago, and the effect on the newspaper industry is
profound.

The era of digital paper is fast approaching, when instead of picking up a newspaper
from the driveway or the corner news-stand, consumers will download the latest news
into a magazine-size electronic device with paper-like screen resolution, via wireless
communication or over phone or cable television lines. Science fiction is turning into
science fact. Tablet-PC and PDAs is gaining popularity and it will become the popular
tools to the society once its price gone.

Computer-assisted reporting represents one of the most exciting advances in journalism

since the advent of desktop publishing. News organizations are scrambling to find new
employees who have the ability to use computers to locate, gather and analyze electronic
records for the purpose of creating news stories. Colleges and universities are striving to
train more students to meet these needs. As a result, computer-assisted reporting is
currently one of the fastest growing areas in journalism.

As Computer-assisted reporting is gaining popularity, it is imperative to say that the

university is responsible for graduating students with the skills necessary to thrive and
lead in a rapidly changing technological environment. Meanwhile, corporate leaders are
putting more emphasis on recruiting individuals with an understanding of computers and
information systems.

1.

Research Title

1.1.

Computer-Assisted Reporting: A Content Analysis Study Of Journalism Course

Content Among Malaysian Universities

2.

Statement of Problems

2.1.

Malaysian universities are said to be laggard in preparing their undergraduates

with the new information technology;

2.2.

Information Technology changes so fast while the courses related to ComputerAssisted Reporting offered by the local universities seems to be very minimum;

2.3.

According to some studies undergraduates that went into the market upon
graduation have to struggle with Information technology in their day-to-day work;

2.4.

Most of the undergraduates will have to pick-up the Information technology skills
on their own or through on-job training.

3.

Review Of Related Literature And Research

3.1.

Related Studies

Computer-related knowledge is important to all people in this new era of technology. In

foreign countries such as the United States, computer learning was taught in the
kindergarten to allow the children to get use with the technology. Some universities in
the world as reported in www.thejournal.com have started to revamp their curriculum to
suit this need.

According www.thejournal.com dated April 19, 2003, a survey conducted nationwide by

the Olsten Corporation found out that of 1,481 management systems executives

interviewed agreed that the computer literacy requirements for all job levels have
increased dramatically over the first three-year period of the nineties.

A survey (www.thejournal.com April 19, 2003) conducted by HR Focus of 20 human

resource executives found a lack of computer-literacy skills in recent college graduates.

Cornell University's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences for instance, has a formal
instruction program that reaches nearly 1,000 participants in over 60 hands-on computer
workshops per semester. Workshop topics cover bibliographic research techniques,
Internet searching principles, database searching skills, word processing, spreadsheets,
and information management. Classes are supplemented by several online tutorials.

Cornell University Library conducted a research in a wake to identify the computer skills
employers felt were necessary when recruiting recent Cornell graduates. The results of
this study were part of a larger evaluation of computing across the curriculum in the
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.

A survey of the undergraduates in Cornell University's College of Agriculture and Life

Sciences was conducted in the fall of 1998. As part of a larger review of undergraduate
curricula, a questionnaire was sent to all 3,084 students. The questionnaire included a
section on Computer Competency Skills and asked students to rate the effectiveness of
various methods for learning computer skills. 1,176 questionnaires were returned, and
although the return rate was not ideal (38%), random telephone surveys to nonrespondents did not reveal a bias between respondents and non-respondents. This
article reports on the quantitative findings from this survey and on the qualitative findings
from a prior focus group of undergraduates on computer literacy.

About half of the students had taken at least one for-credit computer class. Generally, the
students felt very confident with their word processing skills and moderately confident
with their spreadsheet skills. Few of them had any graphical / electronic presentation
skills, and only one individual had any significant database management and
programming skills.

Students learn their computer skills primarily on their own and use their peers, online help
and manuals for support. They occasionally go to a computer lab for help. They
sometimes ask their Technical Assistance, but rarely ask their professors for help
(restricted office hours and limited knowledge of software applications were cited as
reasons). Only one student had taken a non-credit computer class. Their work style was
"learn as needed," which often meant Sunday evenings.

In the same study conducted, a questionnaire was designed to gather the information on
five categories of computer literacy skills:

Creating Documents and Multimedia;

Working with Computer Programs;

Managing Databases;

Manipulating Numeric Data; and

Computer Networks.

According to the results of the survey, generally employers have a high expectation of
computer literacy in recent college graduates.

A total of 125 (83.3%) indicated that

computer competency skills are either "important" or "very important" in the hiring
decision. Within the Documents and Multimedia section, Word Processing ranked the
highest, with 144 (96%) of employers expecting at least basic word processing skills.
The majority of recruiters (97 or 65%) responded "not relevant" or "none" to Desktop

Publishing Skills, whereas there was a clustering of 41 respondents at "basic" skills.

Most respondents (112 or 75%) wanted at least "basic" Graphics or Presentation
Software skills.

Lastly, the majority of employers did not consider Creating Internet

Documents very important, as 105 (70%) consider this skill "not relevant," or would be
willing to train.

Skills from the Managing Databases section scored slightly lower, with basic database
entry and editing skills coming out highest in this group - 122 (83%) respondents
expected at least basic skills.

Generally Numerical Data skills (and specifically

spreadsheet skills) scored very highly as a group. Even the ability to perform detailed
analysis (Figure 10) was expected by 86% of respondents. Lastly, employers responded
very favorably to Computer Network Skills. An overwhelming majority (93.3%) expected
e-mail experience, and 63.3% expected competency with online and Internet searching.
The "Other" category comprised open responses that included network configurations
and network software.

In summary, many employers agreed that computer literacy is important to all, and that if
a student graduates without this skills, he / she will have a distinct disadvantage in the
workforce. Lacking these skills would not exclude most college graduates from the job
market, however "the more skills they exhibit, the more attractive they would be" to
potential employers.

The study conducted by Cornell University helped us understand the kinds and
proficiencies of computer skills sought by recruiters. It represents a static picture or
"snap-shot" of what employers are looking for today; it does not predict what employers
will be looking for in four years time when our new group of freshmen graduate. We were
surprised to see that creating documents for the Internet was ranked last out of 23 skills;

however, industry experts might predict that this skill will become as important as basic
word processing in the next few years.

This study also assumes that there is a core set of computer skills that each student
should possess upon graduation. It would be a gross oversimplification to conclude that
all entry-level positions, from customer service representative to systems analyst, require
the same set of computer skills

A 1995 survey by the American Association of State Colleges and Universities as quoted
in the same study, indicated that 22% of state colleges and universities require computer
literacy of all graduates. The most common solution was to require a "survey course"
covering word processing, spreadsheets, database management principles and
introductory Internet navigation.

To meet with the demands for computer-literate students, many colleges and universities
have implemented computer competency entrance exams, exit exams and required
computer classes. Some colleges have made ownership of name-brand desktop or
laptop computers a requirement for entrance, and others have even distributed
computers to each of their students (www.thejournal.com - Young 1997).

3.2.

Literature Review

3.2.1.

Introduction

According to Dr. Nancy Csapo from Central Michigan University in her paper titled
Certification of Computer Literacy published in the The Journal On-line websites

Todays business teachers are also todays technology instructors. As such, business
teachers are always searching for ways to both increase the technology skills of their
students and the marketability of those skills (www.thejournal.com - April 19, 2003).

Reflecting the importance of computer in Europe, there is a special license with regards
to computer skills known as The European / International Computer Driving License
(ICDL). This ICDL acts just like a driving license to drive a car. Although it is new to the
United States, the European Computer Driving License has created a recognizable
computer literacy standard for employers and job seekers throughout Europe.

Computer literacy usually refers to the ability to use a few commercial applications and
touch-type smoothly (Rothstein 1997). Computer literacy can be defined as "having a
basic understanding of what a computer is and how it can be used as a resource"
(Nichols 1998) and requirements for computer literacy vary, but may include an
understanding of the basics of hardware, computer systems and ethics as necessary
skills.

Nancy (www.thejournal.com - April 19, 2003) further argued that some universities are
now requiring students to demonstrate computer literacy before graduation by taking a
computer literacy exit exam. Students at New York University must master five computer
skills: word processing and spreadsheet programs, the school's online library research
services, e-mail, and conduct Internet-based research. Standards, Goals and Guidelines

Numerous technology standards, goals and guidelines targeting computer literacy have
been developed at the national, state and district levels with standards for elementary,
secondary and postsecondary institutions.

The technology is rapidly changing and the competition has become great.

Nancy

(www.thejournal.com - April 19, 2003) further added the competition in the business
world today is global and information-based. As a result, knowledge of computers is
critical for anyone wishing to succeed in the work force.

Certification has become an important measurement for employers in validating the

knowledge and skills of employees, especially in IT. In the educational process, the high
school business curriculum can best provide for computer literacy in preparing students
for the global work environment. Some postsecondary school officials have already noted
the role of secondary schools in preparing students with computer skills. Postsecondary
institutions are finding incoming freshmen have already learned much of what they need
to know in high school or at home on their PCs.

The issue in Malaysia is that are we ready to accept the challenge that was created by
the developed countries? Has the government take the necessary steps as what the
developed countries have done. These are few questions that required some attention.

A question arise here is that, does most of Malaysian undergraduates were exposed to
the computer competency as set below:

Using the Computer and Managing Files;

Word Processing;

Spreadsheets;

Databases;

Presentations; and

Internet and E-mail

Surprisingly in the United States, students entering colleges such as the Walton College
as

freshmen

are

expected

to

have

the

computer

skills

listed

below

th

(www.waltoncollege.uark.edu 18 April 2003):

Windows Operating System;

E-mail;

Blackboard;

Word Processing (MS Word);

Spreadsheet (MS Excel);

Presentation Software (MS Power Points);

Database Software (MS Access); and

Internet.

Does these skill sets being taught in Malaysian Universities as part of their course
alongside with the facultys courses? Very often than none, the undergraduates will have
to learn it on their own without any formal exposure.

Computers are thought-extension tools, and the key to getting value out of their use is to
have thoughts complex enough that such a tool can help. Children who have mastered
the fundamentals of reading, writing, and thinking things through are ready to use a
computer as a tool, and it will be useful to them precisely to the degree that they are
sophisticated enough to need tools (Rival 1990, 8).

At Bishop Kelly High School, students are required to pass Computer Application I as
part of the requirement for graduation. Mrs. Deana Braden, Department Chairperson of

10

Kelly High School, Boise, Idaho in her letter to parents dated May 17, 2002 (stressed
that:

We feel that having competent keyboarding and computer skills is imperative to our
students success in college and the real world (www.bk.org/aca_competency.cfm
th

18 April 2003).

11

3.2.2.

Technology Advancement

In the modern world the computer is arguably the most sophisticated form of mediation,
the implications of which are not yet fully understood (HoIt 1992, Preface). The spread of
computing throughout the world of business has come about primarily because todays
business managers realize that the productivity enhancements that computing
technology offers can be the key to making an organization competitive and successful.

Office automation tools including word processing document production, and electronic
mail - have gained widespread acceptance, limited in large part only by a particular
individuals ability to type. A most disturbing fact once one gets beyond the theoretical
statements of the productivity improvement potentials of these tools is that there are still
far too few individuals who actually utilize the available technology.

The driving technology of change is software, as it controls and shapes communication

among workers; software which paints a picture of organizational functioning; and lastly,
software which moulds the way information is presented to customers alike (Grantham
1993, Preface Vii).

Computers, and more specifically programs on the computers, shape the form of
information; telecommunication provides the pipeline to move information; education
becomes the content of highest value; entertainment influences the style of human-tohuman communication, making it enjoyable and less formal. Tremendous increases in
computer power and integration of technologies into multimedia and telepresence are
eliminating the distances between people. We are beginning to see that there is great
potential in the phrase, Remove information, not people. (Grantham 1993, 3).

12

The spell checker, developed at the end of the 1970s, was the first really impressive
addition to the word processors repertoire and when first demonstrated it seemed almost
magical. This new tool not only showed you all the words that were spelled wrong but
came back and suggested the right spelling (Rival 1990, 15).

Alternative technology, which has been commercially available for several years, is
computer conferencing, which is more appropriate to the professional office than to
secretarial support. However, conventional computer conferencing systems are restricted
by network bandwidth and terminal display capabilities, and therefore provide only limited
support for discussion and decision-making (Newman and Newman 1993, 29).

In general, multimedia systems offer a range of different tools for collaborative work.
These tools can be distinguished into those that support asynchronous interaction and
those that support asynchronous Interaction between collaborative workers. Synchronous
communication occurs when or more people interact in real time, e.g. in a telephone
conversation, Asynchronous communication occurs when two or more people interact in
a non-simultaneous fashion, e.g. by singes in email.

Multimedia conferencing integrates a users existing software environment with the audio
and video communication traditionally provided by video conferencing systems, and
allows users to exchange multimedia information in real time. During a typical
conference, users will communicate through the audio and video facilities with each other
in a way similar a face-to-face meeting. In addition, user can share software applications,
such as DTP and CAD packages, and data with other users. This allows the conference
particular own workstation (Baydere, Casey, Chuang and others 1993).

13

The proliferation of new technologies for writing, both hardware and software,
undoubtedly serves many needs of many writers. At the same time, two other effects of
new writing technology can be observed (William 1992, 1)

New forms of writing result from new media;

Writers are faced with new problems.

William (1992) added that there are six areas in particular that brings new difficulties to
writers when the computer technology came in and they are:

Portable computing;

Desktop publishing;

Hypertext and hypermedia;

Networked writing (e.g. email, bulletin boards);

Collaborative writing technologies (with or without networks); and

Interactive writing, e.g. interactive fiction.

Foust (1996) elaborated that the personal computer system are made-up of the following:

Microprocessor Peripherals;

Operating system;

Word Processor Spreadsheet Graphics Program Terminal Program Database

Program; and

Writing Letters Sending E-mail TV Graphics Bookkeeping.

The issue is how many graduates are exposed to the computer technology especially in
Malaysia? Does our graduates know that all the above as mentioned by Foust (1996) is
important once they joined the working life?

Alphabetizing, indexing, procedures for

14

dating documents, and conventions for validating their authenticity were just being
invented and developed (Marvin and Winther 1983, 94). These new elements in one way
or the other have impacted our life.

15

3.2.3.

Journalism Today

Electronic text-processing marks the next major shift in text-based information technology
after the printed book. It promises (or threatens) to produce effects on our culture just as
radical as those produced first by movable type and later by high volume steam-driven
printing technology. The characteristic effects of the digital word derive from the central
fact that computing stores information in the form of electronic code rather than in the
form of physical marks on a physical surface.

The letters we encounter on our computer screen seem to be the same letters that we
find in our paperbacks, scholarly editions, leather-bound tomes, and flaking, disintergrating, acid-impregnated nineteenth-century books. But they are in fact the temporary,
transient representations of digital codes stored in a computers memory (Delany and
Fraser 1993, 6).

What sorts of navigational tools are available today? How easy is it to locate library
catalogs and information services mounted on Internet-connected machines? To what
extent are full-text services available at this point? These are few questions uttered by
Landow and Delany (1993). He said:

First, it examines some of the most basic, most popular approaches to navigating the
Internet, focusing on how a user with access to the Internet can use the library resources
and other information resources currently available across the network by means of the
so-called software solutions. His essay emphasizes software solutions aimed mainly at
end in other words, client applications and front ends and shell scripts designed to
support users who employ local and wide area networks as means to other ends
(Landow and Delany 1993, 141).

Williams and Noel (1989) said:

16

Only recently has the UK begun to see the importance of the relationship between
computers and writing. It is an area whose pedigree in the USA is rather longer. In the
UK it tends to be subsumed in rather more general interests, those of CAL Computer
Assisted Learning). CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), text processing
generally, software documentation, human computer interaction and natural language
processing. All these fields have something to offer writers but none focuses particularly
on the value of computers for writers, the use of computers to gain or develop writing
skills or the effect of computers on human writing processes (Williams and Noel 1989).

What concerns us most is that in Malaysia, there are less emphasis given to this area
and very often the government are too busy revamping the curriculum but they have
forgotten that computer literacy is very important. Most of the children receives their
computer knowledge are through the computer clubs.

The media environment in the world is rapidly changing. Few years ago, most people
have never heard of multimedia or the Internet. Now we can hardly pick up a newspaper
without seeing a reference to one or the other, or both. The changes taking place in the
media environment are numerous and, in some cases, breathtaking. Newspapers have
been declining in circulation and readership for some time.

In the United States,

television is changing from a five-network (ABC, CBS, e.g., Fox, and public broadcasting)
structure to cable systems with 50 channels, and talk of 500 or more (Tankard 1997, 3).

Severin and Tankard (1997) added that:

Some magazines are published through pages on the World Wide Web or through CDROMs. Older approaches to news are being replaced with what is being called the New
News. Advertising is grasping for its role in the new communication Iandscape. People

17

spend hours visiting with other people in computer chat rooms, and virtual reality
games give new dimensions of experience to participants (Severin and Tankard 1997, 3).

18

3.2.4.

Journalism and technology tomorrow

The growing trend toward electronic books and journals raises the question on how are
the society adjusting to full-text libraries in electronic form? That is a difficult question to
answer, but there are reasons to believe that the access to libraries of this sort will be
available within the next decade or so asked Landow and Delany (1993).

According to Landow and Delany (1993), on the commercial front, publishers have begun
to pursue the development of markets for electronic books and journals. The term
cyberspace, coined by science fiction writer William Gibson, has become a popular way
to refer to the metaphoric space where electronic communication takes place. The United
States recently reached the point where more computers were sold than TV sets. In
addition, research shows use of personal computers is starting to take time away from
television viewing (Severin and Tankard 1997, 3).

Severin and Tankard added that:

We seem to be moving rapidly into a new user-active, multimedia, communication

environment. One characteristic of the new media environment is the recognition that all
information is the same - it is digital (Severin and Tankard 1997, 3).

Marvin and Winther (1983) further commented that:

Whatever the future of computer literacy may be, its present forms include a great range
of skills in manipulating hardware and software in different, often incompatible systems
among diverse and sometimes.

Overlapping user communities that transmit the

elements of computer literacy to novices in a variety of ways (Marvin and Winther 1983,
94).

19

Does the graduates need these skills is something that this research will have to ponder
with.

As mentioned technology has evolved very fast and have affected all level of

people in this world. Some writers will have to do research in their day-to-day duty and
the only to analyzed the data diligently is by making sure he has the knowledge in
computer. If not, the work will be very tedious and time consuming.

In discussing data analyzing, Bowers (1984) said that knowing the statistical approach of
Communication Research Methods is important especially the General Linear Model.
This model serves as the source of other statistics, including Analysis of Variance, which
is shown to be a special case of the Linear Model.

These are few models one should know and the issue is that does the graduates have
every knowledge to do this. Bowers (1984) further added:

Researcher using survey methods may use those methods to do experimental studies,
quasi-experimental studies, or mixed studies. Most often, however, surveys are used
simply to describe certain aspects of a population by sampling an adequate and
representative subset of that population (Bowers 1984, 72).

The best way to do all these analysis is by using the software such as SPSS and other
statistical software. But, if they are not exposed during their college time, then their life in
the working life would be a bit harder though they still can perform the duties assigned to
them.

20

3.2.5.

Does computer skills competency need to be taught at the University

Colleges and universities can lead the way in training the office workers and managers of
tomorrow in the utilization of technology.

In Management Information System (MIS)

program in particular, there is a very evident tendency of the students to show high
respect for any professors who has made the computer a part of his or her working life.

Simply put, how can the educational programs prepare undergraduates before they
entered the employment market?

Very often we heard that young graduates were

unemployed in a long duration of time. Was it because of there isnt any work for them or
was it simply because that they are not better equip to the needs of the organization.

Big organizations very often are not willing to sacrifice their business by hiring young
graduates. They do not have all the luxury to baby sit these young graduates and very
often their business will suffer if the job is given to the young graduates. How can the
graduates equip themselves so that they can be easily accepted into the labor market?
As we proceed towards the Twenty-first Century, organizations will become less
bureaucratic, more complex, and global in their orientation. All this will only happened
when the organizations continue to maximize their Information Technology (IT)
capabilities and when these happen young graduates will have difficulties in entering the
labor market.

With the growing use of IT in all aspects of work and leisure, there appears to be an
almost insatiable need for diverse user services. To address these varied and often
complex support requirements, we must develop a new breed of information services
professional (Richard: pg-234).

21

The development of IT has transformed the IT services landscape. Todays information

services professional is faced with a host of information formats and storage media,
including: paper documents, micrographic records, electronic machine readable media
(both floppy disks and tapes of various types), audio / visual materials (e.g. photographs,
slides, and video tapes), and optical media (laser disks and CD roms).

They must also contend with non-static information resources, such as computer
databases and online data utilities. The higher educational institution should play an
important role in educating to-be professionals by formulating educational programs that
can better prepare them to be more effectively address these challenges.

Computers have taken lots of our routine work from the traditional way that used to be
laborious to a more sophisticated way. In this new era, one should posses a different
skill base than has hitherto been the case. Through formal training today, the typical
professionals learn highly focused, technical skills, such as database design, network
management, archival preservation, bibliographic description, and reference services.

Office automation tools including word-processing, document production, and electronic

mail, have gained wide spread acceptance, limited in large part only by a particular
individual ability to type.

The storage, retrieval, processing and communication of

information are business activities which occupy as much as 80 per cent of a typical
executives time; over half of the jobs in America involve some type of information
processing (Jennifer: pg 243).

A most disturbing fact once one gets beyond the theoretical statements of the productivity
improvement potentials of these tools is that there are still far too few individuals who
actually utilize the available technology. Journalists nowadays are not exempted from
these changes. Use computer has become part of their life but the issue is whether the

22

available resources have been exploited to the fullest. The growing use of computers by
businesses has encouraged a concomitant increase in the formalized use of information.
Journalist must possess up-to-date technical knowledge of both hardware and software
in order to provide an effective and accurate reporting. These new set of skills has
becomes important to journalist and like it or not they have to equip themselves before
they even start work.

Where then can the young journalist acquire the skills and knowledge as far as IT is
concerns? Currently, there are two answers to this question.

One source of skills and

knowledge appropriate for them is at the workplace. On-the-job training may be provided
by mentors, vendors, colleagues, consultants, business and technical publications, or
through seminars. Most of the training / exposure done through this manner is often
done haphazard, uneven and situation specific. Extensive and often unnoticed gaps may
easily occur, particularly in the understanding of underlying concepts.

The other source of appropriate skills and knowledge can be acquired through university.
Here at both the graduate and the undergraduate levels can be exposed to all types of
hardware and software that will be used in the media industry.

In order to function

effectively, the journalist must have sufficient knowledge of the technology and how to
operate it.

Rodney (1991) discussed that colleges and universities can lead the way in training the
office workers and managers of tomorrow in the utilization of technology.

In this

particular, there is a very evident tendency of the students to show high respect for any
professors who has made the computer a part of his or her working life.

Journalists nowadays, are not the same compared to the one thirty years ago. There are
many researches to be done if they need to have a good and critical analysis.

23

Communication research method is one of the field that journalist cannot avoid.

It

incorporates both conceptual and statistical approaches to communication research and

theory, describing with ample exemplary material the best of the contemporary research
approaches to communication as a social (Bowers and Courtright, 1984).

Data are too big to be calculated manually and need certain software to assist them in
analyzing it. Software such as SPSS is common tool in data analyzing. What if the
undergraduates were not exposed to this tool? Will he be able to address or perform his
duty effectively is some question that need to be addressed.

The key to finding articles (Harowitz 1988, 27) said that any writer should know how to do
the following:

Readers guide to periodical literature (RG);

Using magazine in market research;

Using articles in research;

Finding indexes;

Magazine and periodicals on library shelves;

Magazine research by computers; and

Magazine on microfilms.

Using a computer for word processing starts making sense when you are cranking out
hundreds of pages or score a year. When writing begins to feel like typing. When you
have to pay for secretarial help to prepare manuscript. And you are dealing in this kind of
volume, the word processor opens up a whole new way of working which eliminates a lot
of typing and makes it much easier to rework, restructure, and revise your work.

Rival (1990) added that:

24

Maintaining electronic phone books and calendars is another very common reason given
for using a Computer. If you already have a computer that you can justify for other
reasons, having a system pop up your daily calendar, ring an alarm when it is time to
remember something special, or find you the phone number of an editor is very nice. But
if this is all you are doing with your computer then it probably falls into the category of
conspicuous consumption (Rival 1990, 7).

This shows how important is the skills and it is important that these skills are the product
of the universities or at least at the High School level. This will help the potential worker
be able to equip them with the competency required. This is where the computer offers a
truly new and highly useful tool to the writer, a tool not available in the traditional
environment.

In journalism field knowledge in word processing becomes an important skills.

Computer-based outlining software allows you to put ideas down randomly, and then lets
you to connect them to each other in whatever way you choose. Outlining software
enables you to move pieces of an outline around with just a few keystrokes preserving
the relationship of outline items to each other or changing them as you wish (Rival 1990,
12). This was is very tedious work twenty years ago where typewriter is the main tool.

We may probably aware of the many on-line databases that can be accessed from a
computer using a regular phone line. Examples of these services are Dow Jones, for
financial data DIALOG, which claims to be the worlds largest on-line research database
indexing over 300 different periodicals and reports; PAPERCHASE, a medical database
that indexes medical journal articles; and IQUEST, a census information database (Rival
1990, 12).

25

If you write academic papers you may be able to do any statistical work that is necessary
on your own computer. In fact, if statistics are an important part of what you do this may
in itself Justin having a computer. Many statistical applications can but if you are doing
state-of-the-art number crunching, you may find your machine tied up for hours slogging
through the calculations that an academic machine could accomplish much faster.

Computer software can make it a lot easier to produce illustrations, tables, and graphs,
particularly those involving line illustrations, and can thus save you money. A great
number of software products exist to produce graphs and charts of all kinds, most of
them oriented toward the binds of Charts that businesspeople like to present in slide
show. Other programs allow you to create drawings either by using a collection of
supplied graphics images or by creating your own.

If you are interested in self-publishing, tills may be the most exciting of all writer-oriented
uses of the personal computer. Most self-publishing is done by offset printing from plates
made from camera-ready copy. Desktop publishing computer software allows you to do
the typesetting and layout on your computer so that you produce camera-ready copy,
including graphics without an intermediary.

By reviewing the above, it is obvious that the computer skills ought to be taught at the
universities level and it is definitely be a very important tool in preparing the
undergraduates later. In the last decade, many academic libraries have installed on-line
public access catalogs (OPACs). Recently many of them have also begun to provide
users with dial-up access and access across various networks, including the Internet.

As these connections have multiplied, the combination of electronic library services and
connections across high-speed telecommunications networks have begun to transform

26

both the use of library resources and the way in which users and librarians perceive the
library (Landow and Delaney 1993, 139).

27

4.

Research Objective

4.1. To find out whether local Universities offer Computer-Assisted Reporting courses to
their undergraduates;
4.2. To find out the Computer-Assisted Reporting content in Journalism course offered
by Malaysian public universities;
4.3. To find out the computer-assisted reporting softwares taught in the Universities; and

5.

Significance of the study

With the growing use of information technologies in all aspects of work and leisure there
appears to be an almost insatiable need for diverse user services. To address these
varied and often complex support requirements, a new breed of information services
professional must be developed. The traditional role model of librarian, archivist, records
manager, and the like will not suffice.

The result of the study is significant to the educationist, lawmakers and social activist.
The result can be used as a benchmark to evaluate:

Current curriculum in local Universities and take necessary steps so that the
undergraduates will be more prepared before entering the employment market;

6.

Scope of Study

6.1.

The study will only covers computer courses offered by the Mass Communication
faculty in the local public Universities. These only include:

Windows Operating System;

28

6.2.

E-mail;

Word Processing;

Spreadsheet;

Presentation Software;

Statistical Software;

Database Software; and

Internet.

It will cover the following universities because only these Universities offer Mass
Communication program. They are:

6.3.

Universiti Technology Mara (UiTM)

Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)

Universiti Malaya (UM)

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Universiti Islam Antarabangsa (UIA)

The analysis on the courses offered by the faculty of the above universities
covers:

Courses on software usage;

The relation of the courses to their study;

The number of credit hours spent for these courses; and

Types of courses that indicates whether they are elective, core, minor or
others.

29

6.4.

The study will exclude all universities from East Malaysia universities due to its
geographical reasons and all private universities as most of the private
Universities in Malaysia are affiliated with the foreign universities where their
course content are regulated by their parent university.

7.

Limitations of Study

The major limitation of this study is that the researcher is very much related to the
geographical factor.

The universities are located in various states meanwhile the

researcher is stationed in Selangor, West Malaysia. This will hinder the mobility of the
researcher should he decides to get more information or do face-to-face interview.

The researcher will have to get the hardcopy of the prospectus of each university and the
means of writing to them as prospectus are normally printed during the intake of new
students in the month of April of each year. Some of the prospectuses do not contain the
subjects offered and therefore the researcher will have to meet with the deans of each
university in order to get the subjects offered.

8.

Definitions of Terms

8.1.

Computer-Assisted Reporting
Is the use of computers to gather or analyze data for the purpose of transforming
that data into information used a part of a narrative to be transmitted via a
medium of mass communication.

The medium of achieving it are derived from the usage of the following:
i)

Operating System

30

Operating system is the main driver that makes the hardware moves and react.
It is written in a form of a software and was loaded at the beginning when we turn
the computer. There are few in the market such PC Doc, Dr Dos, IBM Dos and
many others. The most popular nowadays is the MS Windows.

ii)

E-mail

E-mail refers to electronic mail. It replaces the conventional mail where papers
and postal services are involves. E-mails are transmitted electronically via the
Internet. It has gained popularity and has been widely used if offices.

iii)

Word Processing

Word processing replaced the usage of typewritter. The concept is same but the
only thing it is difference is that it is much easier to use. Data can be retrieved
and stored whenever we need it. Corrections of errors are made easy with the
use of word processing.

iv)

Spreadsheet

The most popular spreadsheet is the MS Excel and Lotus 123. There are others
like Symphony but it popularity has erode and overtaken by the above.
Spreadsheet is able to assist the user in manipulating the data faster and easier.
Formulas can be kept in the computer by saving the file and it can be retrieved.
Some refers this as the sophisticated calculator. It can also transform the data in
graphic and can be useful in analyzing data.

v)

Presentation Software

Harvard Graphic and MS-Power Point is among the popular presentation

software used. Its usage becomes very important when it comes to presentation

31

skill. These software is able to import graphic, pictures, tables charts and can do
many others to enhance the presentation.

vi)

Statistical Software

SPSS is the popular statistical software used specifically to tabulate data in the
form of statistical. This software goes beyond the capability that spreadsheet
has and very useful to statistician.

vii)

Database Software

The capability of database software such as MS Access and Paradox is

important when the data is huge. Excel and Lotus has limited rows in term on
keeping data while database software has no limit. Most data are kept in a
database and will be exported out whenever it is needed.

viii)

Internet.

International network or also known as Internet s the most modern way of getting
information. It provides huge amount of information kept in specific websites. It
can also be a platform of discussion forum or even up to the extent of doing
commerce virtually without being able to be physically there. It is connected to
the world and most of the time it is instantaneous. This is the most important tool
for journalist to find latest information as well as networking.

8.2.

Universities
Refers to the public university in Malaysia offering undergraduate degree in Mass
communication specifically in Journalism.

8.3.

Curriculum

32

Refers to courses offered by the Senate of the Universities that will be used as
guidelines in teaching undergraduates.

8.4.

Under-graduates
Refers

to

students

pursuing

their

first

degree

(ie-Degree

in

Mass

Communication).

8.5.

Information Technology
Refers to computer related hardware and software used in their working life.

9.

Research Methodology

9.1.

Methodology

9.1.1.

Content Analysis

The research will adopt the content analysis approach by studying the subject of the
courses offered by the universities. Data collection table as in Appendix 1, will be used
as the data gathering tool.

9.1.2.

Interview
Besides content analysis, an interview will also be used in finalizing this project.
At the end of the analysis, the researcher will conduct an interview the
academicians from the selected universities as to further enhance the research
and seek information on where is the direction of their faculty in this respect.

9.2.

Sample

33

Six local government universities have been identified. They are:

Universiti Technology Mara (UiTM)

Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)

University Malaya (UM)

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

University Islam Antarabangsa (UIA)

9.3.

Sample characteristics

The course content offered by the School of Journalism from the above universities will
be analysed as a whole where computer related subjects will be the main focus of this
research.

9.4.

Coding process

9.4.1.

Local universities prospectus and course outlines will be collected.

9.4.2.

The analyst will then analyze the data by giving emphasis on the course content
outline for the journalism students from the Journalism Schools from the above
mentioned universities..

9.4.3.

The data will be coded into a form (appendix 1) using a tally method and this will
be the basis of the studies.

10.

Data manipulation and presentation

10.1.

Stage I

34

Using the above coding sheet, the analyst will tabulate all information by adding the total
occurrences and types of computer related courses offered to the undergraduates. Once
this is done, these data will be analyzed using the following statistics elements:

10.2.

Percentages

Mode

Frequency counts

Stage II

The coding analysis form will be used to analyze the data. MS- Excel worksheet has
been chosen as the tool in analyzing the data.

10.3.

Stage III

The data will be presented in the report will use descriptive Statistics. Tables, bar charts,
pie charts and descriptive analysis will be applied in addressing the findings of the
analysis. The report will be prepared by using MS-Words.

10.4.

Stage IV

The interview notes taken from the interview between the Dean or the representatives of
the universities and the results will also be presented in this study.

11.

Tentative Research Outline

Chapter I
I)

Introduction

II)

Statement Of Problems

35

III)

Purpose And Need Of Study

IV)

Scope And Limitations

V)

Definitions Of Terms

VI)

Research Design

VII)

Organizational Plan

Chapter II
I.

Review Of Related Literature And Research

Chapter III
I.

Methodology

Chapter IV
I.

Research Findings

Chapter V
I.

12.

Summary And Conclusions

Expectations

It is my expectations that at the end of this study, I will be able to provide more factual
information whether the local university put emphasis on computer-aided courses that is
required by the employment market especially in the line of Journalism.

The comparison also should provides some light to us whether the Malaysian public
universities have to taken necessary steps to be at par with the market needs and
necessary steps should be taken by equipping the undergraduates with relevant courses
in their curriculum.

36

It is hoped that this research becomes an eye-opener to all relevant authorities that
exposing computer knowledge at the early stage during the undergraduate studies is
important. It is also hoped that the educationist will react upon seeing this report to
prepare themselves to review or enhance their course content to equate it with the
current needs.

oooOooo

37

Preliminary Bibliography
Baydere, Casey, Chuang and others, Multimedia Conferencing as a Tool for
Collaborative Writing: A Case Study, in COMPUTER SUPPORTED
COOPERATIVE WORK ed. Mike Sharples. Place publish: Printed by, year.
Bowers, John Waite, Communication research methods. London: Scot, Foresman and
Company, 1984, Preface.
Chadwick, BRUCE A, Social. Science research methods. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1984.
Delany, Pard and Fraser, Simon, Managing the Digital Word: The Text in an Die of
Electronic Reproduction, in The Digital Word: Text-Based Computing In The
Humanities ed. Geordie P. Landow and Paul Delany. London: The MIT Press
Cambridge, 1993, . p6.
Foust, James C. Computer Technology, in Communication Technology ed. August E.
Grant. Boston: Focal Press Boston, 1996.
Grantham, Charles E and Nichols, Larry D, The digital workplace : designing groupware
platforms Place: xxxx: 1993
Horowitz, Lois, ) Researching From Magazines And Reference, In The Old Regulars;
Encyclopedias, Almanacs, Dictionaries, Chronologies, And Yearbook ed., Jean
M. Fredette. Ohio : Writers Digest Book, 1988.
HoIt, Patrik Ovarian (ed), Computers and writing - state of the art Copyright. London:
Intellect Ltd., 1992.
Marvin, Carolyn and Winther, Mark. Computers, Education, and Public Policy Computerease: A Twentiethcentury Literacy Emergent. Journal of Communication
(Winter 1983): 98).
Newman, R and Newman, J. Social Writing: Premises and Practices in
Computerized Contexts, in COMPUTER SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE
WORK, ed. Mike Sharples, p29. Place publish: Printed by, year.
Rival, Janet. THE writers TOOLBOX Buying and Using a Computer For the Literary
Life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990.
Reavy, Matthew. Introduction to Computer Assisted Reporting: A Journalist Guide,
California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001.
Severin, Werner J. and Tankard, James W, Communication Theories: Origins, Methods,
and Uses In the Mass Media New York: Longman publishers, 1997.
Williams, Noel, Dew Technology. New Writing. New Problems?, in Computers and
writing - state of the art ed. Patrik Ovarian HoIt. London: Sheffield City
Polytechnic, 1992.
Williams, Noel and Holt, Patrik ed., Computers and Writing : models and tools. New
Jersey: Publishing Corporation Jersey, 1989).
th

www.bk.org/aca_competency.cfm 18 April 2003.

38

th

www.waltoncollege.uark.edu 18 April 2003).

th

(www.thejournal.com - 19 April 2003).

39

Data Collection Table I

No
s

Course

Example
1 Introduction to Computer
2
3

Appendix
1
Course
Type

Elective

Software Competency
College
Faculty
Application
Requirement Requirement

MS-Excel Spreadsheet

No

Credit
Hours

Yes

40

Computer Literacy Offered by

Faculty Data Tables II
No
s

Type of Computer Literacy

1 Word Processing;
2 Write Program
3 Managing Databases

4 Manipulating Data
5 Networks
6 Internet
7 Using the Computer and
Managing Files;
8 E-mail;
9 Spreadsheets;
10 Presentations; and
11 Windows Operating System;
12 Blackboard;
13 Other software

Appendix
2
Offered

Type of Software (pse write)

Yes
No

Databases
;

ie-MS-Word, Wordstar & etc.

Ie-Basic, Cobol, Fortran & etc.
ie-MS-Access, Dbase 3 / 4 & etc.

ie-SPSS
ie-URL, E-mails &
etc

ie-OPAC

41

Computer Literacy Data Tables II

Nos
Type of Computer Literacy

1 Creating Documents
2 Write Program
3 Managing Databases
4 Manipulating Data
5 Networks
6 Internet
7 Other software

Appendix 3
Offered

Yes
No

Type of Software (pse write)

ie-MS-Word, Wordstar & etc.

Ie-Basic, Cobol, Fortran & etc.
ie-MS-Access, Dbase 3 / 4 & etc.
ie-MS-excel, Lotus, Symphony &
etc.
ie-URL, Emails & etc
ie-OPAC

42

Interview Questions

Appendix 4

1.

Do you conceptualize the major types of skills and levels of knowledge that
organize computer users into major classes?

If you were to use a metaphor (you may use more than one) to describe the kind
of thing a computer is, what would it be?

If you were to use a metaphor (one or more) to describe the relationship of

power between you and the computer, what would it be?

Do you think distinctly different habits of imagination are employed in being

comfortable with a book, and in being comfortable with a computer? If so, what
are they?

How would you define computer literacy?

Readers guide to periodical literature (RG);

Using magazine in market research;

Using articles in research;
Finding indexes;
Magazine and periodicals on library shelves;
Magazine research by computers; and
Magazine on microfilms.

43